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A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development, 7th edition John W. Santrock

PsychoSocial Development

The Nature of Development

Theories of Development

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Social motivations and desire to affiliate with others is central influence in development

Emphasized importance of early and later experiences in life

Theories of Development

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory

Development is observable behavior that we learn through experience with the environment

Emphasizes continuity in development

Theories of Development

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Consequences of behavior produce changes in probability of behavior

Rewards and punishments shape behavior

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Development shaped through observational learning

Form cognitive representations of others’ behaviors

May adopt behaviors, thoughts, and feelings accordingly

Theories of Development

Ecological theory

Emphasizes environmental factors on development

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory

Development reflects the influence of several environmental systems

Microsystem

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Macrosystem

Chronosystem

Theories of Development

Exploring Emotion

Emotion

Feeling, or affect, that occurs in a state or an interaction that is important to a person, especially to his/her well-being

Positive emotions include enthusiasm, joy, and love

Negative emotions include anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness

Emotions influenced by biological foundations and a person’s experience

Social relationships provide setting for development of emotions

Cultural variations characterize emotional development

Development of Emotion

Reduced negative emotion in older adults may be associated with decreased physiological arousal of emotion

Aging of the amygdala and autonomic nervous system

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being

Deliberately spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have rewarding relationships

Motivation for knowledge-related goals decreases while motivation for emotion-related goals increases in middle and late childhood

Temperament

Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding

How quickly emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how soon it fades away

Attachment and Love

Social referencing

Reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation

A mother’s facial expression influences how an infant will explore an unfamiliar environment

Attachment and Love

Attachment

Close emotional bond between two people

Freud - infants attach to person/object that provides oral satisfaction

Harlow - contact comfort is crucial element in developing attachment

Erikson - trust vs. mistrust stage emphasizes the role of physical comfort

Attachment and Love

Strange Situation

Observational measure of infant attachment in which the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with caregiver and an adult stranger in prescribed order

Securely attached children

Use caregiver as a secure base to explore environment

Insecure avoidant children

Show insecurity by avoiding the mother

Insecure disorganized children

Disorganized and disoriented

Attachment and Love

Fathers have the ability to care for infants as sensitively and responsively as mothers do

Maternal interactions with infants center on child-care activities

Feeding, changing diapers, bathing

Paternal interactions more likely to include play

Attachment and Love

Romantic partners fulfill some of the same needs for adults as parents do for their children

Adults count on romantic partners to be a secure base to return to and obtain comfort and security in stressful times

Young adults who were securely attached in romantic relationships were more likely to describe early relationships with parents as securely attached

Attachment and Love

Adult attachment styles:

Secure attachment

Positive view of relationships, easy to get close to others, not overly concerned with or stressed out about romantic relationships

Avoidant attachment

Hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships

Once in a relationship, distance themselves from partners

Anxious attachment

Demand closeness, less trusting, more emotional, jealous, and possessive

The Self

Self

All characteristics of a person

Identity

Who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding

Personality

Enduring personal characteristics of individuals

The Self

Selective optimization with compensation theory:

Selection

Older adults have reduced capacity and loss of functioning

Reduction in performance in most life domains

Optimization

Maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and use of new technologies

Compensation

When life tasks require a level of capacity beyond current level

Used in circumstances that impose high mental and physical demands

Identity

What is identity?

Career and work path

Political beliefs

Spiritual beliefs

Relationship status

Achievement/intellectual identity

Cultural/ethnic identity

Interests

Personality

Physical identity/body image

Identity

Erikson’s stage - identity vs. identity confusion

Adolescents faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life

Questions occur throughout life, but become especially important during adolescence

Search for identity aided by psychosocial moratorium

Society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibility

Allows them to try on different identities

Adolescents who do not successfully resolve identity crisis suffer from identity confusion

Identity

Identity statuses

Crisis – a period of identity development during which individual explores alternatives

Commitment – personal investment in identity

4 statuses:

Identity diffusion

Identity foreclosure

Identity moratorium

Identity achievement

Identity

During early adolescence, youth primarily in identity statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium

Parental support, established sense of industry, and self-reflective stance toward the future are important to identity formation

Researchers have developed a consensus that key changes in identity most likely to take place in emerging adulthood, not adolescence

Many young adults are identity diffused

Further exploration during college years

Identity

Complex reasoning skills and experiences may stimulate individuals to reach higher level of integration of identity

Identity may not remain stable throughout rest of the life

“MAMA cycles” – changing from moratorium and achievement and back again

Identity consolidation continues into early adulthood and possibly into early part of middle adulthood

Individuals move from early to middle adulthood and become more concerned about their identity

Identity

Parents are important in adolescent identity development

Poor communication and persistent conflict with friends linked to less positive identity development

Family atmosphere promotes individuality and connectedness:

Individuality – self-assertion and separateness

Connectedness – mutuality and permeability

Identity

Capacity to explore identity linked to quality of friendships and romantic relationships

Friends as a safe context for exploring identity-related experiences

Adolescents grow up in cultural contexts with either individuality or collectivist emphasis

Fitting in with group and connecting with others

Identity development may take longer in certain cultures

Postpone identity exploration beyond adolescence and emerging adulthood

Identity

Ethnic identity includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group

Attitudes and feelings related to that membership

Choice between two or more identifications – own ethnic group or dominant culture

Bicultural identity – identifying in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with dominant culture

Adolescents increasingly consider meaning of ethnic identity

Due to advanced cognitive skills, abstract thinking, self-reflection

Also have more ethnic-related experiences

Personality

Trait theories

Personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses

Big Five factors of personality

Openness to experience

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Related to health, intelligence, cognitive functioning, achievement, work, and relationships

Personality

Levinson views midlife as a crisis

Middle adult is suspended between past and future, trying to cope with gap to ensure life’s continuity

Vaillant concludes that forties are a decade of reassessing and recording the truth about adolescent and adulthood years

Only a minority of adults experience a midlife crisis

Vaillant’s research found few midlife crises

Emotional well-being does not decrease significantly

Some psychological gains experienced

Personality

Middle-aged adults interpret, shape, alter, and give meaning to their lives

Midlife crisis may be experienced in one context of life but not others

Work vs. family

In ⅓ of cases of midlife crisis, it is triggered by life events such as job loss, financial problems, or illness

Personality

Contemporary life events approach

How life events influence an individual’s development depends on the event, as well as mediating factors, the individual’s adaptation to the event, life-stage context, and sociohistorical context

Drawbacks:

Too much emphasis on change, not enough on stability

Daily experience may be primary sources of stress, not major life events

Personality

Generativity versus stagnation

Generativity – adults’ desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation

Stagnation – an individual senses he/she has done nothing for the next generation

Middle-aged adults are especially concerned about generativity

Linked to positive social engagement in family life and community activities

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Peers

Individuals of about the same age or maturity level

Provide source of information and comparison about world outside of the family

Receive feedback about abilities

Peer influence can be positive or negative

Rejection and neglect by peers

Can undermine parent values and control

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Parents influence children’s peer relationships

Basic lifestyle decisions of parents largely determine pool from which children select possible friends

Choice of neighborhood, church, school, and their own friends

Parent-child relationships influence children’s peer relations

Children also learn other modes of relating through peer relationships

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Peer interaction is influenced by context

Type of peer individual interacts with

Acquaintance, crowd, clique, friend, romantic partner

Situation or location where peers interact

School, neighborhood, community center, religious setting, etc.

Children encounter different messages and opportunities to engage in adaptive or maladaptive behavior with peers

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Other factors that affect peer relations:

Personality

Emotionality

Status/power of peer

Around age 5, children prefer to spend time with same-sex playmates

Preference increases in childhood

Frequency of positive and negative peer interactions increase

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Social knowledge involved in ability to get along with peers:

What goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations

How to initiate and maintain a social bond

What scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends

Emotions play strong role in determining whether peer relations are successful

Moody and emotionally negative children are often rejected

Emotionally positive children are often popular

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Peer statuses:

Popular children

Frequently nominated as best friend and rarely disliked by peers

Average children

Receive average number of both positive and negative nominations from peers

Neglected children

Infrequently nominated as best friend but not disliked by peers

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Peer statuses (continued):

Rejected children

Infrequently nominated as someone’s best friend and actively disliked by peers

Controversial children

Frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Popular children have social skills that contribute to being well liked

Give out reinforcements

Listen carefully

Maintain open lines of communication

Happy

Control negative emotions

Show enthusiasm and concern for others

Self-confident without being conceited

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Neglected children engage in low rates of interaction with peers and often described as shy

Rejected children often have serious adjustment problems

Aggressive

Sometimes shy

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Social contexts influence bullying

70-80% of victims and bullies are in same classroom

Classmates often aware of and witness bullying

Bullies torment victims to gain higher status in peer group

Bullied children are more likely to experience depression, suicidal ideation, attempt suicide

Increasing concern about cyberbullying

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Cliques

Small groups ranging from 2-12 individuals

Members usually of the same sex and about same age

Share ideas and hang out together, develop an in-group identity

Crowds

Larger than cliques and less personal

Members grouped together based on reputation and may not spend much time together

Defined by activities they engage in

Friendship

Functions of friendship:

Companionship

Stimulation

Ego support

Social comparison

Affection and intimacy

Intimacy in friendships

Characterized by self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts

May not appear until early adolescence

Aging and Social World

Disengagement theory

To cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society

Increased self-preoccupation, lessened emotional ties, decreasing interest in society’s affairs

Historically relevant theory, but not accurate

Activity theory

More active and involved older adults experience more life satisfaction

Strong support found for theory

Aging and Social World

Ageism

Prejudice against others because of age, especially older adults

Often perceived as incapable of clear thinking, learning new things, enjoying sex, contributing to community, or holding responsible jobs

Many older adults face discrimination or are shunned socially

Ageism is widespread

Most frequent form is disrespect for older adults

Followed by assumptions of ailment or frailty caused by age

Aging and Social World

Social convoy model

Individuals go through life embedded in personal network of individuals to whom they give, and from which they receive, social support

Social support helps individuals cope with life challenges

Related to older adults’ physical and mental health

Sociocultural Influences

Culture

Behavior, patterns, beliefs, and all other products of group of people that are passed on from generation to generation

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to consider one’s own group superior to others

Sociocultural Influences

Individualism

Priority placed on personal goals rather than group goals

Emphasizes values that serve the self

Feeling good, personal achievement, independence

Collectivism

Personal goals subordinated to preserve group integrity

Emphasizes values that serve the group

Interdependence, harmonious relationships

Sociocultural Influences