Reflection #1

Welcome to Mexican American History I (HIST 2327). This packet contains introductory reading and will assist

you with this week’s activities. In this first reading assignment students will explore information about identity,

the Mexican American Studies Program, the historian’s purpose, and the course learning objectives.

Identity While this course is titled Mexican American History, the topics explored in this course will extend beyond the

Mexican-American experience of residents in the United States southwest. We will study the caste system in

New Spain, otherwise known as colonial Mexico. As we progress through the course students will develop an

understanding of ethnic distinctions, how different groups self-identify, and the historical aspects of institutions

governing these diverse groups. This class will explore the experiences of Puerto Ricans, Cubans, Philippinos; we

will investigate United States’ policies in Latin America. This course is not just a study of the Mexican-American

experience along the contemporary U.S.-Mexico border because doing so would undermine the importance of

recognizing similarities of life experiences among the broader Hispanic/Latino population. Based on the 2010

Census, one in four children in the United States is Hispanic. While the census data does reduce identity more

finely to account for distinction of native country, most day-to-day experiences with language, learning,

interactions with law enforcement, representation, etc. are experiences shared by all Latino/as, regardless of

national origin. The following passage, written by Puerto-Rican born Angel Oquendo, illustrates the importance

of broadening the scope of our course study:

Categorizing on the basis of physical features, of course is an

accepted practice in the United States. In fact, this society

has primarily used physiognomy to create the “Hispanic”

category. Yet what really unites Latino/as is their unique

history of oppression. Unlike other immigrant groups, the

largest Latino/as groups—Mexicans and Puerto Ricans—did

not come into the United States via Ellis Island; they entered

through the brutal process of U.S. imperial expansion. They

were militarily attacked, invaded, colonized, and annexed.

This common experience has caused them to form a unified

community, which now includes other people of Latin

American ancestry.1

In truth, most people who self-identify as Latino/a in the United States have entered the country due to U.S.

imperial activity in their native country, as we will see in later in the course. Those who did not enter the United

States, but instead witnessed the United States passing over into their country and annexing them have also

1 Angel R. Oquendo, “Re-imagining the Latino/a Race,” reprinted in A Critical Reader: The Latino Condition, edited by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic. (New York University Press, 1998), pg. 60. Oquendo is a PhD Harvard graduate and currently serves as Associate Professor at the University of Connecticut School of Law.

Reading Tip: Did you notice the #1 listed at the end of the

top paragraph? This is known as a footnote.

Every time you encounter a footnote, take a

moment to review the source as provided,

along with any details the author might

deemed important. Occasionally, the author

will direct interested readers to other

sources or will provide more specific

examples and statistics in the footnote.

OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

Mexican American History I

come to identify with United States imperial activity, but this group is typically understood by scholars as having

been “internally colonized.”2 Beyond the more obvious distinctions of national origin are the complications of

prior immigration by ancestors. Latin American countries experienced waves of imperialistic activity prior to the

interference of the United States, and as a result, many Latino/as have a much richer understanding of identity.

Categorization can be a sensitive issue, as illustrated in the following passage.

People in the United States often ask me, “Where are you from?” When I first arrived in the United

States four years ago, I would answer “I am from Honduras, but my mother is a Salvadoran-

Guatemalan, and my father a Chinese Nicaraguan,” as if explaining my origins in full detail would

assure me and others of my own identity. Following my reply I would often hear: “Oh, so you speak

Mexican,” or “What part of Mexico is that from?” “Is it southern Mexico?” After hearing these

comments, I did not know whether to defend my nationality or laugh. One time I deliberately

snapped, “No I am not Mexican!” and then patiently explained the geography of what Europeans

termed “America.” I have tried many explanations, yet still feel the need to clarify misconceptions

people have about Latinos. I am not Mexican. My identity has undergone wide and narrow turns.

To begin to define my identity, I first want to discuss Mexicans. They are not easily defined because

of their diversity. There are indigenous Mexicans, mestizo Mexicans, black Mexicans, and white

Mexicans. There are Mexico-born people who do not even consider themselves Mexicans; some

consider themselves Spanish, others identify with purely indigenous ways of life. Then there are

non-native Mexicans who consider themselves Mexican until they die. There are southern

Mexicans and northern Mexicans who have different regional customs. There are also “Chilangos,”

and there are Zapatistas. Then, there are hundreds of regional and cultural mixes within Mexico

itself. In sum, the Mexican experience is truly diverse and unique.3

To complicate matters further, we will examine terminology. The Johnson Administration (1964-1968) formally

recognized “Hispanic” as the proper term for people with Spanish-origin. While this is technically correct, our

Latino/a population in the United States do not all trace their ancestral origins to Spain. People born in or

originating from Brazil trace their origins to Portugal and speak Portuguese. Some individuals may trace their

origins to a Caribbean island, where multiple languages and cultures have flourished over the last few centuries.

There is currently a debate among scholars as to the usefulness of the term Hispanic, with some giving

preference to Latino/a. Still others prefer Chicano/a, recognizing again the distinction of “internally colonized”

people for the region of the present United States southwest.4 The federal government still formally recognizes

Hispanic, however, Latino/a is used periodically. For the sake of testing, students should be as specific to the

particular group discussed, broadening terminology as appropriate.

2 Rodolfo Acuna, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (New York, 1981). Read “Two Views of Occupation” for a closer examination of this categorization. The two source views have been provided on blackboard. 3 Oriel Maria S. Bernal, “Are you Mexican?” in Chicano/a Studies Reader: A Bridge to Writing, edited by Roberta Orona- Cordova. (Kendall Hunt, 2003), pgs. 6-8. 4 Luis Angel Toro’s “Race, Identity, and “Box Checking,” The Hispanic Classification in OMB Directive No. 15,” reprinted in A Critical Reader: The Latino Condition, edited by Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic. (New York University Press, 1998), pgs. 52-59.

Latinx entered mainstream vocabulary last year. Take a moment to read about the term, and those who

support and reject it.

HUFFPOST – https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/why-people-are-using-the-term-latinx_us_57753328e4b0cc0fa136a159

Los Angeles Times-- http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-hernandez-the-case-against-latinx-20171217- story.html#

Exercise: Locate three items in your possession/home which convey to others your sense of identity. If possible, take a picture of these three items and post them into your discussion board post. Tell your classmates how those three items represent you. Ethnic classification may not be an element you generally use to identify yourself, and that is fine. Your discussion board post should be communicated in appropriate college-level sentence structure.

Graded Activity: Discussion board

Mexican American Studies Program This program was adopted by San Jacinto College in 2007, following the Texas Higher Education Coordinating

Board’s (TCHEB) approval of a series of college courses aimed at increasing the college success rates of Latino/a

students. Programs like this one have been in place in California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado for many

years, if not decades. At times, programs like this one have been denounced, have been stripped of funding,

have been labeled subversive and anti-American. In 2010 the Tucson Unified School District passed a law

banning the continuation of Mexican American Studies Program courses, prohibiting the teaching of courses

that “promote the overthrow of the United States government, promote a resentment toward a race or class of

people, and advocate ethnic solidarity rather than the treatment of pupils as individuals.”5 Former students,

Maya Arce and Korina Lopez are currently pursuing a case against the school district. In an interview, Arce

contended “to study my history, my culture, my literature, and art is a basic human right.”6 After reviewing

program data citing academic improvement by students involved in the program, Judge Richard Clifton of the

U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals seemed to agree that the intent of the law was discriminatory in nature, stating

“if the state rejects a program that is more effective in educating children, doesn’t that suggest or strengthen

the inference that the reason the state is acting is not because it wants to produce better education children?”7

At the University of Northern Colorado this past Spring, the university board approved the suspension of their

Mexican American Studies Program due to low enrollment.8

Ethnic studies programs serve an important role in education. Decades of studies have demonstrated that in the

realm of education minority populations have been underserved. These programs were designed to provide

5 Huicochea, Alexis. 2015. "Federal judges question Arizona ethnic studies ban." Arizona Daily Star (Tucson, AZ), January 13. Newspaper Source, EBSCOhost (accessed May 22, 2015). 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Silvy, Tyler. "University of Northern Colorado President Kay Norton condemns racist attacks on UNC protesters." Greeley Tribune (CO), May 01, 2015., Newspaper Source, EBSCOhost (accessed May 22, 2015). Full source available via San Jacinto College library article databases.

quality education, with the same learning objectives, while also inserting skill development and attention to

issues particular to the needs of a specific student population. Furthermore, supporters of these programs

argue discussion of the topics, not further marginalization and silence, will provide a route to improving

acculturation and pluralism.9

Those who have supported ethnic studies note the successes perceived by students, as well as statistics on

retention and completion. Data collected by the Pew Research Center reveals the importance of meeting the

needs of Hispanic students. Colleges have witnessed a spike in enrollment among students classified as

Hispanic. While current estimates highlight the decrease in drop-out rates and gains in college completion rates,

there is still room for improvement.10 Programs have been developing in a sporadic fashion, and with mixed

support. Recently, students at Texas A&M organized and aggressively advocated that university adopt a Latino

Studies program. The University did establish a Latino/Mexican Studies program. Many universities in Texas

already have similar programs, but only a few community colleges have adopted a program like the one offered

at San Jacinto College. There has been renewed pressure by state representatives to have Mexican American

Studies incorporated into the public education curriculum. One Houston Chronicle headline proclaimed

“Mexican American Studies needed in Texas: Board of Education Do the Right Thing and Add Course Option.”11

Despite acknowledging 51% of Texas students are Hispanic, the board did not approve the measure.

Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities San Jacinto College is a member of the HACU, Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities. The majority of

our student body self-identifies as Hispanic or Latino/a. We also report to the Texas Higher Education

Coordinating Board (THECB). The Commissioner of THECB is Dr. Raymund Paredes, a long-time advocate of

ethnic studies programs. In a recent interview, Paredes stated “how well we educate Latino children will pretty

much determine the fate of Texas in the 21st century.”12 Studies show are less likely to enroll in college and far

too few Hispanic college students complete a degree. “Overall, Hispanics are the least-educated racial or ethnic

group. Just 11 percent of those over the age of 25 have a bachelor’s degree, compared with about 17 percent of

black, 27 percent of white, and 47 percent of Asian-American adults in the same age bracket. More than two-

fifths of Hispanic adults over 25 never graduated from high school, and more than one-fourth have less than a

ninth-grade education.”13

Experts have listed the following reasons for poor Hispanic college completion rates:

 Poor academic preparation / Too much time spent in remedial courses

 Parents did not attend college / insufficient support system

 Enrolling in college late in life / heavy adult responsibilities decreases probability of completion

9 Basu, Kaustuv, “The Next Target?” Inside Higher Ed, April 17, 2012. 10 Richard Fry, “Hispanic College Enrollment Spikes, Narrowing Gaps with Other Groups,” Pew Hispanic Center (Washington D.C., 2011). See Pew Education Trends Data on Blackboard. 11 Tony Diaz, “Mexican American Studies Needed in Texas,” Houston Chronicle, Jan. 28, 2014. 12 Ralph K.M. Haurwitz, “State’s future hinges on Latinos’ educational success, commissioner says,” American-Statesman, October 26, 2016. 13 Peter Schmidt, “Academe’s Hispanic Future,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, reprinted in Chicana/o Studies: Survey and Analysis, 3rd Ed. by Bixler-Marquez, et. al.

 Cost of college

 Stuck in two-year institutions / self-imposed remedial

cycle

 Part-time enrollment / not committing to full-time often

leads to decision to drop-out

What is the Role of the Historian? What do historians do? At the root of our work, historians ask

questions about the past. We dig for evidence, traditionally in library archives, but more recently research has

been made easier with digitized sources on the internet. Evidence, also known as sources, exist in a variety of

formats. Traditional sources of evidence include manuscripts, diaries, newspapers, government documents and

treaties, religious records, letters and maps. However, more recently historians have expanded their research

by investigating non-traditional sources, such as songs, clothing, housing, family heirlooms, artwork and

etchings. Historians have worked closely with archeologists to study excavated graves for better knowledge

about disease and diet. All source material must be treated as suspicious. Sources must be examined and then

cross-referenced with other evidence to determine authenticity, the author’s motive, anomalies, etc. When

historians encounter new information, we typically develop additional research questions and continue hunting

for new evidence to address those questions. Many historians get

stuck in this research loop but ideally historians synthesize the

information collected to inform an original argument using a

combination of primary and secondary sources.

Historians will present their arguments and evidence in a variety of

forms, such as formal presentations at professional organizations,

journals specific to historical study; they may have an original book

published or they may teach their research in the classroom. The

sharing of research is key to the role of the historian. Historians seek to

expose the truth about the past and for this reason, there is a

responsibility to self (Personal) and society (Social) to conduct the most

thorough investigation possible. Sadly, shoddy research does exist.

Many sources have been presented as historical work even though the

information was not developed by historians. In other instances,

historians have delegated too much responsibility to peers and student

research aides, who may have acted unethically with or without the

knowledge of the primary historian. For this reason, students of history

must maintain a skeptical position and follow the research method: ask

questions, dig for sources, compare the sources for similarities,

highlight anomalies, ask more questions, dig for more evidence and synthesize only when the research appears

exhausted. Take a moment to read David Plotz’ article on plagiarism.14

14 Plotz, David. "The Plagiarist: Why Stephen Ambrose Is a Vampire." Slate. January 11, 2002. Accessed January 8, 2014. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/assessment/2002/01/the_plagiarist.html.

Watch The Videos

Return to the Blackboard course site

to watch the videos. There are two

videos on detailing Historical Thinking

and one on Reading Like a Historian.

Take notes.

Consider the following questions:

What makes historical thought

unique? How do historians interact

with source material? What does

historical context mean? What

purpose do sources serve in the study

of the past? How does the study of

documents differ from reading a

textbook?

Take a Break to Read

Take a moment to read The New York Times

article "For Poor, Leap to College Often Ends

in a Hard Fall.” Access via Blackboard.

Stephen Ambrose handled his first plagiarism scandal of the week with the graceful humility you'd expect from America's Uncle History. Over the weekend, the Weekly Standard's Fred Barnes nailed Ambrose for heisting several passages of The Wild Blue, his recent best seller about World War II B-24 bomber crews, from historian Thomas Childers. Ambrose had footnoted Childers but still passed off Childers' elegant prose as his own. Ambrose apologized immediately for the "mistake," blamed it on faulty attribution, and promised to place the text in quotations in future editions.

Barnes and Childers quickly pardoned Ambrose, and the only chiding Ambrose received was for his haste: He has written eight books in five years. He's a history factory, using his five kids as researchers and assistants to streamline the production process. "He writes so many books. I don't know how he can avoid making some mistakes," says former Sen. George McGovern, whose B-24 exploits are the chief subject of The Wild Blue.

Plagiarists steal good stuff and they steal garbage.….No matter what they steal, they fall back on the same excuses…they blamed their confusing "notebooks," where they allegedly mixed up their own notes with passages recorded elsewhere.

As the Columbia Journalism Review chronicled in 1995, plagiarists suffer vastly different punishments for similar offenses. Some are sacked for a single misdemeanor shoplifting. Some keep their jobs after numerous felonies. Some are briefly suspended; others sidelined for months. Some pay huge settlements to the writers they have ripped off; most don't pay a penny…..

…..It's so difficult to think about plagiarism for several reasons. First, all writers, especially good writers, borrow and imitate. That's how we learn. We are constantly influenced unconsciously by things we read. And it can be hard to distinguish an homage from an imitation from a borrowing from a bank robbery.

Writers are uncertain about plagiarism because none of us are certain that we are innocent. I frequently imitate the style of writers I admire. I surely have recycled snappy phrases I've read. I can't tell you what they are, but I bet they're out there. I have a fear—which I suspect is shared by most writers—that somewhere, in something I wrote, I may have even stolen a sentence. I don't remember doing it. I would never do it intentionally. But could I swear that it never happened? No. This is—to steal a phrase—our anxiety of influence.

In a 1997 New Yorker essay, James Kincaid argued that plagiarism should not bother writers so much. Most journalism is mediocre, unoriginal prose, Kincaid says, so writers shouldn't mind if it gets recycled. Some literary theorists minimize plagiarism for a related reason. They are skeptical of the ideas of authorship and originality, contending that everything new is cobbled together from older sources…. [However]… the act of putting particular words in a particular order is our hard labor. Even when the result is mediocre and unoriginal, it is our own mediocrity. The words are our proof of life, the evidence we can present at heaven's gate that we have not frittered away our three score and ten….The plagiarist violates the essential rule of his trade. He steals the lifeblood of a colleague. A few paragraphs have made Stephen Ambrose a vampire.

Research: A Question of Integrity

What is history? Before evaluating the actual sources used by your expert historians, it is good to re-emphasize the fact that

"History", that is the study of the past, includes endless information and historians often have to make

inferences based upon a small portion of the actual evidence. The general population consumes historical

interpretations created by historians; it is the responsibility of the consumer/student to review the credibility of

the historian, weigh the facts presented, and recognize that each historian is operating with the sources they

have deemed “valuable.” Historians do not always agree on the relationship between cause and effect;

historians do not always value sources equally; historians occasionally disregard sources that might contribute to

a different interpretation; historians often value sources that reaffirm their own cultural understanding or belief

system. Historians, all historians, interpret the past through their own filter.

What do we Know about the Past? All of the Past: This category includes all past events, ideas, people, actions, etc. Unfortunately many past

events have been "lost" to history. While this is particularly true of the distant past (before written records),

even much of modern history falls into this category. In general, people do not record every event of their daily

lives. While most of those actions will not have a significant impact on history, some of them do, or will

influence the person to make certain decisions later. However, probably the largest part of this category is ideas

-- the reasons behind the choices that are made. For historians, this will mean that the majority of "historical

interpretation" comes from trying to recreate those ideas.

The Knowable Past: This category includes all surviving

material, both historical documents and archaeological

evidence. Unfortunately for historians, some of this evidence

is fragmented, or so limited that it is hard to tell its

significance. Some ancient languages still have not been

deciphered, so although records have been found, historians

are not able to read them.

The Usable Past: This category is all the evidence which

currently can be used. Every few years there is a major

archaeological discovery which provides us with new

information, or new technology allows us to gain different

information from existing evidence. Modern forensics have

provided many clues to historians. It is important to

remember when reading older history books that they might

not have access to all of the material which we have today.

Watch The Videos

There are two suggested videos on Historical

Thinking. Watch and take notes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i71veYOUHiw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mSJLmWnxrPg

Consider the following questions: How do

historians interact with source material?

What does historical context mean? What

purpose do sources serve in the study of the

past? How does the study of documents

differ from reading a textbook?

The Valued Past: This category

includes only those sources of

information which are being

used. The difference between

this category and the previous

one is significant. Sometimes

this difference this comes

from the choice of materials

used in a subject. For example,

most historians have a

preference for documentary

evidence, meaning that they

tend to use written records to

tell the story of the past,

instead of archaeological

evidence. So a history

professor and an archaeology

professor will tell very

different versions of the same

time period. However, that is

not the only limit placed on

the "Usable Past." Not all written records are used by historians. Usually this is because the source is considered

unreliable. Just like today, people in the past had their own agendas for writing. When historians look at

evidence, they have to ask themselves: is this document/author reliable? Does it support other evidence?

Would the author of the document have an agenda or ulterior motive which would lead him/her to exaggerate

or lie? Also, this category can be limited by social values of the time. For example, until the 1960s U.S. History

textbooks primarily focused on white society. Because of the cultural attitude of racism, ethnic minorities were

often ignored and their contribution to history was left out of the textbooks. As you read the sources in this

chapter, pay attention to the publication date of each textbook excerpt and ask yourself how the sources

referenced by each author reflect the author’s views of “valued past.” Does the author highlight information

that he/she has discounted as less reliable or less credible?

Interpreted Past: Finally, once the historian has removed all of the evidence that they cannot use or do not

value, they are left with the remaining evidence. From that, the historian still has more evidence than they can

use to tell a clear story about the past. The “interpreted past” then is the collection of the evidence which fits

that historian's perspective or historical interpretation.

One last note for this section, historians often disagree on the meaning of the past. Occasionally this will be

based on wrong evidence (one historian is using sources that have misrepresented the past), but usually this

disagreement is based on different historical interpretations. For example, sometimes sources have been buried

and as they become studied and incorporated into the existing data, new interpretations emerge. Sometimes

certain sources are deemed more consequential than other sources, so those sources are given priority in the

interpretation. Once in a while, an event occurs that bares remarkable similarity to a past event, exposing that a

certain motivating factor is in fact more motivating than other factors, thus validating one interpretation over

others. As we continue in the course you will become more adept at understanding how two different

interpretations can be equally valid.

Types of Sources Primary sources are materials directly related to the event captured by the material/source; the individual

composing the source should have a connection to event, either as a participant or observer. Secondary sources

are interpretations of past events and often include analysis of primary sources. Tertiary sources are reference

materials, i.e. dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.

Primary Sources Secondary Sources

Photograph A book written by a historian over matters in the seventeenth

century but published in the twentieth century

Government document A website on types of technology and weaponry used during

World War II

An audio recording of you singing in the shower A podcast lecture on the Mexican American War

A speech A speech*

diary entry A painting of an event occurring three hundred years earlier

newspaper advertisement Textbook

Interview A magazine entry discussing water routes in Houston

Census records

An edited section of census records**

Rock art displaying signs of family organization

among ancient people groups

A scholarly essay examining the changing interpretation of

Native American family structure

In the source diagram, speech is listed in both columns. A

speech typically includes the perspective of the person delivering

the speech, and in that sense, the speech is a primary source

because it communicates the experiences and perspective of its

author. However, if the speech is primarily focused on the

experiences of people other than the person speaking, that

information should be evaluated as a secondary source. For

example, a source written by Sam Houston in 1836 might be

immediately classified as primary because the letter is his work

and written during the time period in question. However, if the

letter communicates his perspective about events he did not

directly participate in, but rather learned about from others,

then this source may not be treated as a primary source.

Furthermore, primary sources are not always authentic portals

to the past; more often than not, people record their

experiences based upon their suppositions, biases, and the

impact of the event on them personally. For instance, speeches

are often more specifically classified as propaganda.

Propaganda is any source that attempts to persuade the

audience to a certain perspective. These kind of sources are

often guilty of misrepresenting facts and omitting valuable and

contradictory evidence. Primary sources should be evaluated

with the same level of skepticism as one would apply to

secondary sources.

Another confusing group of sources are maps, tables, graphs and

charts. These sources may be primary or they may be

secondary. Aside from asking questions, digging through

archives, and comparing sources, historians also study change,

specifically change over time. As historians gather evidence,

they may find it easier to communicate quantifiable change over

time in the form of a non-textual source. Tables, Charts,

Diagrams communicating historic information are usually

instructional and not considered primary sources. If a primary source has been edited, then the work might be

better classified as a secondary source. An edited work may exclude certain facts or evidence if the editor wants

to persuade the reader to a particular viewpoint. The most experienced students review the original, pre-edited

work, to determine what has been changed and whether the reproduction communicates the exact same

findings as the original. Reviewing the original primary source also prevents reproduction of errors and

misinterpretations.

If primary sources always told the

truth, the historian’s job would be

much easier—and also rather

boring. But sources, like witnesses

in a murder case, often lie.

Sometimes they lie on purpose,

telling untruths to further a specific

ideological, philosophical, or

political agenda. Sometimes they lie

by omission, leaving out bits of

information that are crucial to

interpreting an event. Sometimes

sources mislead unintentionally

because the author was not aware

of all the facts, misinterpreted the

facts, or was misinformed. Many

are biased, either consciously or

unconsciously, and contain unstated

assumptions; all reflect the interests

and concerns of their authors.

Moreover, primary sources often

conflict. As a result one of the

challenges historians face in writing

a history paper is evaluating the

reliability and usefulness of their

sources. (Rampolla, p. 9)

Sifting Through Sources for the Truth