Nonverbal Feedback and Virtual Organizations

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Organizational Behavior Second Edition

Donald Baack Pittsburg State University

Editor in Chief, AVP: Steve Wainwright

Sponsoring Editor: Greer Lleuad

Senior Development Editor: Rebecca Paynter

Development Editors: Sophia Hart, Catharine Thomson, Taylor Holmes

Editorial Assistant: Taylor Holmes

Research Assistant: David Baack

Production Editor: Julie Mashburn

Media Editor: Jaime LeClair

Media Content Writer: Bill Davis

Copyeditors: Douglas Geary, Hannah Wertheimer

Illustrator: Steve Zmina

Photo Researcher: Taylor Holmes

Cover Design: Tara Mayberry

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ePub Development: M & R Consultants Corporation

Permission Editor: Joohee Lee

Cover Image: Ikon Images/ Ikon Images/ SuperStock

ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-363-3

Copyright © 2017 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of this material hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

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About the Author

Donald Baack

Dr. Donald Baack is a professor of management at Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas. He has an undergraduate degree from Dana College, an MBA from Southwest Missouri State University, and a PhD from the University of Nebraska.

Dr. Baack teaches undergraduate level organizational theory and behavior, advanced organizational behavior, and graduate level behavior management. He has received awards for both teaching and research. He is af�iliated with the Southwest Academy of Management and the Nebraska Economics and Business Association.

Dr. Baack is the author or coauthor of 17 books, including college textbooks in the areas of management, healthcare management, management communication, international marketing, and integrated marketing communications. He has written a high school textbook for students studying international business and three books that are for the general public. Dr. Baack has written over 100 professional journal articles and conference papers. He previously served as consulting editor for Pittsburg State's Journal of Managerial Issues.

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Acknowledgments A big thank you to Taylor Holmes for her guidance and contributions, as well as the efforts of the talented editorial team at Bridgepoint Education who directed the preparation of this edition. Also, thanks to Anna Lustig for providing this opportunity. I was fortunate to have an excellent group of reviewers who provided vital insights and important suggestions. They are:

Brian Divita, Aquinas College

Charlene Anderson, Ashford University

James Moore, Ashford University

John Bathke, Ashford University

Kurt Stuke, Ashford University

Linda Turner, Morrisville State College

Maja Zelihic, Ashford University

Michael Toney, Ashford University

Pamela Gordon, Ashford University

Stephanie Kern, Ashford University

Terrill L. Frantz, Carnegie Mellon University

I am deeply indebted to John Szylagyi, who introduced me to the team at Bridgepoint. Our casual conversation in 2011 led to several wonderful new opportunities. I would also like to express appreciation to Steve Wainwright for having the con�idence in me to work on this book as well as other projects.

Finally, my gratitude goes to my wife, Pamela, for her patience on the many days when I said it was necessary to work instead of tending to other household chores. Pam is my constant source of inspiration and love.

This book is dedicated to Joseph Baack (Joey) and Thomas Baack (Tommy), my two red-headed grandsons who give me such great joy.

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Preface Organizational Behavior, Second Edition, guides students toward a deeper understanding of organizational topics such as team dynamics, organizational structure, motivations, leadership, power, and change management. Using research from the �ield, the text reinforces familiar concepts, discusses contemporary theories, and encourages students to apply these ideas with case studies and analytical exercises. Students will learn to think critically about organizational behavior theories and will learn how to apply them in an increasingly technological and globalized world.

Textbook Features

Organizational Behavior, Second Edition, includes various features to help students understand core concepts:

OB in Action feature boxes include stories and examples that highlight organizational behavior in the lives of business professionals, in companies, and with relation to current events.

Comprehension exercise interactives appear at the end of each section, and include two to three review questions to boost students' critical understanding of chapter content.

Case study feature boxes present students with organizational scenarios that they must evaluate using the case questions included at the end of each study.

Review questions provide an opportunity for students to review and think critically about the topics covered in the chapters.

Analytical exercises at the end of each chapter give students the opportunity to critically assess and apply topics covered in the text.

Key terms list and de�ine concepts discussed in each chapter.

Videos highlight and elaborate on various concepts presented in the text.

Interactive media scenarios guide students through organizational scenarios and ask them to make critical assessments and decisions.

Accessible Anywhere. Anytime.

With Constellation, faculty and students have full access to eTextbooks at their �ingertips. The eTextbooks are instantly accessible on web, mobile, and tablet.

iPhone To download the Constellation iPhone or iPad app, go to the App Store on your device, search for "Constellation for Ashford University," and download the free application. You may log in to the application with the same username and password used to access Constellation on the web.

NOTE: You will need iOS version 7.0 or higher.

Android Tablet and Phone To download the Constellation Android app, go to the Google Play Store on your Android Device, search for "Constellation for Ashford University," and download the free application. You may log in to the Android application with the same username and password used to access Constellation on the web.

NOTE: You will need a tablet or phone running Android version 2.3 (Gingerbread) or higher.

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9Communication in Organizations

Caia Images/Caia Images/SuperStock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Apply the elements of interpersonal communication. Address barriers to interpersonal communication. Navigate a company's formal communication system. Explain the barriers to formal communication. Recognize effective communication in international settings.

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Organizational communication spans everything from interactions that take place between individuals to a company's correspondence with the public.

DGLimages/iStock/Thinkstock

9.1 Interpersonal Communication Communication consists of transmitting, receiving, and processing information. In organizations, communications �low between individuals, between levels in the organizational hierarchy, between departments, and between the company and outside publics. Effective communication has often been linked to interpersonal and company success.

What makes communication a critical success factor? First, communication takes place as part of every managerial activity. Poor communication leads to con�lict, and quality communication helps to resolve con�lict. Further, communication skills are a key factor in career success, as described in the OB in Action segment featuring Kat Cole. Those who can make effective verbal presentations are more likely to be perceived as potential leaders. Individuals who express themselves well make positive impressions during a job search and as employees.

This chapter examines communication at the individual and interpersonal levels �irst. Then, communication systems receive attention. A company's formal communications, as well as its informal networks of communication, such as electronic media and social networks, require careful attention if the company is to be successful. Finally, intercultural communications will be addressed, as quality managers must understand the nuances present in communicating in international circumstances.

OB in Action: Kat Cole Climbs the Corporate Ladder

How does one rise from a "Jerry Springer upbringing" (her words) to Group President of Focus Brands? Often, one key element is a person's ability to communicate. Kat Cole was recently rated as number one in a list titled "Top 10 Best Communicators" ranked by the Decker Communications organization (Decker & Decker, 2015).

Cole began her career as a "Hooters Girl," earning nearly $45,000 per year in that role. Soon, she accepted a position in the corporation, taking an enormous pay cut in order to achieve new goals. The decision paid off quickly: By age 26 she had become an executive vice president in the �irm.

At age 35, Cole became President of Cinnabon®. Soon after, she was promoted to her current position with the parent company that carries several brands, including Cinnabon®, Schlotzkey's, Auntie Anne's pretzel company, and Moe's Southwest Grill, among others.

What makes her an effective communicator? Among the attributes her admirers note is empathy. According to Entrepreneur magazine, she takes the time to see the good in people and situations (Clifford, 2013). Her personal list of key ingredients to success includes being a quality listener.

When it is her turn to speak, Cole is reported to impress audiences with authority and conviction. She keeps messages light-hearted but inspirational at the same time. The combination of personal warmth in her manner of presentation, when combined with credibility that results from such a successful career, allows her to encourage others to work hard to be their very best.

Her methods of communication also translate into international circumstances. Not long ago, when traveling to Egypt on behalf of Cinnabon®, her meeting with a franchise holder was interrupted by the standard call to prayer that goes out over loudspeakers in the country. Listening to what transpired, she responded, "That is so beautiful," noting that it was both melodic and engaging. Her Egyptian client commented, "I have never, ever heard an American say that in my 40 years of doing business with Americans." Cole had built a strong and lasting bond with a simple gesture of respect.

Re�lection and Application Questions

1. What communication skills would be most valuable to helping a person achieve a promotion? 2. Do you think a pleasant approach can always be associated with effective communication, or do other styles work better in certain

circumstances? 3. How might listening skills add value in international interactions?

Interpersonal Communication Models

In the workplace, employees and supervisors often engage in one-on-one conversations. They also interact with and communicate with others in group settings. Several models of these types of interpersonal communications have been created. These models of interpersonal communication have evolved over the years. The common elements in the models are that they include a sender, a receiver, and some method for demonstrating that communication is, in some sense, a two- way street, with information and messages �lowing in both directions. The original model of communication is known as the linear approach. Later, more interactive models were posed as more accurate depictions of interpersonal communication.

Linear Model of Interpersonal Communication The original and one of the most straightforward models of interpersonal communication is provided in Figure 9.1. It illustrates a linear model of interpersonal communication. The linear model depicts basic one-on-one interactions, such as a supervisor speaking to an employee, (e.g., giving task instructions; performance feedback, praise, etc.) or two co-workers talking about how to successfully tackle a challenging assignment (e.g., how best to conduct a market research program; the best method to conduct a scienti�ic experiment on a new drug formula, the ideal way to re�inance company debt when interest rates drop). It also depicts the return message sent by the receiver to the sender in the form of feedback (Guffrey & Loewy, 2011).

Figure 9.1: A basic interpersonal communications model

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This model illustrates a linear model of interpersonal communication. The ideation originates with the sender; �inally, feedback is sent to the original sender.

Source: Adapted from: Shannon, C. E. (1949). Communication in the presence of noise, Proceedings of the IRE, (0096-8390), 37 (1), p. 10.

In the linear model, the sender transmits a message or an idea. This message is formed through encoding, which uses language or verbal cues accompanied by nonverbal cues. Verbal cues can be spoken or written. Written messages at work can take the form of memos, e-mails, instant messages, letters, and reports. The messages may range from short texts or tweets to longer, more formal letters and reports to committees or management teams. As is the case with spoken messages, the sender and receiver should be aware of potential barriers to communication. The advantage of writing lies in the ability to carefully consider each word and sentence prior to transmitting the message (Bell, 2004).

Nonverbal cues include all other forms of message sending. Electronic transmissions go beyond text messages and e-mails. Technologies such as Skype and other voice of internet protocols (VOIP) allow for interpersonal meetings via visual images.

A transmission device carries a message via sound waves, light waves, pieces of paper, mobile phone signals and screens, the Internet, computer monitors, billboards, radio or television signals, or through an endless number of additional carriers. Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message and comprehends or interprets it. Every sense can be part of decoding, including hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling, and tasting various cues. In a standard interpersonal interaction, sight and hearing are often used. When decoding, the receiver interprets verbal and nonverbal cues, normally at the same time.

The receiver is the sender's intended audience, which is either a single person or a group. Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message. The receiver transmits verbal and nonverbal cues that suggest, "I don't understand," "I disagree," "You're absolutely right," "This is frustrating," or other reactions to the sender, possibly including, "I'm not really listening." Then, most of the time, the conversation continues. A variety of forces and factors can prevent messages from being sent correctly or accurately received. Figure 9.1 shows the disruptions as noise, or barriers to communication. Section 9.2 describes noise in detail.

Interaction Model of Oral Communication In the 1960s, basic models were expanded to indicate the interaction of two people engaged in a dialogue, which resulted in the interaction model. Figure 9.2 depicts this model of the mutual transmission and reception of messages and feedback. The model suggests a more interactive nature of communication (Wood, 2009). The interaction model remains "linear" in the sense that a message �irst goes one way (Person A to Person B), then the other (Person B back to Person A). Clearly, most conversations are not that organized and sequential, leaving room for additional ideas about how interpersonal communication transpires.

Figure 9.2: An interaction model

In the interaction model, both parties transmit and receive messages, and both are involved in encoding, decoding, and interpreting.

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Transaction Model of Oral Communication Recent conceptualizations of the nature of communication suggest an intricate and sophisticated pattern. Instead of operating somewhat like a tennis match, where one person sends and the other receives and then the process reverses, actual discussions take place nearly simultaneously (Duncan & Moriarty, 1998).

In the transaction model, a person speaking studies the intended audience as the message is being sent. The speaker may see the receiver grin, frown, or nod in agreement before every word has been spoken. Conversations resemble a dance in which both parties form the transaction. Such a model accounts for interruptions, persons �inishing each other's sentences, and incomplete transmissions, �inishing with phrases such as, "You know what I'm talking about," as the other person nods, or "I know you think I'm wrong" as the person shakes his or her head.

In a management setting, the transaction model can be used to explore the movement from misunderstanding to understanding and from disagreement to agreement, as well as the escalation of a conversation into a con�lict. Every dance will be different. At times the partners move in perfect sync; at others, they stumble or step on each other's toes.

Each of the three models—the linear model, the interaction model, and the transaction model—contains key elements of encoding, transmission, decoding, and feedback. The models also show that some conversations go poorly and that misunderstandings do occur. Noise, or the barriers to communication, can cause such disruptions.

Nonverbal Interpersonal Communication

Nonverbal communication plays a signi�icant role in one-on-one interactions. Along with spoken words, tone and other nonverbal cues accompany every message transmission. The forms of nonverbal communication include kinesic cues, appearance and dress, artifacts, touch, space, and paralanguage.

Kinesic cues are messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements. These include messages conveyed by various parts of the body (Birdwhistell, 1970). Examples are provided in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3: Kinesic cues and interpretations

Body language and postures are kinesic cues that are interpreted by observers.

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Sources: Adapted from Pentland, A. (2008). Honest signals: How they shape our world. Boston, MA: M.I.T. Press, 10–40, 105; Malandro, L. A., & Barker, L. (1983). Nonverbal communication. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 226–230.

Appearance consists of controllable and less controllable factors. One less controllable element is attractiveness. People who are physically attractive enjoy a kind of halo effect, in which others assume they are more intelligent, witty, charming, and even more honest than others (Harper, 1993; Schoenberger, 1997). The other component of appearance, dress, can be controlled. Hairstyles, clothing, and the use of makeup also convey nonverbal images and messages, including seeking to attract attention or trying to look professional.

Artifacts include additional items that send messages, such as jewelry and eyeglasses. Some piercings signal rebellion. Coworkers are likely to notice expensive rings, necklaces, and other forms of jewelry. Some may even judge a person who drives an old, beat-up car as less successful and talented than an individual in the same profession who drives an upscale vehicle.

Physical touch has changed in terms of what may be considered acceptable or unacceptable. Hugging, backslapping, and other forms of touch have largely disappeared in many workplaces, unless express permission has been granted. Handshakes continue to convey messages. A �irm handshake accompanied by eye contact expresses con�idence. A weak handshake with eyes averted signals shyness and possibly other less desirable traits (Brown, 2000).

Space, or physical distance, sends additional signals. Substantial evidence suggests that concepts of personal space vary widely by culture. In the United States, someone who feels his or her personal space has been invaded quickly becomes defensive, because "getting in someone's face" indicates aggression and often accompanies an argument or more violent interaction.

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Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message. Key elements include tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity (Knapp & Hall, 1992). Paralanguage can change messages from surprised to sarcastic, such as the words, "Oh, really?" Pacing indicates when a person wishes to speak or to stop speaking. Paralanguage can also convey urgency, especially through pitch. A high pitch indicates the desire for a stronger response. These verbal and nonverbal cues combine to send messages.

As an example of the importance of nonverbal communication, consider an individual who is about to embark on an interview as part of the hiring process. How might that applicant create an unwanted impression?

Showing up late—the interviewer assumes the person is not reliable A weak handshake—the interviewer perceives a lack of con�idence Little eye contact—the interviewer concludes the applicant has something to hide Slouching—the interviewer perceives disinterest Sloppy apparel—the interviewer thinks the person is not that excited about the job

At the same time, the interviewer has certain responsibilities in order to perform their job effectively. First, the interviewer should disentangle gestures that indicate nervousness from those suggesting the person is hiding something. Second, the interviewer would need to learn about the person's background—some clothing choices may be due to the economic circumstances of the applicant. Third, the interviewer should take steps to make the applicant feel comfortable. Then, slouching may be viewed as the result of poor posture rather than disinterest. Further, the individual's age and cultural background may play a part. As a simple example, younger persons are more likely to end statements with intonation going up, making it sound more like a question than a response. For the most part, this difference in paralanguage may be explained by the individual's generation.

The ability to discern subtle cues from a person's nonverbal messages may take time and experience to develop. Further, understanding of circumstances, such as being separated by a desk to indicate a power difference and distance, may require additional training.

In summary, various models have been used to explain the nature of the communication process, both in verbal conversations and written messages. Each has the potential to transmit an idea effectively or cause communication problems. Overcoming potential barriers to communication constitutes a key workplace activity that can make you a more valuable employee.

SUBMITSUBMITSUBMIT

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9.2 Noise and the Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Noise distorts or disrupts communication. Barriers to communication can cause misunderstandings, con�licts, and failure to follow directives or orders; they can also create additional organizational problems. One method of studying communication barriers involves the analysis of the parts of the basic communications model. Such an approach appears in Table 9.1.

Sender barriers, as noted in the upcoming section, result from the individual differences between the sender and receiver, such as a supervisor with a subordinate or persons from two different departments (with differing frames of reference) in the same organization.

Encoding barriers result from problems with the method in which a message was transmitted, including shouting inappropriately, mumbling, or sending mixed messages due to differences in verbal and nonverbal cues, such as saying, "I'm behind you 100 percent" while looking away and failing to make eye contact.

Table 9.1: Barriers to the communication process Type of barrier Example

Sender barrier No message is sent, due to fear or lack of con�idence.

Encoding barrier The message is expressed poorly or in error.

Medium barrier The communication channel is blocked.

Decoding barrier The receiver fails to correctly understand the message.

Receiver barrier The receiver does not pay attention or ignores a message.

Feedback barrier The receiver does not con�irm that the message was or was not understood. Source: Adapted from Kinicki, A., & Williams, B. (2008). Management: A practical introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 493.

Medium barriers occur, for instance, when a company's phone system fails to work properly or when other channels of communication (e.g., internet, intranet, videoconference) break down.

Decoding barriers can occur when the receiver has a learning disability, a physical disability, or the individual simply does not understand the language being used (e.g., slang, technical terminology, or some other reference).

Receiving barriers take place when a person is inattentive during a meeting or an interpersonal conversation. This may be due to disinterest (perhaps the individual is about to quit the job) or a distraction from the outside. Someone who is angry from a confrontation with a fellow employee or supervisor may not be in the best circumstance to receive any new message.

Feedback barriers result from the receiver failing to correctly respond to the message by making statements such as, "I don't understand" or "Can you clarify what you mean?" For example, a manager may say that a salesperson should provide more "personal attention" to clients. Such a message could have a variety of meanings, and the individual may not be sure what was intended by the statement. Failing to obtain clari�ication leads to a feedback barrier.

Another method of studying communication barriers involves breaking them down into three categories: individual differences, situational factors, and transmission problems. The third category, transmission problems, is similar to the concept of a medium barrier.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Communication experts discuss common barriers to communication.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What is your preferred method of communication, and what are its drawbacks?

2. Which type of "noise" is most common in your every day environment, and what do you do to overcome this barrier?

Individual Differences

The �irst set of barriers, individual differences, emerge simply because of the two people involved in the conversation. Any number of messages can become lost because of one or more noticeable differences between the sender and receiver. These differences might involve age, gender, educational level, status, or personality.

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Differences in age create varying frames of reference (Hahn, 2011). Age becomes a barrier to communication in several ways. Many younger supervisors report problems managing older workers, believing the older employees do not listen or show some other type of disrespect. When an older worker offers constructive criticism to a younger employee, the more junior employee may respond ineffectively or defensively. Age-based jokes and taunting can build barriers between employees.

Gender Deborah Tannen (1990) was among the �irst to provide commentary about gender-based communication issues in her book You Just Don't Understand. Tannen's work has pointed out nearly 100 key gender differences that can become communication barriers.

In general, women are more likely to use expressive and effusive language. Women often rely on a verbal hedge, such as "umm" when thinking something over, or "so" to accentuate a message ("She was so funny"), and are more likely to state business requests as questions. A female supervisor might say, "Would you mind calling this person to make an appointment for me?" Women are also less likely to directly criticize an employee, especially in public.

According to Tannen, males tend to use more direct language, interrupt conversational partners (especially women), and are more inclined to aggressively disagree with someone in public. They are also more prone to make declarative statements of fact (sometimes when they do not actually know the facts). Males are more likely to ignore comments that have been offered by another person, especially when that person disagrees with them. And �inally, men tend to �ind ways to control conversations, especially by changing the subject when they feel they are "losing" an argument.

Recent formulations of communication and gender issues suggest a more complex conceptualization of the patterns. Rather than viewing male/female communication patterns in a binary manner (i.e., men are likely to do this; women are likely to do this), postmodern conceptualizations suggest a wider diversity of gender identities and communication patterns (Cameron, 2005; Maltz & Borker, 2007).

Educational Level Each year of formal education adds to an employee's vocabulary. Studying in high school and college is likely to improve a person's ability to think critically and to analyze situations using a greater set of decision-making concepts and models. Problems occur when someone who possesses these skills converses with someone who does not, and the educated person is unwilling or unable to engage in a dialogue using less complex communication signals.

As a simple example, a person with a bachelor's degree in business will know what "SWOT" means—a method of analyzing a company's circumstances by studying �irm strengths and weaknesses in conjunction with the opportunities and threats present in the environment. Consequently, a supervisor may say, "We need to do a SWOT analysis of this program," and the college graduate will understand while someone with a high school degree may not. In this case, the person without the degree might feel embarrassed and afraid to ask for an explanation of the term.

Status Any person with higher status routinely deals with people who are made anxious by his or her presence or who are slightly intimidated. In an organizational setting, a chance meeting with the CEO or a high-ranking executive can quickly become awkward or uncomfortable. An employee who struggles with public speaking might �ind it even more dif�icult to give a presentation with a high-ranking company of�icial in the audience.

Status also affects the ability to listen effectively. When a worker feels unsettled in front of an executive, the employee may focus on trying to look good and not listen very carefully. Another might seek to ingratiate rather than to engage in a genuine conversation. The person may wait for an opening to pass along a compliment instead of hearing what the executive says.

Personality Several personality types can inhibit communication. A shy person may feel pressured, bullied, or intimidated by an outgoing or bombastic person. An individual with an analytical and reserved personality may have dif�iculty communicating with someone who is more inclined to react instinctively to problems and circumstances.

Individual differences create circumstances that can disrupt communication. As companies become more diverse, some of these problems may become more complex. Tomorrow's managers should expect to deal with these and other potential individual, interpersonal barriers.

Situational Factors

At times, characteristics associated with senders and receivers are not the primary barriers to communication. Instead, situational circumstances are the cause of the problem. Table 9.2 describes four common situational factors that can prevent a message from being received.

Table 9.2: Situational factors that disrupt communication Situational factors Examples

Exclusive language The use of speci�ic language (e.g., sports metaphors by males) The use of technical terminology only familiar to those in a given profession

Emotions Anger Depression Envy and jealousy Personal attitudes and values

Settings Crisis events or bad news Emotional events (e.g., funeral; announcement of the death of a popular employee)

Distractions Weather events (e.g., storms; thunder) Outside noise (e.g., construction) Internal disturbances (e.g., vacuum cleaning in an of�ice near a meeting)

Exclusive Language Terminology that can only be understood by a select set of individuals within an organization constitutes exclusive language. Those who are unfamiliar with the language are systematically excluded from a conversation. Exclusive language accentuates the differences between employees and creates a barrier to

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communication, because excluded employees feel less accepted. Exclusive language can emphasize racial differences, disparity in status, or dissimilarity between company departments. In each case, its deliberate use is designed to alienate or separate one group from another (Rubin & Green, 1991).

Exclusive language often re�lects gender differences. As an example, in the workplace men are more apt than women to use sports metaphors as part of everyday language. Many male workers may be familiar with the following phrases and the sport connected to each:

"That one was a real hail Mary."

"He took one for the team."

"I want a mulligan on that one."

"We've been playing man-to-man. We need to go zone."

Female employees (or male employees) who are not sports enthusiasts may be less familiar with this type of language, so they will not immediately understand the message and can feel left out or excluded as a result. Of course, it is also possible for women to use exclusive language by saying something such as "You know what Whoopi thinks about that," to a male peer who does not know about or watch the television program The View, which targets a largely female audience.

Emotions Emotions play a key role in life and at work. Positive emotions contribute to pleasant working relationships. Feelings of affection, loyalty, and trust help build and maintain quality interpersonal interactions. Other emotions, such as anger, depression, or envy, can disrupt communication and interfere with workplace activities.

For example, anger disturbs a person's concentration and thought process. An angry person may �ind it more dif�icult to clearly express himself or herself. Anger causes some people to "�ly off the handle," leading them to say things in the heat of the moment that they wish they could take back. The consequences of such outbursts can affect short-term conversations and long-term relationships.

Depression, both mild and severe, affects a person's reasoning and conversation. A depressed person may choose his or her words less carefully, whereas another person may avoid conversation altogether.

Envy arises in many ways. An employee who has been passed over for a promotion might become envious. Another may be envious of the job assignment given to a peer. Envy may result from seeing your supervisor giving extra attention to a coworker while basically ignoring you. These feelings affect future conversations. More caustic comments may be made, more guarded language may be used, or someone may be treated with a cold silence and not know why.

Several personal attitudes and values can interrupt communication. Racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination can be expressed through derisive language designed to intimidate or insult others. Quality interpersonal communication cannot take place in those circumstances.

At times, an organizational setting can create communication problems. When a manager announces that a popular employee has become gravely ill or has died, it may be dif�icult for him or her to transmit messages effectively after that point. Little quality communication takes place after a company leader declares layoffs or relocation to a foreign country. Even some joyous occasions can hinder communication, such as the retirement of a manager or of�ice parties celebrating holidays.

Distractions Several distractions can interfere with communication. Outside weather events, such as snowstorms or thunderstorms, tend to draw attention away from an interpersonal conversation or presentation to a group. Any workplace that is near a construction zone will probably encounter dif�iculties in communication. Interpersonal interactions can also be disrupted by more subtle cues, such as when one person tries to hold a conversation with someone who is dressed inappropriately. On an even smaller scale, try talking to someone who has something stuck in his or her teeth.

Transmission Problems

In any conversation or message transmission, situational barriers can arise. New technologies, such as smartphones, create a greater number of communication channels but also may present new obstacles. Some of the more common transmission problems include language, slang, technical terminology, sender or receiver disabilities, and nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages.

Language Even in circumstances in which everyone speaks the same language, barriers to communication can still arise. Problems with semantics emerge when a word or phrase has more than one meaning, and the sender and receiver are using different versions. For example, the word "response," when used in a sentence such as "I'm not sure what to make of your response," can be interpreted as a countercharge or simply as an answer. Many managers claim they have an "open-door policy." The meaning of open-door policy often varies among managers. Some are suggesting they willingly listen to complaints and suggestions. Others are saying an employee can come in and ask for help, but nothing more.

Slang Nearly any language used widely around the world contains slang. As an element of culture, slang evolves and regularly changes. In the 1950s, the word "bitchin" as a term of approval was in vogue. Each generation develops its own set of slang expressions, and even those can change over time. The baby boomer generation often said "bummer," "mellow," and "cool" in the 1960s.

The �ilms Valley Girl (1983) and Clueless (1995) spoofed teenaged girls who included the word "like" in every sentence. By 2011, such usage was common, even among older adults. Currently, older employees may not know what being "cat�ished" means, or know how to interpret the latest acronyms in text language. In 2016, NBA legend Phil Jackson received considerable criticism for suggesting an African-American player had a "posse," indicating that some lingo and language that was once commonplace is now considered to be insulting.

A new form of slang has emerged from the use of social media. Due to the character limitations imposed by Twitter, many shortcuts have evolved. Someone who does not understand these and the many other tweet acronyms would encounter a barrier to interpersonal communication.

Technical Terminology

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Various digital dialects have emerged in the age of the internet.

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The explosion of modern technologies has brought with it a vast amount of new terms. In the year 2000, the term "app" had no special meaning. Now, most people know what it means. Likewise, the word "tweet" was not used in regular conversation until recently.

In a company, each department speaks its own language. The use of technical terms and acronyms may create confusion between members of the same organization. Information technology (IT) contains highly specialized language. Someone speaking to an IT professional may be confused by the terminology. While an accountant knows what "DDB" means (double- declining balance, which is a method of asset depreciation for income statements), a marketer may not (Hymowitz, 2006). At the same time, the marketer is completely familiar with the concept of micro-targeting (a form of market segmentation based on a highly speci�ic geographic location) and the accountant may not completely understand what it is or why it has value.

Sender or Receiver Disabilities Physical disabilities present additional challenges to interpersonal communication. They may give rise to communication problems for both the sender and the receiver. A sender with a speech impairment may have greater dif�iculty framing messages. Someone who stutters or has a lisp may have trouble speaking, especially to groups of people. Part of the challenge may be the actual forming of words, or it may be the embarrassment or shyness that results. Receivers who have dif�iculty hearing also experience a key barrier to communication.

Nonverbal Contradictions of Verbal Messages A nonverbal contradiction occurs when a person says something verbally that does not correspond with his or her body language and gestures. Saying something is "interesting" while looking distracted or inattentive conveys two different messages. As noted, during the hiring process, someone who arrives late, avoids eye contact, and slumps down in a chair probably will not receive an offer, despite any verbal expression of interest in the job. Keeping one's arms crossed during a disagreement or argument conveys that nothing is "getting through" and the person is not willing to change positions, even when such is not the case.

Overcoming Barriers to Interpersonal Communication

Quality communication in any context results from careful preparation and situation sensitivity by a sender and receiver. Following a few simple steps can help avoid misunderstandings and con�lict as well as enhance the chance that a message will be correctly understood. Senders and receivers both have responsibilities that can overcome any barriers that are present. Table 9.3 summarizes the natures of these duties.

Table 9.3: Creating quality interpersonal communication Sender responsibilities Receiver responsibilities

Awareness of barriers Active listening

Empathy Seeking clari�ication of the message

Careful attention to nonverbal cues

Con�irmation of the message

Joint responsibilities

Building trust through interactional transparency

Eliminating stereotypes

Setting egos aside

Supportive communication

Sender Responsibilities Senders should begin by making sure they are aware of any barriers that might be present. One method of making sure a conversation begins on the right note is to acknowledge the existence of the barrier, such as when a manager says, "I know you are both pretty angry right now" to two people engaged in a con�lict. Also, many public speakers use humor to point out a barrier, to help place the audience at ease.

Effective communicators attempt to understand the background and perspective of others. Empathy has always been a valuable communication skill. When a manager speaks with a frustrated employee, the supervisor can acknowledge he or she understands the person is upset, saying something along the lines of "I understand how you feel."

Paying attention to nonverbal cues requires practice. To communicate effectively, an employee should become aware of his or her use of gestures. A close friend can point out tendencies such as slouching or looking down while speaking.

Con�irmation of the message can be summarized by the phrase, "I want to make sure you understand." True communication does not take place until the sender certi�ies that the message was received as intended. A manager may ask an employee to restate what he or she said to make sure an important message was clearly understood.

Receiver Responsibilities Listening carefully and not allowing distractions to interfere with a conversation or presentation are primary receiver responsibilities. The mind works far faster than a person who speaks at a normal pace. Giving partial attention, or seeking to get the general idea of what is being said without focusing on the interaction, often leads to confusion and conveys disrespect to the speaker. Listening carefully means clearing away distractions and not adding to them. Table 9.4 shows �ive active listening styles listeners can use:

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Table 9.4: Active listening styles Active listening styles

Characteristics Examples

Empathic Focus on verbal and nonverbal cues Listening to a contradictory opinion with an open mind

Appreciative Remaining relaxed and staying calm Smile in acknowledgement of a joke; make eye contact with speaker

Discerning Deliberation of message as it is being transmitted

Listening carefully; making mental or physical notes about key points

Evaluative Preparing a response Finding a non-confrontational way to disagree with a statement or opinion

Comprehensive Using logic and reasoning while listening Organizing thoughts to provide a response later, or closely following a presentation

Empathetic listening focuses on body language, verbal cues, and involves refraining from judgement when receiving a message. Appreciative listening involves remaining relaxed and seeking entertainment or inspiration from a message. Discerning listening engages in the message, trying to understand it and determine key points, often while taking notes. Evaluative listening frames a response after analyzing the message content. Comprehensive listening involves interpreting a message by organizing it and by looking for logic within it. An effective listener uses each of these tactics at the appropriate time (Condrill, 2005).

Clari�ication of a message means saying, "I don't understand" when necessary. Otherwise, a person may overreact to what was meant to be a noncontroversial comment, such as, "Yeah, my boss is a real piece of work." This may be stated in a manner meant to convey admiration but could potentially be interpreted as a criticism. Clari�ication is the feedback provided by the receiver to the sender, such as "Do you mean that in a good way?"

Joint Responsibilities Both senders and receivers can attempt to build trust, which opens the door for a more authentic exchange of information. Interactional transparency is the open and honest sharing of information. When people share pertinent information and do not disguise important details to create a power base, trust increases. A forthcoming approach to sending messages and providing feedback helps reduce fears of ulterior motives and other problems. A lack of trust can cause defensiveness as participants become more likely to question the accuracy of each other's statements. Trust building takes time, candor, empathy, and the willingness to be open with others (McCune, 1998; Wilderdom.com, 2009).

Assuming things about another person based on visible characteristics (age, gender, or race) leads to poor communication and other organizational problems. One method for overcoming this problem is to make an honest personal assessment of personal prejudices and tendencies toward stereotyping, including reactions to physical attractiveness in others. Individuals can then work towards a more open mind in interpersonal communications and relationships.

Egotism is based on pride, superior ability, arrogance, and out-of-control self-esteem. Egotism threatens communication by creating turf wars, political battles, and petty disputes over credit, resources, and rewards (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2003). Nearly everyone has experienced the problem of dealing with an egomaniac who is more interested in himself or herself than in any issue at hand. More than one successful meeting has resulted from participant willingness to "check your ego at the door."

Supportive communication takes place when af�irmation, caring, and the desire to provide honest and useful advice and messages are present. Such a style bodes well for interpersonal relationships, such as building bonds with co-workers and supervisors as well as strengthening an individual's leadership approach.

In summary, overcoming the barriers to interpersonal communication includes sender, receiver, and combined responsibilities. Senders should be aware of potential barriers, employ empathy, pay careful attention to nonverbal cues, and con�irm that a message was received correctly. Receiver responsibilities include active listening and clarifying messages using feedback. Both senders and receivers can seek to build trust, eliminate stereotypes, and set egos aside during conversations and interactions.

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Many companies have begun using modern technology like instant messaging and social media platforms to optimize communication and networking opportunities.

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9.3 Formal Communication Channels The development of new formal communication technologies has led to dramatic changes in organizational life. Formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally designated channels. Formal communication takes the form of verbal transmissions, such as telephone calls, and written media, such as memos and letters. The evolution of these channels to include newer technologies has changed the ways in which employees communicate with managers, with each other, and with the public. The manner in which work itself is conducted has also been affected. An analysis of formal communication channels includes a review of traditional formal channels as well as newer computer-based and digital technologies (see Table 9.5).

Table 9.5: Traditional and newer formal communication channels Traditional verbal Traditional written Newer computer-based/digital

Conversation Memo E-mail

Meeting Letter Instant message

Telephone call Contract Social media

Presentation Proposal Videoconference

Company magazine/newsletter Intranet

Company manual/handbook Extranet

Bulletin board

Traditional Formal Communication Channels

The channels listed in Table 9.5 regarding formal communication remain as vital information links in organizations. Verbal channels have increased in importance as individuals become more reliant on handheld technologies in everyday work and life. Business requires involvements and relationships. Interpersonal conversations, meetings, phone calls, and presentations are part of everyday business life and serve as formal communication links.

Written formal communication channels have been adapted to newer technologies. Instead of distributing a paper magazine or newsletter, an employee can send �iles electronically. Companies can convert contracts, proposals, memos, and letters into PDF �iles for transmission or storage. Company manuals and handbooks are now stored on an intranet rather than in a desk drawer. Many situations still require words to be put on paper to retain something as basic as a signature or a hard copy of a contract or message, but a �ile can now be electronically stored rather than kept as a hard copy.

Digital Channels

Some evidence suggests that e-mail may be giving way to more instantaneous forms of communication in many organizations. Many younger employees respond to posts on Twitter and text messages more quickly than to other methods of communication, such as a voice mail.

Further, instant messaging has in�iltrated the workplace from the bottom up, through entry- and lower-level employees. To facilitate this medium, IBM offers an instant messaging service for businesses to use for internal communications (Harmon, 2003). One advantage of instant messaging is the ability to provide immediate information. An example is noti�ication that a person has become sick and will not be attending work; instant messaging allows managers to �ind a replacement more quickly (Zorawski, 2010).

Additional networking takes place through social media outlets such as Facebook, Digg, and LinkedIn. Some managers have discovered that these outlets provide effective channels to interact with employees. Many companies also use Twitter accounts to make contacts with customers. In terms of internal formal communications, setting up a keyword speci�ically for communicating with staff members can help any business owner in many situations.

Videoconferencing allows employees to see each other as they interact. The medium allows for some observation of nonverbal cues as well as changes in vocal tone and other forms of interpersonal cues. Videoconferencing also connects companies with customers without the need for a sales call.

An intranet, or internal company website, connects people within an organization with a site that provides information and creates a method to contact coworkers and supervisors. Using an intranet, a salesperson can capture information about a prospective customer during a sales call or at a trade show. The technology makes it possible to personalize a presentation and make it speci�ic to the prospect or customer. Extranets provide links between a company and its customers, suppliers, and strategic partners. For instance, Walmart makes extensive use of extranets in connecting its buyers with suppliers. The suppliers are able to monitor inventory levels in Walmart stores to provide product as it becomes necessary.

Computer-based and digital communications facilitate formal interactions in remote locations across all levels of an organization. New technologies incorporated into smartphones and other handheld devices create instant access to information and facilitate communication, speeding up the pace of business for individuals and companies.

Types of Formal Messages

Formal communication systems move various types of information through an organization. Messages facilitate organizational functioning both internally and with external groups. Some of the most common types of messages that travel via formal channels to internal audiences are job instructions, job rationales, standardized information, team and group coordination efforts, questions and answers, decisions and plans, and ideological indoctrination.

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Job instructions may take the form of a direct address by a supervisor instructing an employee how to carry out a task or set of tasks, employee training programs, performance appraisal systems, or mentoring programs. A job rationale explains why a job should be completed in a certain way and the importance of the job. Standardized information applies equally to everyone in the company, or to each person in a department. Company rules, protocols for evacuation in case of an emergency, and procedures that apply to speci�ic units in the company are forms of standardized information.

To coordinate teams and groups, communications establish meeting times, dates and deadlines, and strengthen relationships between members. Protocols for electing a leader and other essential information constitute formal messages in team settings.

Questions and answers move upward, downward, and laterally in business organizations. Questions may be posed by employees to managers, by managers to employees, or by members at the same rank, such as supervisors to one another. Decisions and plans plot the direction of the company. Managers convey them verbally, through electronic media, and in writing. Employees gain a sense of direction from these announcements. Ideological indoctrination statements remind employees, "This is a great place to work." At times, the message begins with a company's statement of mission. Value statements, such as support for the environment and social equality, are also part of indoctrination statements. An example of the importance of the types of messages sent through formal channels is found in the OB in Action scenario about Steve Jobs during his health crisis period at Apple Inc.

OB in Action: Steve Jobs at Apple Inc.

There can be little debate that Steve Jobs and Apple Inc. changed the ways in which people communicate over the past two decades. Although Jobs passed away in 2011, Apple's numerous innovative products have dramatically increased access to information of all types and made it easier for individuals to contact one another and interact with various businesses.

Creating and sustaining such an impactful company required quality communication skills. Jobs's career provides an example of the effective use of information and communication. His dramatic launches of new products in front of live audiences were well documented.

Jobs believed in several key principles. One involved being willing and able to say "no." He was personally responsible for stopping a project that would have created a device similar to a Palm Pilot, concentrating instead on developing the iPod and iPhone. Jobs strived for simplicity in communication and in all Apple products. He also maintained small groups to effectively facilitate various activities (Qualman, 2011).

A major communication challenge occurred when Jobs became ill and was forced to �irst take a leave of absence and then to step down as CEO of Apple. Health concerns caused him to take temporary leave several times over the years, starting in 2004, and for the most part his absence was shrouded in a level of secrecy to maintain his personal privacy while preserving the appearance that the company remained strong and vibrant. Such secrecy undoubtedly created some concern within the company as well as perhaps unwanted attention in the industry.

After Jobs's �irst absence due to illness was announced, the company's stock immediately dropped in value. Issues with his pancreas and later a liver transplant created these complications (Wing�ield, 2011). When he returned, several observers noted that his once-dynamic speeches had become listless and lacked energy. The change may have subtly conveyed a message that he was concerned with the well-being of the country rather than it being simply a matter of personal poor health.

Jobs permanently stepped down as Apple's CEO in August 2011. The announcement led to audible groans from his audience. When Jobs died later that year, industry analysts wondered how the loss of such a dynamic innovator and communicator would impact Apple for the foreseeable future.

While many hailed and praised Jobs's approach to communication, critics also emerged. One coworker noted that "The highs were unbelievable ... but the lows were unimaginable" (Dumaine & Berlin, 1983). Jef Raskin, a former colleague, once said that Jobs "would have made an excellent King of France" due to his compelling and aggressive persona (Appleyard, 2009). Over time, complaints by employees and former employees emerged, many saying that the sarcasm, autocratic leadership style, and intense pressure to perform that Jobs often exhibited simply became unbearable, causing some to leave and others to withdraw in various ways. Depictions of Jobs as more of a tyrant were dramatized in biopics released after his death.

Re�lection and Application Questions

1. What communication skills would be necessary to manage an innovative company such as Apple? 2. Do you think a bombastic personality can be associated with effective communication, or does it risk alienating the audience? 3. Instead of secrecy, what level of communication should have taken place, from a company-wide perspective, during Jobs's leaves of absence?

Information Richness

Information richness represents the information-carrying capacity of a communication channel. At one extreme on the continuum of richness, a lean channel offers no venue for feedback, is impersonal, and transmits only a limited amount of information (Lengel & Daft, 1988). On the other hand, a rich channel provides opportunities for feedback, a full range of visual and audio communication, and the opportunity to personalize a message. Figure 9.4 summarizes the continuum from the leanest channel to the richest channel.

Figure 9.4: Channel richness

Different communication channels offer varying levels of information richness.

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Source: Adapted from Lengel, R. H., & Daft, R. L. (1988, August). The selection of communication media as an executive skill. Academy of Management Executive, (2), 225–232.

Complex messages and circumstances in which discussion and interaction are needed require the greatest degree of information richness in the channel. This leads to in-person, face-to-face interactions where verbal and nonverbal transmissions can both be offered. The person's words are accompanied by intonation and other cues. In business settings, additional cues can be added using visual aids, such as PowerPoint slides or printed handout materials. In terms of richness, conversations, meetings, and in-person presentations are the richest channels. Videoconferencing and conference calls retain the ability to move beyond words to in�lection and other cues; however, the same level of immediate feedback found in an actual face-to-face meeting or an interactive channel is not present.

Personal static channels, which are the leaner of the two moderately rich channels, include telephone calls and instant messages. They are leaner because visual elements and nonverbal cues are absent; however, quick-response systems such as instant messaging create what are nearly "conversations" in which questions and answers can be posed along with proposals and counterproposals. The leanest channels are those in which verbal intonation and nonverbal cues cannot be transmitted. Most printed documents, such as letters, reports, and proposals, are sent in lean formats. Standardized information with less complexity can also be sent through leaner channels. In-depth explanations of complicated issues are possible using lean formats; however, they are transmitted without the bene�its of other channels.

Channel richness provides a tool that assists managers in selecting the best way to send a message. Effective communicators match channel richness with the message. Ineffective communicators fail to match the message with the appropriate medium.

Communication in Groups

In circumstances in which groups of individuals interact routinely, various forms of networks are designed or simply emerge. Among them, the chain, wheel, circle, and all-channel forms of communication and interaction explain how messages travel in departments, teams, committees, task forces, and similar settings (Robbins, 2005).

Chain The terms "chain of command" or "hierarchy of authority" best explain a communication chain in a small group. Messages �low primarily in two directions— upward and downward (see Figure 9.5). The group leader or department manager relays decisions and gives orders. The chain concept also applies to larger organizations, where top-level managers communicate with middle managers who then transfer the information to �irst-line supervisors. First-line supervisors inform entry-level workers. Questions, inquiries, and requests for clari�ication follow the process in reverse.

Figure 9.5: Example of a communication chain

In a communication chain, messages travel upward or downward through the hierarchy.

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Source: G. Moorehead & R. W. Grif�in (2001). Organizational behavior (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mif�lin.

The chain design offers bene�its to certain types of groups and organizations. The model �its with situations in which precision in carrying out tasks or assignments holds high priority. The chain approach best applies to companies that produce standardized products, with little need for innovation or change.

Wheel In a wheel arrangement, a manager or group leader becomes the center of the wheel, with individual spokes, or communication channels, connecting the manager to subordinates. The central �igure collects information and dispenses it to employees. Individual team members communicate only with the control center and not with one another (see Figure 9.6).

The wheel approach may be used in task forces or project teams, especially when members are geographically dispersed. Normally a wheel approach would not �it an ongoing managerial operation, because team members and employees are not usually isolated from each other on a continuing basis.

Figure 9.6: Example of a wheel design

In a wheel arrangement, the central �igure, or manager, collects information and dispenses it to the employees.

Source: F. C. Lunenburg (2011). Network patterns and analysis: Underused sources to improve communication effectiveness, National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 28 (4) 1-7; B. B. Haslett (2012). Communicating and organizing, New York, NY: Routledge.

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Circle A circle resembles the wheel approach, only without the central hub (see Figure 9.7). In a circle system, team or department members communicate freely with other members, even though one member of the circle is the formally designated leader. The communication �low moves around the circle either clockwise or counterclockwise. This design is appropriate for tasks that are completed sequentially. One member's end product becomes the beginning point for the next member.

The circle approach may be found in task force operations as well as in laboratory settings in which experiments take place in a carefully constructed format. It may also �it certain creative endeavors, such as preparing advertisements or market research projects.

Figure 9.7: Example of a communication circle

In a communication circle, the members communicate freely, and messages �low in either direction around the circle.

Source: F. C. Lunenburg (2011). Network patterns and analysis: Underused sources to improve communication effectiveness, National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 28 (4) 1-7, and B. B. Haslett (2012). Communicating and organizing, New York, NY: Routledge.

All-Channel In an all-channel communication arrangement, messages move freely across organizational ranks and among members of a team, group, or department. Members contact each other without regard to title or status (see Figure 9.8).

The all-channel approach to communication design matches an increasing number of departments and companies. Many Internet �irms, such as Google, maintain open work spaces without doors or walls. Employees move about freely and are encouraged to communicate openly regarding new and innovative ideas. Managers work side by side with other organizational members, which empowers employees and encourages innovation. Consequently, the all-channel design �its with units that emphasize creativity, such as marketing and advertising departments or research and development departments.

Figure 9.8: Example of an all-channel arrangement

In an all-channel communication model, messages pass freely between members, regardless of rank.

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Source: F. C. Lunenburg (2011). Network patterns and analysis: Underused sources to improve communication effectiveness, National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 28 (4) 1-7; B. B. Haslett (2012). Communicating and organizing, New York, NY: Routledge.

In summary, formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally designated channels. The channels include traditional verbal and written media as well as newer computer-based or digital transmissions. Managers can take advantage of the many forms to effectively transmit and receive messages with those inside and outside of the company.

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With so many forms of communication, information may occasionally get lost in translation.

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9.4 Overcoming Barriers to Formal Communication Verbal and nonverbal formal communication systems are the lifeblood of an organization's operations. The systems demand careful construction and constant maintenance. As is the case with interpersonal communication, barriers can interrupt formal communication. These include interpersonal dif�iculties, system overload, physical barriers, selective �iltering, mismatch of message and medium, and informal contradiction of the formal message.

Every interpersonal barrier, including individual differences, situational factors, and mechanical problems, that interrupt communication between individuals presents potential formal barriers. Also, any transmission problem that interrupts conversations between two or more individuals can become barriers to formal systems (Athanassiades, 1973).

System overload means that too much information reaches a person at a given time and messages become lost as a result. Missing, misinterpreted, or late-arriving messages are symptoms of system overload. System overload has become an increasing challenge in many companies due to the growth of accepted communication channels. A message can easily be lost in an abundance of e-mails (especially when the employee has been away for a vacation or illness) or when one manager sends comments by text but another prefers voice mail or e- mail. The employee may not know which channel to check �irst, or they may neglect to look at all channels.

Physical barriers include time zone differences, telephone line and mobile phone static, and computers that crash due to viruses or other problems. Of�ice walls can also provide physical barriers to effective communication.

Selective �iltering occurs when a message changes as it passes from one individual to another. Selective �iltering includes "condensation," or taking out parts of the message, and "expansion," or adding to a message. Any message, such as a decision or directive that moves from the top of the organization to lower ranks, can easily be modi�ied as it travels through

various managers. A supervisor can edit a forwarded e-mail message or verbally change a directive to suit his or her needs when passing it along to others.

A mismatch of message and medium occurs when a message has been transmitted using a channel that will not reach the audience. When a young employee sends an instant message to a manager who does not use that technology, the message is lost due to the use of the wrong medium. The use of social media creates new opportunities for misunderstanding how to contact and communicate with employees. The use of a verbal channel when something should be put into writing also constitutes a mismatch.

Informal communication, or gossip, is fun. Consequently, rumors often continue to circulate, even those disputed by management through the formal communication system. Dif�iculties arise when the formal message is contradicted by gossip or rumors. Further, persistent negative rumors can affect morale, even when there is no substance to them.

Five important concepts assist in overcoming the barriers to formal communication (Mehdi, 1984; Samaras, 1980). Two pertain to the actual messages being conveyed: transmitting important messages through more than one channel and matching the message to the medium and audience.

The other three refer to the overall communication system. An effective management information system helps ensure the smooth �low of information to places where it is needed. A communications audit identi�ies any problems within the system. Finally, proactive management of informal messages, or gossip, within the organization will help overcome barriers to formal communication.

Effective Message Transmission

Managers can use multiple channels to relay important items. This helps ensure that a message arrives on time and will be received. For example, if a manager wants to convey the message that an important meeting has been scheduled for early the next morning, the manager may not only send e-mails to the members of his or her team, but also ask an assistant to call each member personally to make sure he or she received the message. In management communication, redundancy has become more important than ever in today's world when seeking to ensure a message arrives.

To match the message and the medium, the sender considers the audience, the content of the message, the degree of information richness required, and the need for a permanent record of the message (Lengel & Daft, 1988). As additional new transmission devices become available, managers may need to spend more time explaining the proper channel for a suggestion, complaint, or request for clari�ication of a directive to employees.

Management Information Systems

To make sure messages and information travel ef�iciently and effectively through an organization, the company should establish and maintain a quality management information system. A well-designed management information system (MIS) consists of the people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information.

An effective MIS begins with effective people who know how to collect important organizational information. The system utilizes the best technologies. Furthermore, an effective MIS carries quality information. Key company information is timely, accurate, important, and summarized. A manager should be able to quickly access important statistics and information. Individual employees should be able to �ind the types of data that help them perform their jobs most effectively.

Communication Audits

To ensure that a company's formal communication system serves the needs of the organization, a communication audit may be undertaken. A communication audit is a systematic assessment of an organization's capacity for, or performance of, essential communications practices. Communication audits can be conducted by middle or top managers or by an outside consulting group. The audits should determine what works, what does not, and what might work better if adjustments were made (Coffman, 2004).

An effective audit provides an assessment of current practice (diagnosis) and then determines what steps are needed to make improvements (prescription). The audit is not complete until both activities have taken place and been implemented. An audit only succeeds when managers clearly de�ine the communication needs.

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Having access to the rumor mill can give managers the opportunity to dispel any harmful or false claims.

Shironosov/iStock/Thinkstock

Management of Informal Communication

A substantial number of messages transmitted in a company do not �low through an authorized channel or are dedicated to a topic that does not serve the organization's interests. These kinds of messages are referred to as informal communication, and they are a part of everyday life in most organizations. Other names for informal communication include "gossip," "rumors," and "the grapevine." The military term for informal communication is "scuttlebutt."

Managers should not ignore gossip. They can handle it most effectively by understanding how gossip works, tapping in to what is being said informally, transmitting some types of messages, and actively dealing with false rumors.

To understand gossip, four elements should be considered. First, rumors travel quickly. In this electronic age, an indiscretion can be posted on a social media site in a matter of seconds and remain there inde�initely. Many people do not realize that once a rumor has been started, or a comment posted online, that message may be impossible to stop. Rumors have always "spread like wild�ire" (Davis, 1969).

Second, managers should understand that both true information and misinformation travel through informal channels. Estimates are that nearly one-third of all rumors contain faulty information or mistruths (Davis, 1975). Any rumor deserves a considerable amount of skepticism.

Third, rumors are tuned to employee needs and may re�lect commonly held perceptions about the company. In essence, people gossip about the things they think are interesting. Common gossip topics include pay, human resource decisions, company plans, of�ice romances, sexual identity, and of�ice con�licts.

Fourth, gossip creates social power. Informal communication includes elements of socialization in which those who have access to rumors feel socially included (Kurland & Pelled, 2000).

Tapping in to the company rumor mill means �inding ways to hear what is being said informally. The phrase used to describe this activity is "having a pipeline." With the emergence of instant messaging and social media, discovering what employees are talking about has become easier.

Informal communication can also be used to send messages. Some managers transmit "trial balloons," whereby ideas are tested out informally. A manager in a break room asks how salespeople would feel if the company moved from a commission-only pay system to a salary-plus-commission program, to reduce pay volatility and levels of stress. Clearly the sales team will talk about the idea, and the manager will receive feedback. Other managers use informal channels to praise the efforts and accomplishments of workers.

The presence of false rumors means managers should be continually aware of what happens in the channel. When a negative rumor continues to damage the standing of an employee or of the company, the manager should act. Two primary strategies exist for dealing with false rumors.

First, managers can formally refute the rumor by sending messages in either verbal or written form that contradict the derogatory information. These messages must be carefully crafted or they run the risk of making a rumor more credible. The best approach includes presenting tangible evidence that a rumor has been invented.

The second strategy relies on dealing with the rumor on an individual basis. A manager can pull aside key employees and talk about why the story is not true and point out the damage the rumor has caused. The manager can also suggest that if the gossiper is discovered, consequences will follow (Davis, 1975).

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Intercultural communications present a host of unique challenges and learning opportunities.

Digital Vision./Photodisc/Thinkstock

9.5 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication The barriers to interpersonal communication that were discussed earlier may become magni�ied in interactions with citizens of other countries. Gender equality and inequality strongly affect patterns of communication between males and females in other countries. Also, older persons may be highly respected in one culture and disrespected in another. Asking questions about a person's age can make the receiver uncomfortable in Western cultures. Percentages of a population that are educated vary widely across countries, thereby affecting status levels and the ability to communicate. The most commonly cited barriers to communication in international settings include language and slang, greetings, directness, speaking versus silence, eye contact, ethnocentrism, differences in the meaning of nonverbal cues, personal space issues, use of symbols and cultural icons, and time and tardiness.

Language

Language creates barriers to international communication. An individual who only speaks English will experience dif�iculties when a business partner only speaks Italian, even with a translator present. Some languages, such as Mandarin, use characters rather than letters in writing. In Japan, a person nodding "yes" and saying hai is communicating, "I am listening," rather than "I agree." Slang within a language can further complicate communication. Managers and employees should choose their words carefully.

Communication is affected by cultural context. In a high-context culture such as China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and to a lesser extent Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Lebanon, the use of nonverbal, situational cues greatly in�luences interactions. Personal status, settings, and rituals become important parts of negotiations and business relationships. Trust building is important and oral agreements imply strong commitments.

A low-context culture such as the one present in the United States, Canada or in most of Europe (Hall, 1976) places a greater emphasis on the use of words to convey meaning. In such cultures, contracts and other carefully worded, legal documents are routine. Settings, titles, and status play a much lesser role in communications and business relationships.

Greetings

In Asia, people bow to greet business partners. In Western cultures, the traditional greeting involves shaking hands. Greeting a business contact with a kiss on the cheek is a common gesture in certain European countries. In Russia, two close business associates might hug when they meet. Germans, on the other hand, prefer more formal relationships with business partners, so �irst names will not be used. Also, asking a personal question about someone's family or children may be inappropriate in more reserved cultures.

Other nuances exist. In Korea, a person touches his or her elbow while shaking hands to indicate respect. A man shaking a woman's hand is forbidden in many Muslim regions, and in Pakistan, women do not even shake hands with one another.

Following an introduction, the custom in many countries, especially in Asia, is to �irst build trust. Business should not be discussed until a more cordial relationship has formed, which may take time and more than one meeting. In other countries, the partners will immediately move on to the purpose of the meeting. In Finland, the expression suoraan liiketoimintaa means "straight to business."

Conversational Directness

Conversational directness is culturally based. For example, in Holland, strong, direct language is used in conversation. In fact, if a business partner does not speak in a direct way, the person may be viewed as weak or unreliable.

In many Asian countries, language and conversation are highly deferent. Disagreement is expressed in the most modest terms possible. Deferent language avoids directly challenging a person or appearing disrespectful in any way. Instead of saying, "We can't meet that delivery date," a vendor will use phrasing such as "I am afraid that trying to achieve that timetable will be very dif�icult for our company."

Speaking Versus Silence

In the United States, most view silence as uncomfortable. In the former Soviet Union states and in Israel, executives will take time to consider a proposal, believing it signals sincerity (www.sherisentsi.com (http://www.sherisentsi.com/) , 2011); silence does not bother them. A Westerner who becomes impatient during these silent moments of deliberation can potentially display a lack of respect or impoliteness. Various cultures hold different perspectives about the meaning of silence during a conversation or negotiation. In one, silence signals disapproval or tension. In another, it simply re�lects courtesy, contemplation, and consideration.

Eye Contact

Eye contact may be closely related to conversational directness. In the United States and Canada, avoiding eye contact makes a person seem suspicious and untrustworthy. In other countries such as Japan and Hong Kong, looking away displays deference and respect. Gender plays a signi�icant role in eye contact as well. In Syria, a male would not make eye contact with a woman, unless she was a family member. While a man would make direct eye-to-eye contact with another man, the same would not be true when conversing with a woman.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism, the belief that one's culture is inherently superior, may cause either the sender or receiver to convey a sense of superiority to others. Misunderstandings and potential con�licts may be the result. For example, if a U.S. salesman were to say to European trading partners, "I know you folks like to eat dinner way too late at night, but we know that's bad for your health," the Europeans are likely to be insulted. Ethnocentrism also affects the choice of language used in a business negotiation.

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Intercultural Communication

Communications specialists discuss the subtleties of intercultural communication.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What are some signals that you associate with your culture that others may not understand or share?

2. Have you ever experienced a miscommunication with someone of a different culture or language? If so, what did you do to solve the problem?

Nonverbal Cues

Nonverbal cues vary widely by culture. Nodding may be interpreted as "yes" in one country and "no" in another. In many Middle Eastern nations, the act of crossing one's legs is a sign of disrespect, and males holding hands as part of a business relationship indicates trust.

Not knowing the cultural meaning of a particular gesture can have deleterious consequences. What may seem benign in one country may be obscene in another. For example, the "OK" hand sign in which one makes a circle with his or her thumb and �irst �inger in the United States means something entirely different (and not good) in Australia and Islamic countries. In Indonesia, pounding the �ist into the palm of the hand is impolite. In India and Malaysia, beckoning someone to come with one �inger will symbolize calling the person like an animal.

Personal Space

Personal space, or the distance between two persons in a conversation, varies by culture. Standing two to three feet away from another person indicates shiftiness or distrust in Central Africa and the Middle East. The same distance would be considered comfortable in France, Spain, and the United States, where greater personal space exists. As an extension of personal distance, in the culture of Japan a business partner would �ind a pat on the back to be disconcerting, as the Japanese tend not to make physical contact in business relationships, other than shaking hands with a Western trading partner.

Symbols and Cultural Icons

Cultural symbols include religious items, superstitions, colors, objects, and animals. A white horse symbolizes death in some cultures; a black horse symbolizes death in others. The color green has special but different meanings in Ireland and in Islamic countries. Various �lowers transmit different meanings, depending on the culture involved. Giving roses, for example, could lead to an angry response in many cultures. Knowledge of the beliefs and associations of a culture can help an individual avoid doing something that would make someone uncomfortable or have a different meaning to the other person.

Time and Tardiness

In the United States or England, tardiness is frowned upon. A salesperson might lose a sale for being late for a meeting. Conversely, in India or China, being a few minutes late would not create a problem. Being unaware of time presents an obvious problem for someone who is not well accustomed to these differences.

Overcoming Intercultural Barriers

In international settings, two types of professionals, cultural assimilators and translators, play important roles in helping employees overcome intercultural communication barriers.

Cultural assimilators are individuals who examine messages and prepare other individuals for interactions with members of other cultures. They can help a person avoid any uncomfortable lapses in manners as well as explain how to show friendliness and respect in a host country. Conducting business through a translator, who is someone who speaks the language of both parties in an international transaction, requires patience, as messages travel much more slowly when each side must wait to hear what was said in his or her own language.

It takes time for expatriate employees, those sent to work in other countries, to assimilate to new circumstances. Cultural training should be part of any international assignment. Company leaders should prepare workers for the potential of culture shock when entering a new nation. Individuals who are open to new experiences and excited by cultural differences make the best candidates for expatriate assignments.

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Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary

Communication involves the transmission, reception, and processing of information. Three models of communication are linear, interactive, and transactional. These models of communication include a sender, a method of transmission, a receiver, and potential barriers to communication.

Interpersonal communication includes oral, nonverbal, and written elements. Nonverbal components include kinesic cues, appearance and dress, artifacts, touch, space, and paralanguage. Written communications include memos, e-mails, instant messages, letters, and reports.

Numerous barriers to communication exist. Barriers can be associated with every element of a basic communication model, or as sender, encoding, transmission medium, decoding, receiver, and feedback barriers. A second approach analyzes communication barriers in terms of individual differences, situational factors, and transmission problems. Overcoming these barriers includes duties carried out by the sender, the receiver, and both parties.

Formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally designated channels. Many traditional written channels have been adapted to more sophisticated technologies. Computer-based digital channels include e-mail, instant messaging, social media, videoconferencing, intranets, and extranets.

The types of messages that travel over formal channels include job instructions, job rationales, standardized information, team and group coordination efforts, questions, answers, decisions, plans, and ideological indoctrination. In formal channels, information richness represents the information carrying capacity of a medium. Channels range from lean to moderately rich to rich. Communication in teams, groups, departments, and sometimes larger organizations include chain, wheel, circle, and all-channel networks.

International settings create extensions of individual interpersonal barriers to communication as well as completely new challenges. The most commonly cited barriers to communication in international business include language, slang, methods of greeting, conversational directness, the use of silence, eye contact, ethnocentrism, differences in meanings of nonverbal cues, personal space issues, and the use of symbols and cultural icons.

Overcoming international communication barriers begins with the deployment of a cultural assimilator to prepare messages and individuals for interactions with members of other countries. Translators assist when multiple languages are present. Expatriate employees bene�it from cultural training. Those chosen for assignments should exhibit a willingness to adapt to new cultures.

CASE STUDY: The Luddite

Marvin White never imagined the trucking business could become so technology driven. He was �inding the new world of logistics dif�icult to understand, much less manage. And it seemed like every month the problem became a little worse.

Marvin began driving for Transporters, a Memphis-based trucking operation, nearly two decades ago. He attended a traditional truck driver training school for nine months and earned his over-the-road license at that time. Being out on long trips was an enjoyable time, as it was possible to combine sightseeing with work.

Trucking had not changed much for many decades. Drivers received delivery orders on printed pages. Truck weights were carefully regulated in order to pass through governmental truck stops without delay. Marvin knew about "swindle sheets," or falsi�ied certi�ication papers regarding truck weight, but never personally used them.

Three primary methods of communication were used during those early years. On the road, a citizen band (CB) radio provided constant contact with other truckers and drivers regarding problem areas such as construction zones, accidents, or bad weather. CB contacts also served as a form of amusement, and truckers had a language of their own when conversing with one another. The telephone was used for calling home. When Marvin began driving he would keep in contact with his girlfriend by calling her from pay phones or motel phones. The same method worked once they were married. Face-to-face conversations rounded out the communication system. Truckers enjoyed each other's company at truck stop restaurants and �illing stations. Marvin also maintained a positive relationship with his supervisor through interpersonal contacts at the truck yard.

After 10 years of hauling freight, Marvin was promoted to supervisor of a large part of the Transporters �leet. He made a point of interacting personally with every driver during his �irst year on the job. He also took time to master the paperwork associated with the job.

Then, the world began to change. Soon GPS (global positioning system) technology was used to route drivers, even though GPS could not spot trouble areas in the same way CB networks did. Mobile phones began to replace CB transmitters, especially with newer, younger drivers. Social media changed the landscape even more, as drivers relied on tweets and maintained contact through Facebook pages. Marvin worried a great deal about the safety aspects of these new devices, as drivers would spend more time looking at screens than concentrating on the road.

Supervisory tasks also began to evolve. Instead of paper delivery orders, many companies preferred wireless and paperless formats. Many young drivers quickly adapted to the new approach. Marvin was troubled by the lack of what he called a "permanent" record. He was spending more time in front of a computer screen and dealing with mobile technologies and far less time building and maintaining relationships with drivers.

Marvin also noticed what he considered to be a breakdown in the social network that had always accompanied the job. Instead of visiting with each other in restaurants and �illing stations, many drivers interacted through handheld technologies with people in other locations. To Marvin it seemed some of his employees were missing golden opportunities to make friends with real people, in person. He wondered if all of this change was for the better.

Case Questions

1. What forms of formal communication and informal communication were present when Marvin �irst began driving? 2. How had the new technologies changed formal communications at Transporters? 3. How had the new technologies changed informal communication processes in the trucking industry? 4. Do new technologies create new barriers to interpersonal and formal communication? If so, how? How might these new barriers be addressed?

Review Questions

Click on each question to see the answer.

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Describe the elements of the linear communication model. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

In the model, the sender transmits a message or an idea. This message is encoded in the user's language, or verbal cues accompanied by nonverbal cues. A transmission device carries a message via sound waves, light waves, pieces of paper, mobile phone signals and screens, the Internet, computer monitors, billboards, radio and television signals, and through an endless number of additional carriers. Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message and comprehends or interprets it. The receiver is the sender's intended audience, which is either a single person or a group. Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message.

How do interaction and transaction models of communication explain conversations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The interaction model depicts the mutual transmission and reception of messages and feedback, which suggests a more interactive nature of communication. The transaction model of communication suggests an intricate and sophisticated pattern in which one person sends and the other receives and then the process reverses. Actual discussions take place nearly simultaneously.

What forms of nonverbal communication are used in interpersonal interactions? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The forms of nonverbal communication include kinesic cues, appearance and dress, artifacts, touch, space, and paralanguage.

What individual differences create barriers to interpersonal communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The differences include age, gender, educational level, status, and personality.

What situational factors create barriers to interpersonal communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

These factors include exclusive language; emotions (anger, envy, personal attitudes and values); settings; and distractions.

What transmission problems create barriers to interpersonal communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Some of the more common transmission problems include language, slang, technical terminology, sender or receiver disabilities, and nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages.

Name the responsibilities of the sender, receiver, and both in overcoming the barriers to interpersonal communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Sender responsibilities include awareness of barriers, empathy, careful attention to nonverbal cues, and con�irmation of the message. Receive duties include active listening and seeking clari�ication of the message. Joint duties include building trust, eliminating stereotypes, and setting egos aside.

What computer/digital formal communication channels are used in organizations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

These include e-mail, instant message, social media, videoconferencing, intranet, and extranet.

What are the barriers to formal communication? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The barriers that can interrupt formal communication include interpersonal dif�iculties, system overload, physical barriers, selective �iltering, mismatch of message and medium, and informal contradiction of the formal message.

Name the �ive things a manager can do to overcome the barriers to formal communication. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Transmit important messages through more than one channel. Match the message to the medium and audience. Have an effective management information system that helps ensure the smooth �low of information to places where it is needed. Conduct a communications audit to identify any problems within the system. Proactively manage informal messages, or gossip, within the organization. These will help overcome barriers to formal communication.

What are the primary barriers to communication in international settings? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The most commonly cited barriers to communication in international settings are language and slang; greetings; directness; speaking versus silence; eye contact; ethnocentrism; differences in the meaning of nonverbal cues; personal space issues; use of symbols and cultural icons; and time and tardiness.

Analytical Exercises

1. Apply the basic linear model, interactive model, and transaction model of communication to the following circumstances: a salesperson making a presentation to a company's buying team an argument between a supervisor and an employee a job interview an employee asking for a pay raise

2. Provide examples of how all the forms of nonverbal communication would be used in the following situations: a supervisor trying to provide constructive criticism to a new employee an employee trying to "cover" for a coworker who has left work early an employee seeking to make a case for being promoted an employee making a proposal to top management

3. Three forms of communication patterns are (1) an assertive style that is expressive and self-enhancing but does not take advantage of others, (2) an aggressive style that is expressive and self-enhancing but tries to take unfair advantage of others, and (3) a nonassertive style that is timid and self-

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denying (Waters, 1982). Explain how these would become barriers to individual interpersonal communication and how someone dealing with each style could attempt to overcome those barriers.

4. Explain how computer/digital formal communications channels have altered the directions communication takes, the types of formal messages transmitted, and the barriers to formal communication.

5. Compare the concepts of information richness to communication processes in low-context and high-context cultures. Explain how the concepts of information richness and cultural context in�luence the barriers to international communication.

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Transmitting, receiving, and processing information.

communication audit (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

A systematic assessment of an organization's capacity for, or performance of, essential communications practices.

decoding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

This occurs when a receiver encounters a message and interprets it.

encoding (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The formation of verbal and nonverbal cues.

exclusive language (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Terminology that can only be understood by a select set of individuals within an organization.

expatriate employees (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Employees sent to work in other countries.

formal communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Information that travels through organizationally designated channels.

high-context culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

A culture in which the use of nonverbal, situational cues greatly in�luences interactions.

informal communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Messages that emerge in everyday life in organizations; otherwise known as "gossip."

information richness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The information-carrying capacity of a communication channel.

interaction model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Model of communication showing a dialogue between two people, including the mutual transmission and reception of messages and feedback.

interactional transparency (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The open and honest sharing of information.

kinesic cues (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements.

low-context culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

A culture in which words primarily convey meaning.

management information system (MIS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information.

1/29/2019 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Baack.3633.17.1?sections=cover,fm,abouttheauthor,acknowledgments,preface,ch09,sec9.1,sec9.2,sec9.3,sec9.4,s… 33/33

noise (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Barriers or disruptions to communication.

paralanguage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

How something is said rather than what is said when presenting a message.

receiver (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The sender's intended audience.

semantics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Communication problems that emerge when a word or phrase has more than one meaning.

sender (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The person sending a message or idea.

supportive communication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The presence of af�irmation, caring, and the desire to provide honest and useful advice and messages.

transaction model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Model of communication wherein a person speaking studies the intended audience as the message is being sent.

transmission device (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Any type of medium that carries a message.

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