sams 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and 5

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On Decem ber 22, 19 41, t w o w eeks af t er t h e Japan ese

at t ack on Pear l H ar bor , Ti m e m agazi n e r an an ar t i cl e

w i t h t h e h eadl i n e “ H ow t o Tel l Your Fr i en ds f r om t h e

Japs.” Th er e w er e an n ot at ed ph ot ogr aph s t o h el p

r eader s i den t i f y ch ar act er i st i cs t h at w oul d di st i n gui sh ,

f or i n st an ce, f r i en dl y Ch i n ese f r om t h e Japan ese,

Am er i ca’ s en em i es dur i n g Wor l d War I I . Th e m agazi n e

of f er ed t h e f ol l ow i n g r ul es of t h um b, al t h ough i t

adm i t t ed t h at t h ey w er e “ n ot al w ays r el i abl e” :

Som e Ch i n ese ar e t al l ( aver age: 5 f t . 5 i n .) . Vi r t ual l y

al l Japan ese ar e sh or t ( aver age: 5 f t . 2- ½ i n .) .

Japan ese ar e l i kel y t o be st ocki er an d br oader -

h i pped t h an sh or t Ch i n ese.

Japan ese— ex cept f or w r est l er s— ar e sel dom f at ;

t h ey of t en dr y up an d gr ow l ean as t h ey age. Th e

Ch i n ese of t en put on w ei gh t , par t i cul ar l y i f t h ey ar e

pr osper ous ( i n Ch i n a, w i t h i t s f r equen t f am i n es,

bei n g f at i s est eem ed as a si gn of bei n g a sol i d

ci t i zen ) .

Ch i n ese, n ot as h ai r y as Japan ese, sel dom gr ow an

i m pr essi ve m ust ach e.

M ost Ch i n ese avoi d h or n - r i m m ed spect acl es.

Al t h ough bot h h ave t h e t ypi cal epi can t h i c f ol d of

t h e upper eyel i d ( w h i ch m akes t h em l ook al m on d-

eyed) , Japan ese eyes ar e usual l y set cl oser t oget h er .

Th ose w h o kn ow t h em best of t en r el y on f aci al

ex pr essi on t o t el l t h em apar t : t h e Ch i n ese

ex pr essi on i s l i kel y t o be m or e pl aci d, ki n dl y, open ;

t h e Japan ese m or e posi t i ve, dogm at i c, ar r ogan t .

H ow can Gr am sci’ s con cept of h egem on y h el p us

un der st an d t h i s pi ece f r om Ti m e? Does t h i s ar t i cl e t el l us

m or e about t h e ph ysi cal di f f er en ces bet w een Japan ese

an d Ch i n ese, or about t h e st at e of m i n d of t h e Am er i can

publ i c at t h e t i m e? Wh at val ues ar e r ef l ect ed an d

pr oj ect ed? Ar e t h e descr i pt or s em pi r i cal ( based on f act )

or n or m at i ve ( based on opi n i on ) ? Th i s i s w h at r aci sm

l ooks l i ke on paper , an d i t cl ear l y i l l ust r at es Am er i ca’ s

f ear an d h at r ed of t h e Japan ese at t h at t i m e.

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Th e year : 19 77. Th e pl ace: a Por t l an d Tr ai l bl azer s

basket bal l gam e. Th e st ar w as n ot on t h e cour t but i n t h e

audi en ce— Rol l en St ew ar t , aka Rocki n’ Rol l en , aka

Rai n bow M an . Caugh t on cam er a at t h e gam e i n a

r ai n bow - col or ed cl ow n’ s w i g, Rocki n’ Rol l en began h i s

15 m i n ut es of f am e. H i s pl an : Fi r st cr eat e a cel ebr i t y

i m age; t h en , cash i n on t h at n ot or i et y by l an di n g r ol es

on TV or i n t h e m ovi es. Af t er t h at f i r st appear an ce i n

Por t l an d, Rol l en becam e a f i x t ur e at spor t s even t s, f r om

Super Bow l s t o t h e 19 84 Ol ym pi cs i n Sar aj evo. H e w as

f eat ur ed i n a beer com m er ci al , w as i n vi t ed t o gl am or ous

par t i es, an d l i ved t h e H ol l yw ood h i gh l i f e.

Af t er a f ew year s of t h e ex t r avagan t l i f est yl e,

h ow ever , h e f oun d i t “ sh al l ow an d un h appy.” Wat ch i n g

a t el evi si on pr ogr am cal l ed Today i n Bi ble Prophecy

Do mass medi a cr eat e soci al

nor ms or mer el y r ef l ect

t hem? Cul t ur e i s l i ek t wo

mi r r or s f aci ng each ot her : i t

si mul t aneousl y r ef l ect s and

cr eat es t he wor l d we l i ve i n.

Par adox

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Am on g t h e m ost per vasi ve an d vi si bl e f or m s of cul t ur e

i n m oder n soci et i es ar e t h ose pr oduced by t h e m ass

m edi a. We m i gh t def i n e m edi a as an y f or m at s or

veh i cl es t h at car r y, pr esen t , or com m un i cat e

i n f or m at i on . Th i s def i n i t i on w oul d, of cour se, i n cl ude

n ew spaper s, per i odi cal s, m agazi n es, books, pam ph l et s,

an d post er s. But i t w oul d al so i n cl ude w ax t abl et s, sk y

w r i t i n g, w eb pages, an d t h e ch i l dr en’ s gam e of

t el eph on e. We’ l l f i r st di scuss t h e h i st or y of t h e m edi a

an d t h en t ackl e t h eor y an d em pi r i cal st udi es.

Fr om t he Town Cr ier t o t he

Facebook Wal l : A Br ief Hist or y Wh en w e t al k about t h e m edi a, w e’ r e gen er al l y t al ki n g

about t h e m ass m edi a. Th e f i r st f or m of m ass m edi a w as

t h e book. Bef or e t h e i n ven t i on of t h e pr i n t i n g pr ess, t h e

m edi a di d ex i st — t h e t ow n cr i er br ough t n ew s, an d r oyal

m essen ger s t r avel ed by h or seback, ever y n ow an d t h en

h oppi n g of f t o r ead a scr ol l— but t h ey di d n ot ex act l y

r each t h e m asses. Peopl e passed al on g m ost i n f or m at i on

by w or d of m out h . Af t er t h e 1440s, w h en Joh an n es

Gut en ber g devel oped m ovabl e t ype f or t h e pr i n t i n g

pr ess, t ex t coul d be pr i n t ed m uch m or e easi l y. Books an d

per i odi cal s w er e pr oduced an d ci r cul at ed at m uch

gr eat er r at es an d began t o r each m ass audi en ces. Si n ce

t h at t i m e t h e t er m s m edi a an d m ass m edi a h ave becom e

vi r t ual l y syn on ym ous.

Th e i n n ovat i on s di dn’ t st op t h er e, h ow ever . I n t h e

1880s al on g cam e an ot h er i n ven t i on : t h e m ovi n g pi ct ur e

or si l en t f i l m . I t s qual i t y w as n ot t h e best at f i r st , but i t

i m pr oved over t i m e. I n t h e 19 20s soun d w as added t o

f i l m s. For m an y, t h i s r epr esen t ed an i m pr ovem en t over

t h e r adi o, w h i ch h ad com e al on g about t h e sam e t i m e as

t h e si l en t f i l m . Tel evi si on w as i n ven t ed i n t h e 19 30s,

al t h ough t h i s t ech n ol ogy di dn’ t m ak e i t s w ay i n t o m ost

Am er i can h om es un t i l af t er Wor l d War I I . Dur i n g t h e

post w ar per i od, n ew f or m s of m edi a t ech n ol ogy qui ckl y

h i t t h e m ar ket , an d t h e dem an d f or m edi a ex pl oded:

gl ossy m agazi n es; col or t el evi si on s; bl ockbust er m ovi es;

Bet am ax vi deos, t h en VH S vi deos, t h en DVDs; vi n yl

r ecor ds, t h en 8- t r ack t apes, t h en casset t e t apes, t h en

CDs— an d on ce t h e I n t er n et cam e al on g, t h e sky w as t h e