Organizational Behavior Analysis

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11Authority, Power, and Politics

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

Discuss the nature and use of formal authority. Employ the sources of power. Utilize power effectively. Respond to organizational politics.

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Political maneuvers often have direct implications for the workplace.

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11.1 Authority The use of personal and organizational power is part of everyday life in organizations. Many times, managers exert power in order to achieve legitimate company goals, simply as part of "doing the job." Although some construe company politics to be "distasteful" or "unpleasant" and try to avoid what might be termed "political" situations, wishing them away is not possible. Not every use of power has a negative intention or outcome. Consequently, understanding the processes and intentions involved can help shed light on this important aspect of organizational life and help individual employees and managers adapt to them.

This chapter examines authority, power, and politics as separate topics even though in actuality a substantial overlap exists between the concepts. Persons holding positions of authority also possess power. Employees engaged in political activities are likely to use the sources of power to move into positions of authority, and so forth.

Authority can be viewed as primarily a formal organizational process linked to the organizational hierarchy, as displayed in an organization chart. In that context, delegation is the movement of authority from a higher-ranking to a lower-ranking organizational member within the chain of command or from one peer to another of the same rank. Even then, however, two perspectives exist: one suggesting that authority can only �low downward and another arguing that it moves upward through the hierarchy. Both perspectives will be analyzed in this chapter.

Power contains both formal and informal elements. The basic elements of power, as well as the uses of power, are examined in this chapter. The interaction between topics becomes evident in the OB in Action box below regarding "right to work" laws.

OB in Action: Power, Politics, and Right to Work Laws

The national political landscape experienced a dramatic shift in 2016 with the election of Donald Trump to become U.S. president. Less attention seems to have been paid to the down-ballot (local and statewide election race) implications of the Republican sweep of the election.

Republicans tend to favor right to work laws, which make it possible for an employee to refuse to join the union or pay dues. In states without right to work laws, employees can join companies as nonunion members. Following a probationary period, however, they are required to join the union or at least pay union dues.

The state of Missouri has been led by a Republican majority for several years. Consequently, the Missouri legislature passed right to work laws on more than one occasion. Each time, Democratic Governor Jay Nixon vetoed the bill, and its supporters did not have suf�icient votes to override the veto. In 2016, the situation changed with the election of a Republican governor. The right to work law was among the �irst agenda items suggested as becoming law in the new term.

Right to work laws are widely believed to reduce the power of the union within any organization because few employees are inclined to join unions and pay dues when they do not have to. They in�luence the role of individuals within the organization, such as a union steward elected to represent employees in disputes with management. Managers and supervisors in companies located in right to work states may believe they have stronger positions, because the union is in a weaker position to represent workers in individual disputes (grievances) as well as at the bargaining table.

The laws also tend to weaken the political strength of unions regarding statewide and even national elections (Jamieson, 2015).

Several states have recently enacted right to work laws, including Michigan in 2012 and Wisconsin in 2016, although the Wisconsin effort was delayed by court action. Proponents argue that states with right to work laws enjoy competitive advantages, because companies are in stronger bargaining positions with unions that tend to have fewer members in right to work states, and employees can leave the union at any time. Any corporation seeking to expand may be more likely to choose a right to work state due to the impact on the in�luence of local unions.

With the results of the 2016 national election, whispers have emerged that a national right to work law may soon be considered. Those in favor believe that such a law would level the playing �ield for all states.

Re�lection and Application Questions

1. Do you think a right to work law would shift the level of power and/or authority for a CEO and top management of a given company? 2. Do you think right to work laws will in�luence authority and power levels held by supervisors managing lower-level employees? 3. Do you believe managers of companies in right to work states have greater power levels in their �irms than those without such laws?

Organizational politics will be the third topic analyzed. Politics occur on several levels and play out in many ways. The effects of political activities on individual employees merit attention, due to the potential positive and negative implications of engaging in them. Further, political activities often in�luence the entire organizational context, creating tension, stress, subterfuge, and con�lict. Consider, for example, the approach taken in 1992 in a questionnaire developed by Ferris and Kacmar regarding �ive activities they posed to subjects as in�luencing their assessments or perceptions of politics. The subjects were asked to agree or disagree with the following statements, where agreement signaled the perception of the presence of politics (with the exception of the reverse-scored items).

Favoritism rather than merit determines who gets ahead. There is no place for yes-men around here: good ideas are desired even when it means disagreeing with supervisors (reverse scored). You can get along around here by being a good guy, regardless of the quality of your work. Employees are encouraged to speak out frankly even when they are critical of wellestablished ideas (reverse scored). There are cliques and in-groups that hinder the effectiveness around here.

The Ferris and Kacmar approach seems to suggest that the presence of politics only leads to negative events and outcomes. At the same time, authority, power, and politics are part of everyday working life. By understanding the nature of each, an employee can respond in ways that protect his or her best interests.

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Managers can use the same understanding to help curtail the negative aspects of political activities. This chapter concludes with an examination of the ethical rami�ications of power and politics.

The Nature of Authority

As was noted in Chapter 10, an organization's structure establishes a chain of command. The mechanism used to operate the chain of command begins with authority, or the right to direct and the permission to act over lower level employees (Barnard, 1968). The "right to direct" grants the manager the ability to conduct company operations by telling people what to do. "Permission to act" re�lects the decision-making aspect of authority, or the right to decide what to do.

The three types of authority are line authority, staff authority, and functional authority. Line authority is direct, formal authority, as indicated by the vertical lines of an organization chart. Staff authority consists of the right to advise, or give advice. Functional authority is the right to direct but not to discipline. It emerges when an individual has been assigned a leadership role on a task force, project team, or committee.

Employee responsibility, or accountability, is the obligation to carry out tasks as assigned by the supervisor. Each individual in a company is responsible to the manager at the next level up in the organization's hierarchy. The concept of parity of authority and responsibility states that equal levels of authority and responsibility should exist in each position (Fayol, 1916). Anyone who has authority should be held accountable for how that authority is used. Anyone being held responsible should have suf�icient authority to get the job done. Even those at the lowest levels of the organization, who may not hold any authority at all, should have access to the requisite means needed to complete their tasks.

Creating a Culture of Accountability and Responsibility

Watch as Peter Matthies, founder of Conscious Business Institute, discusses how to establish a culture of accountability and responsibility.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. In Peter's example, what mistake did the manager make in his or her request?

2. How might a manager go about establishing a "mindset of accountability and responsibility" in their direct reports?

Views of Authority

Two basic perspectives have been developed regarding the origins of authority. The �irst considers authority from a top-down vantage point. The second suggests that the sources of authority emerge from the bottom of the organization and move upward.

Top-Down Authority Max Weber (1922) viewed authority as a force that originates at the top of the organization and �lows downward. From that perspective, authority is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Traditional authority results from the rule of kings, tribal chiefs, and the authority of the church. Authority moves from the state or a religious institution into various organizations. One submits to authority in the same way that one obeys religious or governmental law.

Charismatic authority arises from a "gift of grace," such as when a dynamic military leader inspires and guides troops. Colin Powell, former Secretary of State and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has been noted as having this type of charisma. Over time, such leaders obtain the right to in�luence those of lower rank through their personality characteristics and personal will.

Of greatest interest to the business community is the legal/rational basis of authority that results from an employment contract (the law). An employee agrees to the company's authority as part of the arrangement by which a job is attained and kept. The worker receives compensation through pay and bene�its.

Bottom-Up Authority The top-down approach to authority and organizational design enjoyed widespread acceptance for many years. Eventually, C. I. Barnard (1938/1968) created the bottom-up view of the nature of authority. The acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until subordinates have accepted it, which means it is a bottom-up process. Four main ideas explain this approach, which states that authority is accepted when individuals

understand the nature of the authority. believe the use of authority is consistent with the purposes of the organization. believe authority is being used in ways that are compatible with their personal interests. are able to comply.

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Organizational authority can move from the top down or from the bottom up.

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In reality, elements of truth exist in both the top-down and bottom-up perspectives. Many organizations contain elements of traditional, charismatic, and legal sources of authority, with varying degrees of in�luence. At the same time, acceptance of authority is tempered by individual judgment and assessment of how authority is being used. Many ethical dilemmas arise from considerations of what is moral, what is legal, and what the individual considers to be the "right" thing to do.

Consider, for example, the pressure placed on supervisory employees in the 2016 Wells Fargo situation. Authority was being used to "encourage" them to instruct employees to create an unreasonable set of new accounts from ongoing customers. Those supervisors were put into the position of trying to decide how to respond to this moral dilemma, knowing that �ictional accounts were being created so that those of lower rank could keep their jobs. Those supervisors who balked at the directives to create new accounts risked losing their own positions.

In another well-publicized situation, Howard Dorfman, an executive vice president for Turing Pharmaceuticals, was �ired for objecting to massive price increases on a life-saving medicine, Darapim, a drug available since 1953 and considered the standard medication for treating toxoplasmosis. Dorfman had testi�ied that the 5,000% price increase was not justi�ied, thereby standing in opposition to CEO Martin Shkerli (note that Shkerli was later charged with the crime of securities fraud; Matthews & Gandel, 2015).

Delegation of Authority

Delegation processes are an important component of authority. When a manager grants authority to a single subordinate, delegation takes places on an individual level. Examples of individual delegation include

an employee "taking over" for a manager who is on break, out sick, or on vacation. a manager asking an employee to conduct an operation because the employee has greater expertise. a manager systematically increasing a subordinate's control over operations as part of training or a mentoring process. a manager having a subordinate lead smaller assignments, so the manager can tend to more signi�icant matters.

In each instance, the higher-ranking manager remains accountable for the use of authority and its outcomes.

A second form of delegation includes a more systematic approach: decentralization, or organization- wide delegation of authority, as was described in detail in Chapter 10. Decentralization constitutes one element of employee empowerment processes, which are described later in this chapter.

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Power may be exerted directly through various activities or indirectly through the potential to take action.

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11.2 The Nature of Power "Power" is a more encompassing term than "authority." Power is the ability to in�luence the behaviors of others using formal and informal means (Bass, 1990). Whereas authority may be conceived of as the right to in�luence due to formal organizational rank or position, power represents the capacity or ability to in�luence others through additional means. Consequently, any discussion of power should consider elements beyond the organizational chart to achieve a more complete view (Bierstedt, 1950; Tedeschi, 1972; Votaw, 1966).

Views of Power

Several conceptual issues factor into studies of power. First, in�luence over others should be seen as potential as well as actual. In other words, a powerful employee may not necessarily need to act for the individual's power to be felt by others. A truly powerful individual may not be compelled to exert power and act, because the differential is so great between that person and others in the organization that they would not challenge him or her. Any time an employee goes out of his or her way to avoid contact with a powerful supervisor, the employee's behavior has been in�luenced without any action by the powerful person. This means that when power is considered as not just actual in�luence but also the potential to in�luence, identifying its presence—for purposes of research, for example— becomes more problematic.

Second, due to the negative association of power with the unpleasant side of organizational activity, such as power that is aggressively used to injure, dominate, or intimidate others, some writers have made a distinction between personalized power and social power (Hollander & Offerman, 1990).

Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for purposes of self-interest, such as using overt sexual harassment tactics or subtle organizational cues (e.g., lower performance appraisals, or passing women over for promotion using "legitimate" or defensible reasoning) to dominate female employees. A great deal of sexual harassment can be attributed to power differentials between those of higher rank (and the other gender) and subordinates.

Personalized power takes the form of dominating others to pursue self-interests such as getting one's way in a decision-making process through intimidation; making another employee feel uncomfortable enough to cause the individual to wish to leave the organization; or striving to receive an undeserved promotion by casting dispersions on a more quali�ied individual to gain an advantage.

In contrast, social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks (Hollander & Offerman, 1990). Social power provides a positive force to help those in an organization achieve. In this context, power may be exerted downward, upward, or laterally. Social power becomes evident when a supervisor shares a piece of information with someone of lower rank to help that individual succeed, such as giving a high quality "lead" to the newest salesperson to increase the person's con�idence (and commission level). Social power can be associated with mentoring processes, in which a more seasoned employee instructs a mentee on how to stay out of disagreements and con�licts with those who might stand in opposition to the person's chances for promotion or advancement.

A third concern may be raised regarding the level of power present in an organization. The zero-sum game concept suggests that a �ixed amount of power exists in an organization. As in a game of poker, one side can only win by causing the other side to lose, such as when one person gets a promotion and the other does not; or when one employee maneuvers to get the better task assignment, such as a more lucrative sales territory, thereby relegating another to a less favorable situation. In a zero-sum game, accumulating additional power only occurs when one employee takes it away from someone else in the organization, e.g. one gains greater power because the other has less. In essence, one employee "gets his way" and the other does not.

In contrast, the balloon concept of power suggests that the total amount of power in an organization �luctuates. Various organizational circumstances can expand or contract the total amount of power available. In that context, a person could build a base of power without taking it away from others. Generally, such an occurrence would take place in a more tranquil environment in which the organization is growing and the scope of its operations increase (more sales, more customers, more operating locations, etc.). Crises or turbulent environments tend to freeze the amount of existing power held by participants.

Sources of Power

Numerous explanations of the bases of power can be found in organizational behavior literature. Figure 11.1 provides a review of the various perspectives. Each contributes to our understanding of how individuals, groups, coalitions, and organizations gain access to power.

Figure 11.1: Sources of power

Power emerges from a variety of sources.

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French and Raven: The Bases of Social Power The classic and most cited analysis of the sources of power, developed by John French and Bertram Raven (1959), suggests that there are �ive sources. The �irst, legitimate power, originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank. Legitimate power allows an individual or group to control and use organizational resources. Legitimate power may be based on Weber's concepts of the legal/rational source of authority, as well as Barnard's acceptance theory ideas, which suggest that power accrues to a supervisor when subordinates agree to follow the manager's directions as part of the employment agreement or contract involved in accepting or taking the job.

Coercive power depends on the ability to punish and instill fear in others. As a formal source, the capacity to terminate, transfer, or demote someone generates power. Coercive power may be used to prevent a coworker or subordinate from receiving a pay raise or being promoted to a higher rank. As an informal source, coercive power resides in the ability to punish someone socially by making that individual the target of jokes, harassment, or other forms of intimidation and exclusion.

Reward power grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes for others. Formally, rewards include pay raises, promotions, favorable task assignments including working hours and days off, placement with pleasant coworkers, and special acknowledgements such as "Employee of the Month." Informally, reward power emerges from the ability to include others in various groups and activities, letting a person in on the best gossip and rumors, and being close to popular members of the organization. Some argue that the ability to remove rewards is the same as the ability to punish or wield coercive power; however, the two processes are not exactly the same.

Referent power results from the ability to generate interpersonal in�luence. Referent power surfaces when someone identi�ies with another person based on respect or admiration. It also comes from persuasiveness, likeability, and charisma. Referent power largely takes place informally and is not based on rank in an organization's hierarchy.

Expert power creates in�luence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise. For example, an individual who controls specialized technology or uniquely understands how to handle a key aspect of an organization's operations possesses expert power. This source may arise from a formal organizational designation, such as by being placed in charge of the information technology department, or informally, as when people simply think of a coworker as "the one to ask" about various issues and challenges.

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In 1965, Raven added a sixth source of power to the original list. Informational power, as the term appears to imply, is control of crucial or vital information. Someone who knows, for example, that a valuable employee is looking for a position with another company, when others in the organization do not, holds informational power. Further, any person who can provide vital information to a coworker or supervisor, and that individual is the only one who has the information, holds power. Such would be the case when an employee is aware of an upcoming merger or takeover that will involve his or her company, and further that when the process takes place many employees will lose their jobs. Informational power would increase when the person also knows which positions or coworkers are most likely to be retained as well as those who are at the greatest risk of being laid off or terminated.

The bases of social power have been applied to more than organizational operations. Marketers use them to explain how one company gains power over another in the marketing channel. The same elements have been used to explain negotiation processes. Additional viewpoints regarding the sources of power, however, should not be ignored.

Other Sources of Power As shown in Figure 11.1, other sources of power have been identi�ied. Thompson (1967) addressed the concept of boundary spanning, in which an organizational employee moves across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result. Two manifestations of boundary spanning exist. The �irst, translating uncertainty, occurs when a person or department addresses an issue that threatens the organization in some way, such as a new law, changing social dynamics, shifts in economic circumstances, or new technologies. An attorney who interprets the law to a company's advantage has power based on translating uncertainty, as does an IT professional who helps create a computer system that cannot be hacked or attacked.

Second, boundary spanning occurs when an individual serves as a go-between. Any time a con�lict is mediated by a third party, or when two departments are forced to cooperate on a project or task, the person in the middle has access to both sides and receives power from the ability to represent the interests of all concerned. This form of boundary spanning occurs internally (e.g., production working with marketing) and across external boundaries (e.g., one company working with another, or bargaining against another).

Position power, as identi�ied by Fiedler (1967), arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group. The person charged with assigning some employees to a team that will visit Hawaii on a junket and others to a team that will tour a plant in South Dakota will likely �ind he or she has considerable position power, at least for a time. Those who make permanent personnel assignments hold position power. Position power in a social network provides access to information and ability to control it. An individual gains position power from serving as a con�idant to a top management decision-maker, for example.

The Aston Group, a set of British researchers who studied organizational structure, de�ined power by studying closeness to production. In their view, creating actual organizational outputs (goods and services) constitutes the key company activity. Any person or group that can change or stop the production process, such as a union, has access to a considerable source of power. The more distantly a person works in relation to production, the less power that person holds (Hickson et al., 1971).

Beyond these views, other items may be associated with holding power. For instance, when a person has control over the policy-making process, power exists. A key advisor working behind the scenes may not hold organizational rank but may still possess considerable power. Control over budgeting results in power. Networking or connection power emerges from building strong interpersonal networks with those inside and outside of the organization. And �inally, control over status symbols may generate power. A middle- or top-level manager who makes the decision to grant or deny access to corporate perks such as assigned parking, more attractive of�ice space, a company executive lounge or area, or �inancial incentives such as stock options has a source of power.

In summary, several issues remain unresolved regarding the best way to conceptualize the nature of power in an organization. As an individual employee, seeking to understand the nature of power within the company, as being �ixed, rising, or declining, will help the person navigate through attempts by others to capture it, most notably personalized power. One subjected to intimidation and threats might be able to better respond if the individual understands the source of power being used. Managers who exert positive social power are likely to gain positive reputations within organizations, leading to other bene�its in the long term. Therefore, recognizing the number of ways in which a person might acquire power allows for a wide set of activities designed to strengthen one's position in the organization.

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11.3 Uses of Power Power can be thought of in terms of means and ends. An end is an objective or outcome, and means constitute the method(s) used to achieve that outcome. Power becomes an end when it takes the form of personalized power. Capturing and holding power becomes the goal. Power can also be a means by which objectives are accomplished, such as when social power is employed. In this section, we will consider the means and ends present in terms of three uses of power: social in�luence, creating and/or maintaining dependency, and employee empowerment.

Social In�luence

One of the primary uses of power is to exert social in�luence on others. Social in�luence is an umbrella term that encompasses all efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals. The objective becomes to "get your way" in one sense or another. These efforts lead to one of three possible outcomes, as displayed in Table 11.1 (Yukl, Kim, & Falbe, 1996).

Table 11.1: Outcomes of social in�luence Outcome Description

Commitment Others agree with an initiative and try to make it succeed.

Compliance Others are reluctant about or give marginal effort to making an initiative succeed.

Resistance Others stall, argue, or simply reject an initiative.

Employees can exert in�luence in every direction in an organization: upward, downward, or laterally. Factors to consider when studying the use of in�luence begin with an examination of the nature of the activity or objective. When the objective serves the needs of the organization, and a clear case can be made that it does so, those being in�luenced may respond differently than when an objective supports someone's personal agenda. Next, the choice of in�luence tactics, or power tactics, is determined. Table 11.2 identi�ies the most viable options. The approaches are known as "generic" tactics because they can be applied in any direction within the organization (Kipnis, Schmidt, & Wilkinson, 1980; Yukl, Falbe, & Youn, 1993).

Non-coercive tactics begin with rational persuasion, which involves presenting logical arguments and facts to achieve an objective. Inspirational appeals rely on emotions and target the audience's needs, hopes, aspirations, or values. Consultation encourages support through participation and involvement, such as when a manager asks the advice of subordinates or a coworker asks for help from a peer. Ingratiation takes the form of �lattery, friendly behavior, or praise to get one's way. Humor may be an element of ingratiation (Cooper, 2005). Personal appeals leverage friendship and loyalty to achieve objectives (Kipnis et al., 1984).

The coercive tactics include an exchange, in which a trade involving favors or some other promise is made to achieve objectives; a coalition, which involves inspiring others to take your side and help convince key individuals to follow your path; pressure, which uses warnings, threats, or repeated demands; and legitimizing, which depends on formal authority or company guidelines such as rules and procedures to achieve desired ends (Yukl, Falbe, & Youn, 1993).

Table 11.2: Types of in�luence tactics Non-coercive tactics

Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Consultation

Ingratiation

Personal appeals

Coercive tactics

Exchange

Coalition

Pressure

Legitimizing

The direction of the in�luence guides the use of power tactics. Rational persuasion may be used in all directions—upward, downward, and laterally. Upward in�luence typically can only take place through rational persuasion. Downward and lateral in�luence situations allow for a greater number of potential tactics.

Evidence also suggests that the non-coercive, or "softer," tactics are the better place to begin. Coercive or "hard" tactics should be saved for times when non- coercive methods do not work (Ferris et al., 2003). Also, combinations of tactics, especially non-coercive tactics, tend to achieve better outcomes (Yukl, 2002). Typically, the outcome of commitment cannot be realized when pressure and coalition tactics are used. Instead, consultation, rational appeals, and inspiration are more likely to succeed (Hysong, 2008).

When seeking to convince someone or a group (the target of in�luence), several factors affect the odds of success. Table 11.3 notes the most ideal factors.

Table 11.3: Factors in successful in�luence The target believes . . .

the in�luence is used in a socially acceptable manner.

the person seeking to in�luence has suf�icient position and personal power.

the request is in some way desirable.

the request meshes with his or her personal values and needs.

the tactic(s) have been used in a skillful manner.

the person seeking to in�luence is credible and trustworthy. Source: G. Yukl (2004). Use power effectively. In E. A. Locke (Ed.), Handbook of principles of organizational behavior (pp. 242– 247). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

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With ongoing technological advances, those with the ability to write code, for example, are often considered highly valuable to an organization.

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Dependency

Part of the use of power involves maintaining it for the future. Dependency helps ensure one's power base remains intact. Dependency occurs when a person needs a resource, activity, or process that another person or group has control over. For example, an accounting department cannot complete pro�it-and-loss statements and other documents until total sales and costs are known. The accounting department is dependent on the sales and purchasing department to complete its activities. Every department depends on budget to operate. The individual who �inalizes the budget and agrees to its allocation holds power as a result. Three elements make a resource subject to dependency: scarcity, importance, and non-substitutability.

The scarcer a resource becomes, the greater will be the dependency associated with that resource. In most organizations, the most obvious scarce resource will be funding. Scarcity can also revolve around a key skill. For instance, manufacturing jobs in the United States sometimes cannot be �illed because the workers need speci�ic computer skills. The situation not only drives up salaries, but also creates power for those able to �ill the positions, as these individuals are valued by other companies in the marketplace.

The more important a resource becomes, even when the importance of the resource has been overvalued, the greater will be the dependency associated with that resource. For instance, a resource such as engineering skill will be extremely important to an automobile manufacturer. Individuals with those skills hold power based on the company's dependency on their speci�ic and important knowledge.

When no substitute for a resource exists, power and dependency grow. A simple example is education. When a certain degree or license constitutes an employment requirement, such as a CPA certi�ication, no substitute exists and the accountant holds greater power in relationships as a result.

Employee Empowerment

In many organizations, employees hold a wealth of useful knowledge, experience, and internal motivation (Randolph & Sashkin, 2002). Workers are a valuable asset organizational leaders can deploy. Employee empowerment occurs when managers place their subordinates in charge of what they do. Empowerment goes beyond the delegation of authority; it grants workers the freedom to achieve objectives and holds them responsible for the outcomes (Pearce & Manz, 2005).

As discussed earlier, it may be tempting to think of power in terms of a zero-sum game, where losing power results from granting it to others. Recent conceptualizations view empowerment as more of a win-win situation in which granting power to others creates personal power for the grantor (Spreitzer, 1996). Managers who have engaged in the process note that empowerment does not resemble an either/or situation. Instead, it is a matter of degree. As shown in Figure 11.2, at one end of a continuum is an authoritarian situation in which no empowerment exists. As more power is granted to those of lower rank, the leader's decisionmaking style moves from consultative to participative to democratic.

Participative management, a process by which workers help direct organizational activities, creates empowerment. Four areas in which employees can regularly participate include decision making, goal setting, problem solving, and planning processes.

Decision-making styles take the forms displayed in Figure 11.2. The more democratic the style of the leader or company, the greater will be the degree of empowerment (Vroom & Yetton, 1973). Goal-setting processes that invite participation create a greater degree of "buy-in" from those who help establish objectives (Locke, 1978). Participative goal setting achieves empowerment. Problem solving and decision-making are closely related. Planning processes and goal setting are also similar. Employee empowerment can help the organization achieve at higher levels (Peters & Waterman, 1982).

Figure 11.2: Degrees of empowerment

As the degree of employee empowerment increases, a manager's style of decision making moves from authoritarian to democratic.

In summary, power can be a means or an end. Power becomes an end when it takes the form of personalized power used to capture and hold control. Power can be a means by which objectives are accomplished, such as when social power is employed. The positive use of social in�luence, along with employee empowerment programs, can help build a more productive and inspiring company atmosphere. Negative use of social in�luence inhibits the same outcomes.

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11.4 Organizational Politics One of the most nebulous topics in the �ield of organizational behavior is that of organizational politics. Numerous de�initions have been offered, and considerable debate exists as to what exactly the term means. It is tempting to think of politics as activities or behaviors that allow one to "seek power;" however, such a view would have major limitations. Many political activities do not shift a power base, nor do they necessarily require the use of power. Further, some authors attempt to distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate political behaviors (Drory, 1988).

Politics is a fact of organizational life. It can in�luence one's career in negative or positive ways. Even those who do not wish to actively engage in politics should at the least be aware of what takes place. Then, individual responses are possible.

A Model of Organizational Politics

One method for understanding the nature of politics involves consideration of organizational means and ends. As noted in the previous section, an end is a goal or objective. Means are methods of reaching those goals and objectives. Based on those two terms, organizational politics may be de�ined as seeking goals that are in the interest of a person or a group, but are not sanctioned or set by the organization, and seeking to achieve personal or group interests using means that are not organizationally approved (Mayes & Allen, 1977). Figure 11.3 expresses this de�inition visually.

Figure 11.3: Organizational politics

Organizational politics take place when personal goals or ends are sought using means or methods that are not organizationally approved.

Organizational politics can occur at three separate levels: at the individual level, at the coalition level, and at the level of the organization as a whole. Table 11.4 suggests the potential political goals at each of these three levels. Organizational goals related to dealing with outside organizations do not typically receive a great deal of attention in the �ield of organizational behavior, but are studied in other contexts such as business strategy. Instead, internal organizational environments that in�luence individual and coalition goals are areas of research in organizational behavior.

Table 11.4 Political ends or goals Individual goals Coalition goals Organizational goals

Embarrass/defeat rival Eliminate unpopular employee Defeat rival company

Get pay raise (undeserved) Increase group status/power Avoid legal issue

Get promotion (undeserved) Increase budget/resources Cover up unethical activities

Get desirable work assignment In�luence decisions

Occupy desirable of�ice space Put other group at a disadvantage

As an example of individual politics, one news reporter might "suck up" to the editor and get a shot at a choice story that has a chance of being picked up by the national media, which in turn improves his chances of moving into the national of�ice of the paper chain. Another company employee might make up a story about claustrophobia to convince a supervisor she needs a corner of�ice with a window, which relegates a more deserving and longer term coworker to one with only interior walls.

At the group level, research and development might create the false impression that they are on the verge of a "major" innovation or discovery and receive additional budget support as a result. The sales department might falsely argue that a set of prospective customers will attend a convention in Miami Beach in early January, when the truth is they simply would like a trip to a warm climate in the dead of winter.

Politics at the Individual Level Certain individuals may be more likely than others to become engaged in political activities on the job. Four of the most notable personal characteristics related to political engagements are

strong Machiavellian tendencies,

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internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and high need for power.

Machiavellianism describes the degree to which a person is willing to manipulate situations and other people to achieve personal self-interest outcomes (Wilson, 1996). An individual exhibiting high Machiavellianism would be more than willing to seek unsanctioned ends and use unsanctioned means. A person with an internal locus of control believes that he or she controls his or her personal destiny (Rotter, 1966). Such an individual would be more willing to engage in politics, believing he or she is in control. High self-monitors are more sensitive to social cues and exhibit higher levels of social conformity. This talent would allow effective engagement in politics (Biberman, 1985). Needs for power are associated with Machiavellianism and clearly connect with political activities, taking the form of power seeking.

Politics at the Level of Coalitions As noted in Table 11.4, coalitions of employees or coalitions of groups of employees sharing the same goals also engage in politics. Both types of coalitions also seek non-sanctioned ends. Coalitions can form in company departments or within other collectives of employees. The tactics used by coalitions include the following:

forming alliances embrace-or-demolish divide-and-conquer empire building growth

Alliances form when powerful individuals within a coalition work together to help the coalition achieve its goals. Alliances can also result from cooperation with other coalitions or groups. When a sales manager supports the development and marketing of a potential product or product improvement created by the R & D department, an alliance has emerged that may have a strong impact on top management's decision-making processes.

The embrace-or-demolish approach involves a coalition informing the opposition or other groups that those who do not join the cause will be dominated in some way. The idea that "any group that is not with us is against us" may emerge in any unionization effort as well as in pressures for organizational change, including seeking the ouster of an unpopular or ineffective CEO.

Divide-and-conquer strategies seek to cause opposition members to argue among themselves and lose power to the coalition as a result. Consider a coalition opposed to a company's merger with another �irm. Those opposed strongly argue it will "hurt" those in their company. If a manager or someone in favor of the merger can make the argument that doing so will improve conditions for all, the oppositional coalition may become divided and less effective as a result.

Empire building occurs when a coalition controls scarce information, such as when a group in information technology seeks to maintain tight control over the company's computer system to retain power.

Growth tactics include adding members to build the power of the coalition. Each of these tactics can be deployed to seek the unsanctioned ends noted in Table 11.4.

Politics at the Organizational Level Research suggests that some organizational environments become more conducive to politics at the individual and coalition levels than others. Company cultures that can be characterized as exhibiting low levels of trust, high levels of role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, and high pressures for performance are likely to result in greater degrees of politicking (Ferris & Kacmar, 1992; Rosen, Harris, & Kacmar, 2009). Each of these circumstances creates uncertainty and a power vacuum in which a politically minded employee can take advantage.

Political Activities

How exactly, do individuals engage in politics? The �irst distinction to be made should be between someone who wishes to avoid politics and someone who actively engages in organizational politics, also known as a player. Avoiding politics can be accomplished through conformity, cooperation, staying away from political situations and persons clearly engaged in politics, and deferring attention to others. Players, on the other hand, may use a variety of common tactics, including those displayed in Table 11.5.

Table 11.5: Individual political tactics Tactic Description

Acclaiming Taking credit for the successes of others

Visibility Being seen with "all the right people"

Ingratiation Brown-nosing, �lattery, sucking up

Exchange Trading favors

Coalitions Leading and gaining power from informal groups

Pressure Using demands, threats, or intimidation

Upward appeal Enlisting the support of a supervisor or upper management

Empire building Keeping and controlling scarce information

Domination Forcing and winning con�lict

Impression management Developing others' perceptions regarding oneself

Situation engineering Altering the situation to achieve goals or outcomes

Of the tactics noted in Table 11.5, impression management and situation engineering often receive the most attention. The process by which individuals attempt to control perceptions of others represents the degree of impression management they engage in (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). Examples include the attempt to create the impression that one holds higher levels of personal power and status than is actually the case. To "play the role," a person can dress to impress, drive a

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luxury automobile, and engage in extravagant behaviors such as buying lunch for others at expensive restaurants. A player can decorate and arrange an of�ice in such a manner as to create the impression he or she holds a high-status position and place anyone who enters in a diminished role by making sure an individual cannot approach too closely (blocking the path by use of a desk) or by having the person sit at a lower level (raising one's chair to make sure it is higher than all other chairs in the of�ice). At times, organizational context factors create a climate in which employees believe they need to engage in impression management, even when it is not a personal desire, such as when employees are expected to dress in a certain way or even to drive a certain type of car to impress clients and other outsiders.

Impression management also takes the forms of being visible, �lattering those at higher ranks, performing favors for key people, and generally creating the idea that you are a competent individual who is on the way up (Gardner & Martinko, 1988; Schlenker, 1980). Studies of individuals employing impression management techniques in job interviews suggest that the tactics do work (Gilmore & Ferris, 1989).

Closely related to impression management, situation engineering involves the control of elements in a situation to create an advantage. For example, a player who wishes to curry the favor of a top manager might �ind a way to be seated next to that manager at a banquet or luncheon. Others �ind ways to "bump into" the right person in the hallway or break room. Situation engineering can take the form of making sure the boss sees you with the right crowd or that you are always present when key decisions are made.

Being a player can be viewed as a high risk/high reward career strategy. The risk comes from alienating others and creating rivals. The rewards include faster promotions, bigger pay raises, and other personal outcomes granted by or within the organization.

Not all employees engage in political tactics. Some people simply want to perform their jobs and then go home for the day. Others try to avoid political tactics by distancing themselves from any change or action and by avoiding blame for any negative event. These workers might be fully or partially aware of the potentially negative personal outcomes associated with politics.

Effects of Politics

Politics in�luence individuals and the organization as a whole. Regarding individuals, four areas are primarily affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, the level of anxiety/ stress, performance, and turnover intentions. In general, a politically charged organization results in individuals reporting lower levels of job satisfaction.

Politics are distracting and often cause con�lict (Valle & Witt, 2001). Anxiety and stress can also result from a workplace where a high level of potential con�lict exists; workers may feel that they are constantly "on guard" against the actions of others. A high concentration of political events can lead to reduced job performance (Rosen et al., 2009). Over time, workers may start to look for new jobs when possible, creating a high degree of turnover in the politically charged workplace (Kiewitz et al., 2002).

At the organizational level, political activities of individuals and coalitions in�luence a number of different areas, such as the distribution of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policymaking, and the quality of the social environment. Politics affects the distribution of resources in terms of pay and pay raises for individual employees and budgets for coalitions and departments. Task assignments may be awarded to individuals and coalitions most adept at convincing management they are best suited, even when they are not. Politics also affects hiring, �iring, layoffs, reassignments, transfers, and performance appraisals.

At higher organizational levels politics can affect policy making. Consequently, it should come as no surprise that politically active organizations may not offer the most pleasant social environment. In general, managers should seek to limit political activities to the greatest extent possible. Methods used to limit the degree of political activity include the following (Maravelas, 2005; Management Style Guide, 2011):

Do not hire individuals who appear to be political players. Encourage transparency in organizational decisions and activities. Conduct frequent �inancial audits. Establish an open grievance system. Create methods for con�lict resolution. Maintain a reward system based on merit.

Persons likely to engage in politics may make greater efforts at ingratiation and impression management during the interviewing process, dropping names and taking credit for accomplishments of organizations that cannot be quickly veri�ied. Transparency is enhanced through open meetings with recorded comments, rather than behind-the-scenes actions of power brokers. Frequent �inancial audits discourage dishonest accounting practices.

Most management experts agree that reducing workplace politics creates a better organizational environment. Rewarding political activities achieves the opposite effect. The misuse of power and strong political actions can create substantial ethical and legal dilemmas. Such was the case at Toshiba, as described in the upcoming OB in Action story. Taking measures to control individual and coalition activities is advised (Kennedy & Magjuka, 2002).

OB in Action: Ethics, Politics, and Accounting Practices at Toshiba

The electronics conglomerate Toshiba serves as an example of the negative in�luence power and politics can play in an otherwise well-managed organization. In 2015, the company's leaders were forced to admit that the �irm had overstated earnings by nearly $2 billion over a 7-year period.

Independent investigators concluded that "Toshiba had a corporate culture in which management decisions could not be challenged," and that "employees were pressured into inappropriate accounting by postponing loss reports or moving certain costs into later years" (Matthews & Gandel, 2015).

Japanese regulators, who had oversight over the case, levied a $60 million �ine against the company in the attempt to restore consumer con�idence. The lack of transparency into company operations had been a primary source of concern. Kiyotaka Sasaki, secretary general of the Securities and Exchange Surveillance Commission, stated at a news brie�ing, "Because of the signi�icance of the name Toshiba and interest from the public, we took this case seriously, looking into fundamental problems deeply."

In response to the events Toshiba forced three former chief executives to step down from their roles with the company and reorganized the company's management structure. The �irm initiated lawsuits against the three former executives as well as two other of�icials, seeking $2.4 million in damages. The primary charge was based on an outside panel's �inding that overly aggressive management targets contributed to $1.9 billion in pro�it overstatements.

Newly appointed President Masashi Muromachi said the company would accelerate all restructuring efforts. "I am determined to carry out reform without restrictions," Mr. Muromachi concluded (The Wall Street Journal, 2016).

Re�lection and Application Questions

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At Toshiba, employees engaged in unethical activities as a result of the political pressures they encountered.

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1. What do you think were the primary political tactics used by top management to entice the unethical activities in this situation?

2. What possible effects would "pressure from the top" have on individual accounting employees? 3. Can these sorts of unethical political activities be prevented in some way? If so, how?

Ethical Concerns

The ethical issues associated with organizational politics can be divided into issues that involve means and those that involve ends. Using political means, or tactics that are not organizationally approved, may lead an employee into a gray ethical or legal area. Although something may be legal, it may still violate ethical standards. For example, an employee may imply that an associate is very ill and not able to perform a task to improve his own personal chances of guiding a task force or receiving a promotion. No law may have been violated, but was the tactic ethical?

Agency theory (Eisenhardt, 1989) posits that problems occur when two parties in a cooperative relationship (boss and employee) have different goals and a difference in division of labor. An agency problem emerges when one party (the boss) has goals or ends that impose requirements on the other (employee) who would �ind it dif�icult or expensive to comply. A second agency problem arises when the two parties have differing views regarding the degree of acceptable risk that can be taken on behalf of the organization. As an example, a company may be considering expansion into another country by setting up a satellite of�ice in that nation. Top managers may believe doing so is a great idea while those at lower ranks have concerns about cultural and legal differences between the two countries. Top management thinks the move constitutes an acceptable risk whereas lower management thinks the move is destined to fail and therefore implies a great deal of unacceptable risk.

In terms of politics and unethical activities, agency theory presents a format by which the party with lesser power is forced or compelled to do something he or she believes is wrong, such as proceeding with an ill-advised international expansion. Due to the ability of the more powerful person in the relationship to change outcomes (e.g., pay, bene�its, performance appraisal �indings, and opportunities for promotion), the person in the weaker position often feels forced to carry out questionable acts with questionable outcomes. While such an approach may explain why something happens, it may be of less value in �inding ways to avoid such negative outcomes regarding personal political activities.

Ethical issues also occur when individuals seek ends or goals that are not organizationally sanctioned, such as an undeserved promotion or pay raise. The person may act in a lessthan- ethical fashion to achieve such an outcome. Fred Luthans (1988) noted that many times employees are granted promotions by engaging in politics, such as impression management and then seek to obtain additional power or perks once they move to a higher rank. In contrast, "real managers," who have been promoted for various reasons, place the wellbeing of subordinates above their own personal gains.

In a comprehensive review of the politics literature, Baack (2016) noted that greater clarity about the relationship of organizational politics to ethical concerns might take place if four basic issues are addressed in any conceptualization, de�inition, or operationalization of the concept of politics:

1. Any identi�ication of the term "organizational politics" should specify whether the concept should be viewed as totally negative and unethical (non- sanctioned) in terms of both means and ends, or whether politics can be perceived as having positive elements associated with social in�luence toward sanctioned ends.

2. Presuming politics are to be described in negative terms only as totally unethical acts, the actual means or activities involved should be clearly spelled out. This would include any gray areas, such as doing favors for others, seeking personal rewards such as a pay raise or promotion that could be based as much on merit as on political acts, and attempting to become irreplaceable through enhanced expertise, strong personal relationships, or possession of key con�idential information.

3. The level of analysis should be made clear. One study might be dedicated to withindepartment or unit political behaviors (acclaiming, visibility, impression management), whereby an individual seeks rewards or promotion to a higher level in the organization. A second study might investigate between-group or unit politics, such as the quest for additional budget or choice task assignments. Supervisory tactics would become a key ingredient in such a study. As an opening thought, the tactics used within-unit, such as taking credit for the work of others, being seen with right people, and so forth may be effective political acts at an interpersonal in-unit level, yet would not be the same as those used by managers to defend the interests of their departments. The �irst set of actions would be more directly self-serving whereas an effective manager might be looking out for personal as well as unit and organizational interests using totally different tactics or means. A third research effort could be dedicated to understanding how supervisorsubordinate relationships affect both political acts and desired outcomes, as well as how subordinate perceptions of the supervisor in�luence views of the overall organization.

4. When perceptions of unethical politics are under investigation, questions are often posed regarding general political behaviors. These behaviors have been termed "going along to get ahead," and pay and promotion. To clarify which perceptions the respondent is reporting, he or she could be asked to note the level at which such behaviors took place: within his or her unit or as an organization-wide phenomenon. Further, the possibility exists that those who perceive unethical political behavior simply are expressing "sour grapes," because they lost out on some organizational bene�it such as a pay

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raise, choice job assignment, or promotion. Low performers and those who have not risen through the organizational ranks may believe it is the brown- nosers and impression-managers who get ahead. In fact, they are overlooking the possibility that they are not viewed as exhibiting managerial potential for very legitimate reasons. In essence, these individuals perceive unethical behaviors when such may or may not be the case.

Most organizational observers believe that politics are inevitable. What remains are numerous issues, such as how political players are discovered by observers. Further, what of the tactics employed by those who avoid politics and becoming players? How do players and non-players interact?

While the relationship between organizational ethics organizational politics remains an important area of investigation, there are as many questions remaining as there are answers provided thus far (Baack, 2016).

Employee empowerment may also contain elements of ethical questions. Empowered employees may be able to contribute greater value to the organization. They may also feel more positively toward management. Is encouraging organization-wide participation by lower level employees in top level decisions and actions an ethical choice? Some would argue that it is, because it seeks to utilize the full potential of each employee and treats the workforce with a greater sense of dignity.

These and other questions will continue to be raised about organizational power and politics. As an employee, each person will decide on a comfort level with all of the issues and activities associated with this dimension of one's career.

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Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary

Authority is the right to direct with permission to act over lower-level employees. The right to direct includes telling people what to do. Permission to act re�lects the decision-making aspect of authority, or the right to decide what to do. The three forms of authority are line, staff, and functional authority. Employee responsibility, or accountability, is the obligation to carry out tasks as assigned by the supervisor.

Weber believed authority originates at the top of the organization and �lows downward and is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Barnard's acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until subordinates have accepted it. Acceptance theory posits that authority �lows from the bottom of the organization upward. The delegation of authority can take place at the individual level or at the organization-wide level through decentralization.

Power is the ability to in�luence the behaviors of others using formal and informal means. Power can be considered as both actual in�luence and the potential to in�luence. Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for the purposes of self-interest. Social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks. A zero-sum game conceptualization suggests that the amount of power present in an organization is �ixed. In contrast, the balloon concept of power suggests that the total amount of power �luctuates.

Several sources of power have been identi�ied, including legitimate, coercive, reward, referent, expert power, and informational power. Boundary spanning happens when an organizational employee goes across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result of translating uncertainty or acting as a go-between. Position power arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group, and from control over policy making, information, and status symbols.

Three uses of power are social in�luence, creating and/or maintaining dependency, and employee empowerment. Social in�luence refers to all efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals. These tactics lead to one of three possible outcomes: commitment, compliance, or resistance. In�luence can be exerted in every direction in an organization: upward, downward, or laterally. Noncoercive social in�luence tactics include rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals. Coercive social in�luence tactics include exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimizing. Generally speaking, the non-coercive, or softer, tactics achieve better results.

Dependency occurs when a person or group has control over a key resource or process that another requires. Three elements make a resource subject to dependency: scarcity, importance, and non-substitutability. An increase in any one raises levels of dependency.

Empowering employees occurs when managers place them in charge of what they do. Empowerment goes beyond the delegation of authority; it grants employees freedom to achieve objectives and holds them responsible for the outcome. Participative management creates empowerment. Four areas in which employees can regularly participate include decision making, goal setting, problem solving, and planning processes.

Organizational politics consists of seeking goals that are in a person's or group's interest but are not sanctioned or set by the organization, and using means to achieve personal or group interests that are not organizationally approved. The types of individuals that may be more likely to become engaged in political activities on the job are those who exhibit strong Machiavellian tendencies, an internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and a high need for power. Coalitions can form in company departments or within other collectives of employees. The tactics used by coalitions include alliances, embrace or demolish, divide and conquer, empire building, and growth.

A player is a person who is actively engaged in organizational politics. Players use the tactics of acclaiming, visibility, ingratiation, exchange, coalitions, pressure, upward appeals, empire building, domination, impression management, and situation engineering.

Four outcomes are affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, anxiety/stress, performance, and turnover intentions. At the organizational level, political activities by individuals and coalitions in�luence numerous outcomes and activities, including the distribution of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policy making, and the company's social environment. Most management experts agree that reducing workplace politics creates a better organizational environment.

Ethical concerns related to power and politics include judgments about personal and coalitional ends or goals and means or tactics. Employee empowerment may be considered an ethical choice due to the potentially positive impact on the workplace environment.

CASE STUDY: Morales Funeral Homes

Benji Morales noticed that nearly every mortuary in his city was run by middle-class Caucasian families. He detected a true opportunity: to create the �irst Hispanic-owned mortuary company in the area. He attended mortician school and obtained all necessary licenses. Then, with investments of several close friends and members of his local diocese, Benji purchased a set of three locations from a retiring family, and Morales Funeral Homes was born, offering traditional funerals, funeral support services, and a crematorium.

As an opening managerial move, Benji met individually with every person that had worked for the previous owner. Each one was told, in a kind but �irm voice, that she or he was being terminated. Then, Benji handed the individual an application form and invited the person to apply for a "fresh start." Of the 42 employees, 31 �illed out the application and each one was rehired.

Benji knew that several management challenges were on the horizon. Beyond establishing his name in the community, he would need to balance reaching out to the Hispanic community with serving any family wishing for professional service. He wanted to maintain as much of the customer base from the previous owner as possible. He joined the local chamber of commerce and became actively involved in as many groups as his schedule would allow.

He suspected, correctly as it turned out, that many of the 31 employees making a fresh start would be somewhat set in their ways. He expected to hear, and heard, "That's how we've always done things" from this group. At �irst, he listened patiently and considerately, seeking to know if positive advice was being offered. Unfortunately, he discovered that some of the procedures were outdated and that corners were being cut in terms of providing the best possible support to grieving families. For example, families were being told that wakes and visitations must end by 8:00 p.m., and that rooms needed to be cleared by 8:30 p.m. He wanted to offer greater �lexibility to families, especially when persons had traveled long distances to attend. Benji knew that the hours bene�ited employees wanting to get home earlier rather than his clients.

It was not long until Benji felt his authority was being challenged by some of the members of the staff. Some were simply ignoring his directives. Others began to argue with him in front of coworkers, although never in front of grieving families. Benji therefore decided to hold an employee-only meeting to clear the air. Employee complaints ranged from objections to the new, later hours to concerns that the company was losing its "culture." Some complained

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that too much attention was placed on attracting Hispanic families, when only a limited number of employees (�ive) spoke �luent Spanish. Benji told the group that he would carefully consider their concerns and report back.

A turning point soon took place. One of Benji's new employees—one of the �ive who spoke Spanish—came into Benji's of�ice. The employee complained that he had become increasingly uncomfortable with the other workers. They excluded him from any types of gatherings or conversations and constantly referred to him as "the new guy," even though the employee had 11 years of experience at another funeral home. Benji asked if the other new employees felt the same way. The employee said, "Yes," and that some had already thought about looking for other jobs. Benji knew it was time to act. The future of his new venture was at stake.

Case Questions

1. Do you agree with Benji's decision to retain employees from the previous owner? Why or why not? 2. Which model of authority best represents Benji's situation, top-down or bottom-up? 3. What sources of power are available to Benji with his staff ? With the local community? 4. What types of politics were being played at Morales Funeral Homes? 5. How should Benji handle this situation? What are the short- and long-term implications of the course that you would prescribe?

Review Questions

Click on each question to see the answer.

What are the three types of authority in organizations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The three types of authority are line authority, staff authority, and functional authority. Line authority is direct, formal authority, as indicated by the horizontal lines of an organization chart. Staff authority consists of the right to advise, or give advice. Functional authority is the right to direct but not to discipline.

What are the three sources of authority from the top-down perspective? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Authority is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Traditional authority results from the rule of kings, tribal chiefs, and the authority of the church. Charismatic authority arises from a "gift of grace," such as when a dynamic military leader inspires and guides troops. The legal/rational basis of authority results from an employment contract.

Explain the acceptance theory of authority. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until it has been accepted by subordinates, which means that authority is accepted when individuals understand the nature of the authority, believe the use of authority is consistent with the purposes of the organization, believe authority is being used in ways that are compatible with their personal interests, and are able to comply.

What are personalized power and social power? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for purposes of self-interest. Social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks.

What sources of power exist in organizations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Legitimate power originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank. Coercive power depends on the ability to punish and instill fear in others. Reward power grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes for others. Referent power results from the ability to generate interpersonal in�luence. Expert power creates in�luence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise. Informational power comes from access to and control over information. Boundary spanning occurs when an organizational employee moves across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result. Position power arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group. Power can be related to closeness to production. When a person has control over the policy-making process, power exists. A key advisor working behind the scenes may not hold organizational rank but still possesses considerable power. Control over budgeting results in power. Networking or connection power results from sets of relationships with others inside and outside of the organization. Control over status symbols may generate power.

De�ine organizational politics and name the three levels on which it occurs. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Organizational politics consists of seeking goals that are in a person's or group's sel�interests but are not sanctioned or set by the organization and using means to achieve a person's or group's self-interests that are not organizationally approved. It occurs at the individual, coalition, and organization-wide levels.

What types of individual characteristics have been associated with political activities? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The most notable personal characteristics related to political engagements are high Machiavellian personality, internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and high need for power.

What are the primary individual political tactics used in organizations? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The individual tactics include acclaiming, visibility, ingratiation, exchange, coalitions, pressure, upward appeal, empire building, domination, impression management, and situation engineering.

What does organizational politics affect at the individual and company-wide levels? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

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At the individual level, four areas are primarily affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, the level of anxiety/stress, performance, and turnover intentions. At the organizational level, political activities by individuals and coalitions in�luence several different areas, such as the distribution of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policymaking, and the quality of the social environment.

What ethical concerns are associated with organizational politics? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The ethical issues associated with organizational politics can be divided into issues that involve means and those that involve ends. Using political means, or tactics that are not organizationally approved, can lead you into a gray ethical and legal area. Ethical issues also occur when individuals seek ends or goals that are not organizationally sanctioned, such as an undeserved promotion or pay raise.

Analytical Exercises

1. Explain the differences between the top-down and bottom-up views of authority in the following circumstances: military chain of command church authority over parishioners authority over workers in a volunteer organization authority of the night manager at a McDonald's over employees

2. Using the sources of power identi�ied in Figure 11.1, explain how each applies to the following conditions: actual in�luence versus the potential to in�luence personalized power versus social power power as a zero-sum game versus the balloon concept

3. Describe how the non-coercive and coercive power tactics identi�ied in Table 11.2 would apply to the following circumstances: a manager trying to convince employees to take a pay reduction to keep the company from outsourcing or offshoring union-management negotiations an employee with a job offer from another company seeking a pay raise to stay a coalition trying to rid the organization of a "bad apple" coworker who is destroying morale

4. Explain the relationships among social in�luence, dependency, and employee empowerment as they relate to the de�inition of organizational politics. 5. Explain how an individual employee would use the political tactics identi�ied in Table 11.5 in the following circumstances. (Explain why a tactic might

not apply.) a salesperson seeking promotion to sales manager an information technology employee trying to increase the department's budget to improve the company's security system a human resource manager seeking promotion to a top management position a purchasing department employee trying to get a manager to change vendors for raw materials to one where the employee's friend works

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the de�inition.

boundary spanning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

A situation in which an organizational employee goes across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power.

coercive power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Power that depends on the ability to punish and instill fear.

delegation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

When a manager grants authority to a single subordinate.

dependency (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

What occurs when a person or group has control over a key resource or process that another requires.

employee empowerment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Putting workers in charge of what they do.

expert power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Power that creates in�luence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise.

impression management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The process by which individuals attempt to control perceptions of others.

informational power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Control of crucial or vital information.

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legitimate power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Power that originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank.

organizational politics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Seeking goals that are in the interest of a person or a group, but are not sanctioned or set by the organization, and seeking to achieve personal or group interests using means that are not organizationally approved.

personalized power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

What occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for self-interested reasons.

player (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

A person who is actively engaged in organizational politics.

position power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The ability to control the destiny of another person or group.

power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The ability to in�luence behaviors of others using formal and informal means.

referent power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Power that results from the ability to generate interpersonal in�luence.

reward power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

Power that grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes for others.

situation engineering (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The control of elements in a situation to create a personal advantage.

social in�luence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

All efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals.

social power (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633.17.1/sections/cover/books/Baack.3633

The ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks.

Flashcards

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