School safety
jun jaffer
1.AManualfortheAssessmentofWalkBikePathEnvironmentforPhysicalActivity
A Manual for the Assessment of Walk/Bike Path Environment for
Physical Activity
Capturing the Effects of Transportation Facilities on an Active Livable Community
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT ARLINGTON
Authored by: Ziaur Rahman
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Contents 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Intersection Elements .................................................................................................................................3
2.2. Segment Elements ......................................................................................................................................7
2.3. Meteorological Information .................................................................................................................... 12
2.4. Land use and Societal Behavior ............................................................................................................... 13
Reference ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
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Table of Figures Figure 1 Types of Intersection; a. 4-way1, b. 3-way2, c. multi-leg3, d. traffic circle4 .............................................4
Figure 2 Different types of crosswalk markings5 ...................................................................................................4
Figure 3 Use of Crosswalks; a. Raised6, b. all approach7, c. scrabble8, d. textured9, e. no markings ...................4
Figure 4 Types of traffic Control Devices; a. Traffic Signal 10, b. Yield Sign11, c. Stop Sign12 ...............................5
Figure 5 Pedestrian Crossing Control Devices; a. alphabetic walk sign13, b. walk/do not walk sign14, c. walk
sign with counter15, d. audible counter signal16 .....................................................................................................5
Figure 6 Pedestrian cross sign; a. Yield for pedestrian17., b. Stop for Pedestrian18., c. Crosswalk 119, d.
crosswalk 219, e. Pedestrian/bike Crossing19..........................................................................................................5
Figure 7Examples of Intersection Calming Techniques; a. diagonal diverter22, b. textured-crosswalk9, c.
raised6, d. bulb-out23 .................................................................................................................................................6
Figure 8 Curb Ramp; a. No ramp24, b. 100%useable25, c. not useable27, d. <50% useable27 ...............................7
Figure 9 Other advantageous factors for pedestrians and bicyclists; a. refuge island28, b. Advanced Stop
Line29, c. Cycle length10, d. No Turn on red and31 e. Advanced Yield line30...........................................................7
Figure 10 Different combinations of intersection lanes; a. two-lane two-way 3, b. three lane32, c. two lane
and one lane33, d. one lane all direction34 ...............................................................................................................8
Figure 11 Traffic Calming techniques for road segment; (clockwise from top left) a. Speed enforcement37, b.
speed bump38, c. roundabout4, d. chicane 39, e. median 40 ........................................................................................8
Figure 12 Continuity of sidewalk45 ..........................................................................................................................9
Figure 13 Width of sidewalk; a. pedestrian only44, b. shared47 .......................................................................... 10
Figure 14 Percent of Sidewalk Usability; (clockwise from top left) a. Unpaved48, b. <25%49, c. <50%50, d.
<75%51, e. 100%52 .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Figure 15 Sidewalk obstruction; (clockwise from top left a. 100% blocked53, b. >75% blocked54, c. >50%
blocked55, d. 0% blocked45, e. >25% blocked56 .................................................................................................... 11
Figure 16 Sidewalk Buffer; (clockwise from top left) a. no buffer, b. parallel parking58, c. bicycle lane59, d.
Street furniture60, e. Parallel parking and bicycle lane61 .................................................................................... 11
Figure 17 Wing type driveway43 ........................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 18 Medians; a. Two-way Turning Lanes64, b. Rumble Strip Median65, c. Raised Median67 .................. 12
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1. Introduction The availability of different types of transportation infrastructure elements and the quality of these
elements in terms of usability enhance the walkability and bikeability of an active community. Different
types of elements of transportation infrastructure can enhance the walkable/bikeable environment in
different ways. Some elements may even deter the condition. For better understanding of these various
situations, a wide variety of infrastructural elements need to be investigated and a comprehensive
inventory of these elements need to be prepared. Major infrastructure elements will be identified for
improving the walkability/bikeability. Later, a scoring of each of these elements will help identify the
level of significance they hold for making a better livable community.
Active and perceived safety, walkability, bikeability, physical activity and air quality are the key concerns
for a complete street which not only enhances the utilitarian usage but also recreational usage. A
complete street is a street that not only provides safe access to pedestrians, bicyclists, motorist and
transit riders but it is also more convenient and attractive for increasing walkability and bikeability. Two
manuals are prepared as a supplement for the students for better understanding of different elements of
the infrastructure for the assessment of safety, air quality and physical activity. The first manual covers
physical activity prospect and the second manual covers safety prospect. Three modules are developed.
They are Physical Activity Module (M1), Safety Module (M2), and Conflict Analysis Module (M3). Both
M1 and M2 Modules are divided in two sections; Section 1: Intersection and Section 2: Segment and
both of these sections are again separated into Pedestrian and Bicyclist subsection. Detail
description about the conflict analysis module (M3) will be delivered later in Phase 2. Survey forms are
prepared for each of these modules and sections. Students will use these inventory forms for collecting
infrastructure data on ground and off ground (online using google earth) and later use those data for
final deliverables.
The next chapter talks about different types of infrastructure elements and their definition that the
students need to know before collecting data. Along with definitions, it contains pictures of several
possible infrastructure elements. The research team has put together all the basic and advanced
infrastructure elements that directly or indirectly have encourage or discourage physical activity
(walking/bicycling/skate boarding etc)
2.1. Intersection Elements 2.1.1. Intersection types
According to MUTCD, an intersection is the area within the crosswalks and/or beyond the stop
lines or yield lines and is controlled by traffic control signals. Different types of intersection are
available. Some intersection even might not have a traffic signal system because of not meeting
the requirements of Signal Warrant.
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Figure 1 Types of Intersection; a. 4-way1, b. 3-way2, c. multi-leg3, d. traffic circle4
2.1.2. Crosswalk A crosswalk is the place where pedestrians and bicyclist safely cross the street across the flow
of traffic and it is either at an intersection or at a midblock segment placed at the right angle of
the centerline of the roadway. According to Safe Route to School, crosswalks by themselves do
not provide safety but at least it alerts drivers about the presences of bikers and pedestrians.
Figure 2 Different types of crosswalk markings5
All approach of an intersection should have crosswalk markings but due to wear and tear and
improper maintenance, it might not be present at all locations. Different cities and MPOs use
different combinations and approaches when it comes to placing crosswalk. The length of a
crosswalk mainly depends on the number of through lanes present at that direction plus the
turning lanes. The standard lane width range is 9ft-12ft.
Figure 3 Use of Crosswalks; a. Raised6, b. all approach7, c. scrabble8, d. textured9, e. no markings
2.1.3. Traffic Control Devices Different types of traffic control devices are used at an intersection. Standard most common
devices are shown in figure 4.
a b c d
a b c d e
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2.1.4. Pedestrian/bike crossing signals A single device or a combination of devices and/or technologies should be present at the
location of a pedestrian or bike crossing. Some examples are shown in figure 5.
2.1.5. Pedestrian/bike crossing sign Different types of pedestrian crossing warning signs are used for alerting drivers.
2.1.6. Intersection Lighting Proper lighting at the intersection is important for safe movement of traffic. It helps driver
identify movements of pedestrians and bicycles. A minimum of two light standards are required
at a 4-way intersection. Different measuring tools can be used to measure the amount present
a b c
Figure 4 Types of traffic Control Devices; a. Traffic Signal 10, b. Yield Sign11, c. Stop Sign12
d
a
c a b
Figure 5 Pedestrian Crossing Control Devices; a. alphabetic walk sign13, b. walk/do not walk sign14, c. walk sign with counter15, d. audible counter signal16
Figure 6 Pedestrian cross sign; a. Yield for pedestrian17., b. Stop for Pedestrian18., c. Crosswalk 119, d. crosswalk 219, e. Pedestrian/bike Crossing19
a b c d
e
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at certain location. Shailesh et al. (2014) used LuxMeter (an Iphone app) for a visibility based
path finding methodology for selecting bike path and walk path [20].
(Time rate flow of light is measured in lumens (lm). One lumen is the amount of light which falls
on an area of one square foot, every point of which is one foot from the source of one candela. One
foot candle is the illumination of a surface one square foot in area on which there is a uniformly
distributed luminous flux of one lumen. One foot candle is 10.76 lux)[21]
According to WSDOT, the standard design guideline for light level are shown in the following
table
Table 1 Light level Standard chart21
2.1.7. Traffic Calming Different types of traffic calming techniques are used by cities and MPOs. These are mainly used
to reduce speed along the neighborhood which in turn also ensures safety of pedestrians and
bicyclists.
Figure 7Examples of Intersection Calming Techniques; a. diagonal diverter22, b. textured-crosswalk9, c. raised6, d. bulb-out23
a b c d
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2.1.8. ADA Compliance All design of the intersection element should follow American Disability Act. As for intersection,
curb ramp should be present at all crossing providing ample area for wheelchair or motorized
wheelchair to steer clearly. Some examples of curb ramp are given in the pictures.
Figure 8 Curb Ramp; a. No ramp24, b. 100%useable25, c. not useable27, d. <50% useable27
2.1.9. High-intensity Activated crossWalK (HAWK) becon HAWK beacon (High-Intensity Activated crossWalK beacon) is a traffic control device used to
stop road traffic and allow pedestrians to cross safely. It is officially known as a Pedestrian Hybrid
Beacon (PHB). The purpose of a HAWK beacon is to allow protected pedestrian crossings, stopping
road traffic only as needed. Where standard traffic signal 'warrants' prevent the installation of standard
three-color traffic signals, the HAWK beacon provides an alternative. 68
Figure 9 HAWK becon69
2.1.10. Other important factors Factors such as presence of refuge island, advanced stop line, advanced yield sign, right turn
red light are some important techniques which increases the safety of pedestrians.
Figure 9 Other advantageous factors for pedestrians and bicyclists; a. refuge island28, b. Advanced Stop Line29, c. Cycle length10, d. No Turn on red and31 e. Advanced Yield line30
2.2. Segment Elements 2.2.1. Number of lanes
An intersection can have different combinations of lane numbers depending upon the presence
of major and minor arterials. The total number of lanes of the major arterial going towards
NB/SB/EB/WB direction is important if there is a midblock crossing present. When counting
number of lanes, turning lanes are not considered (MUTCD-2009).
a b c d
a b c d e
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Figure 10 Different combinations of intersection lanes; a. two-lane two-way 3, b. three lane32, c. two lane and one lane33, d. one lane all direction34
2.2.2. Speed Limit Speed limit is assigned for reducing accidents. Posted speed limit is lower than the design speed
for safety reasons.
2.2.3. Traffic Calming Different types of traffic calming techniques are used by cities and MPOs. These are main used to
reduce speed along the neighborhood which in turn also ensures safety of pedestrians and
bicyclists. Traffic calming devices used for road segments are as follows
2.2.4. Midblock crossing Midblock crossing are required when there are a lot of pedestrian movement near school,
shopping and restaurant areas (41). When there is a midblock crossing a number of control
measures should be taken to prevent any types of accidents.
2.2.5. ADA compliance When designing pedestrian right of way, it is regulatory to follow ADA standards. A minimum
of 36 inch is required for wheelchair usage with a grade of not more than 14 percent (42).
Sidewalks become unusable for wheelchair for almost the same reason they become unusable
at the intersections.
a b c d
Figure 11 Traffic Calming techniques for road segment; (clockwise from top left) a. Speed enforcement37, b. speed bump38, c. roundabout4, d. chicane 39, e. median 40
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2.2.6. Sidewalk A sidewalk is a designated space along the side of the road separated by a curb. Sidewalk can be
present along all sides of major and minor arterials in pedestrian friendly design. However, in
poor designed areas, sidewalks can be absent in one or both side of the road. In cases, it is also
seen that sidewalk started at the intersection and after some distance disappeared. A
continuous paved sidewalk separated from vehicle traffic by curb and buffer or curb with buffer
provides a safe place for kids to walk to school and/or bike (43). Sidewalks should also follow
ADA design standards. Things to consider for sidewalk are discussed in the following literature.
2.2.6.1. Continuity: The continuity of a sidewalk is very important for the safety of
pedestrians and bicyclists (43, 44). Discontinuous sidewalk force pedestrian and bicyclist
to cross the road and move to the other side of the arterial and then cross back again to
get to the designated desired place. Sometimes, absence of sidewalk led to walking on the
street.
Figure 12 Continuity of sidewalk45
2.2.6.2. Width of sidewalk: A proper sidewalk should have a minimum of five to six feet of
sidewalk width depending upon the presence of pedestrian usage (43, 46). Near shopping
area, schools, parks and restaurants a minimum of eight feet sidewalk is required (46).
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Figure 13 Width of sidewalk; a. pedestrian only44, b. shared47
2.2.6.3. Sidewalk surface condition: It should be firm, stable and slip –resistant (43). Also due
to improper maintenance, earth movement and some other conditions, sidewalks become
less useable.
Figure 14 Percent of Sidewalk Usability; (clockwise from top left) a. Unpaved48, b. <25%49, c. <50%50, d. <75%51, e. 100%52
2.2.6.4. Obstruction: Sidewalk obstruction mostly can occur due to misplacement of
construction materials, signposts, utility poles, parked cars, trash cans and fire hydrant
(51, 52, 54). Several situations are shown in the following figures.
a b
a b c
e d
a b c
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2.2.6.5. Sidewalk Buffer: According to SRTS design guideline, sidewalk buffer is the space
between rightmost traffic lane and the sidewalk. Four types of sidewalk buffer can be
present. They are planting strip of grass and trees, bicycle lane, parallel parked cars and
street enhancement fixed objects (light poles, benches) (43). A combination of these four
types of buffer can also be found in the field.
2.2.6.6. Sidewalk Lighting: Pedestrian visibility and personal security plays an important role
when choosing a walking or bike route for both recreational and utilitarian use. Light level
for the road segment from table 1 will be used here.
2.2.6.7. Presence of Driveways: Driveways should be designed such a way that it does not
hamper the regular movement of regular pedestrians, pedestrians with disabilities and
bicyclist. Drivers should be continuously cautioned about the presence of pedestrians and
bicyclist. Fewer driveways and narrower driveway crossings are safer for school area
(43).
e d
Figure 15 Sidewalk obstruction; (clockwise from top left a. 100% blocked53, b. >75% blocked54, c. >50% blocked55, d. 0% blocked45, e. >25% blocked56
cb
e d
a
Figure 16 Sidewalk Buffer; (clockwise from top left) a. no buffer, b. parallel parking58, c. bicycle lane59, d. Street furniture60, e. Parallel parking and bicycle lane61
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Figure 17 Wing type driveway43
2.2.6.8. Aesthetics and perceived safety: Presence of illegal wall graffiti, littering, overflown
trash, abandoned houses and parking lots are some negative features of a sidewalk that
deters people walking on it. On the other hand, proper illuminated seating area, flashing
reduced speed sign, school crossing guard are some features that enhance the perceived
safety of pedestrian especially in the school zone.
2.2.6.9. Median: Median divides the travel way at the center to separate the traffic from opposing
directions. Medians when raised act as a safety refuge and can accommodate pedestrian and
bicyclist. Presence of a refuge island is one of the pre-requisite for a complete street (62).
Different types of median can be present which may or may not serve the purpose of a refuge
island.
According to TXDOT design standards, for pedestrian movement, at least a 5ft x 5ft refuge island
must be provided for safety (63).
Figure 18 Medians; a. Two-way Turning Lanes64, b. Rumble Strip Median65, c. Raised Median67
2.3. Meteorological Information Air quality plays an important role while choosing a walking route or a biking route. Presence of
high volume traffic in hot summer afternoon may pose severe environmental threat for school going
kids and as well as to recreational users. Different types of vehicles emit various levels of emissions
at different temperature. Parents also create pockets of bad air while stalling in the parking lot for
dropping kids. Road type, vehicle type, Aerodynamic roughness coefficient, altitude, wind speed,
temperature, CO emission factor are variables that control the quality of air near school zone or any
type of walking or biking route along a major arterial. Only diesel and gasoline engine vehicles are
considered in air quality measurement. For simplicity only vehicles and trucks will be used. Altitude,
wind speed, and temperature of the study area control the rate of plume spreading. Widths of the
roadway and traffic volume are required for analysis in CALINE for predicting air pollutant
concentration near roadways. Preexisting CO concentration has to be identified from EPA website
for analysis.
2.3.1. Aerodynamic roughness coefficient
a b c
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It determines the amount of total local air turbulence that affects plume spreading.
Table 2. Aerodynamic Roughness Coefficient defined for various types of landscapes68 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Roughness Coefficient Landscape Type (cm)
3.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.002 Sea, paved areas, snow-covered flat plain, tide flat, smooth desert 0.5 Beaches, pack ice, morass, snow-covered fields 3 Grass prairie or farm fields, tundra, airports, heather 10 Cultivated areas with low crops and occasional obstacles (such as bushes) 25 High crops, crops with varied height, scattered obstacles (such as trees or hedgerows),
vineyards 50 Mixed far fields and forest clumps, orchards, scattered buildings 100 Regular coverage with large obstacles, open spaces roughly equal to obstacle
heights, suburban houses, villages, mature forests
≥200 Centers of large towns or cities, irregular forests with scattered clearings
3.1.1. Road Type
Arterials are considered as restricted road and freeways are considered as unrestricted roads.
2.4. Land use and Societal Behavior Different types of land usage influence walking and biking. Presence of shopping mall, parks,
Historical sites, restaurants have positive impact on deciding whether or not to walk/bike. The total
number of people using the walking path or bike path or both for recreational purpose is also
important for increasing physical activity. For further analysis, data needs to be collected to identify
gender variation, age variation, and purpose of the use. An active community will show higher level
of recreational usage of a walkable/bikeable path.
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