1-1

1-1.docx

In the past, researchers in psychology used some "ethically questionable" research techniques. Do you believe that some of these techniques were useful despite their ethical shortcomings? Explain. How did these “ethically questionable” techniques lead to the creation of the code of ethics?

150-200 words with citation and reference

Review the preamble and general principles section of the code of ethics. What is the purpose of these sections? In reviewing the general principles, which do you feel is the most impactful or influential to the practice of psychology? Explain.

150-200 words with citation and reference

Decoding the EthicsCode: A Practical Guide for Psychologists by Ceia B. Fisher

Chapter 2 The Introduction and Applicability Section, Preamble, and General PrinciplesPsychologists are committed to increasing scientific and professional knowledge of behavior and people’s understanding of themselves and others and to the use of such knowledge to improve the condition of individuals, organizations, and society. Psychologists respect and protect civil and human rights and the central importance of freedom of inquiry and expression in research, teaching, and publication. They strive to help the public in developing informed judgments and choices concerning human behavior.—Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2010b)The 2010 Ethics Code begins with the Introduction and Applicability section, followed by the Preamble and a set of five General Principles that reflect the underlying values and ideals of the discipline.The remainder of the code is composed of 151 enforceable standards that describe required, prohibited, and permitted behaviors. This chapter highlights the implications for ethical conduct of the Introduction and Applicability section, Preamble, and General Principles.Understanding the Introduction and Applicability Section and the PreambleTo Whom Does the Ethics Code Apply?Membership in the APA commits members and student affiliates to comply with the standards of the Ethics Code. Many psychology programs adopt the Ethics Code into their faculty and student policies, and portions of the Ethics Code are integrated into state laws, rules, and regulations governing the licensed practice of psychology.To What Does the Ethics Code Apply?The answer to this question is all activities, all persons, all settings, and all communication contexts that are conducted, encountered, or used in one’s role as a psychologist.Activities include, but are not limited to, clinical, counseling, and school practice; research; teaching and supervision; public service and policy development; program design, implementation, and evaluation; construction, administration, and interpretation of assessment instruments; organizational consulting; forensic activities; and administration.Persons include individual clients/patients, research participants, and students; children and adults of all ages; individuals with or without mental disorders; individuals with disabilities; persons of diverse cultural and language backgrounds and different sexual orientations; individuals within families, groups, and organizations; medical and social service providers; attorneys; and other professionals.Settings include military bases, schools, research laboratories, universities, private or group practice offices, business organizations, hospitals, integrated care systems and patient-centered medical homes, managed care companies, the courts, private and public social services programs, government agencies, and public spaces where research or intervention is carried out.Communication contexts include research, consultation, and the delivery of services in person or via post, telephone, fax, Internet, mobile phone, television, radio, and other electronic transmissions.Psychologists should be aware that the Introduction and Applicability section clearly states that lack of awareness or misunderstanding of any part of the Ethics Code is not itself a defense to a charge of unethical conduct.Professional Versus Personal ActivitiesThe Ethics Code applies only to psychologists’ activities that are part of their scientific, educational, professional, or consulting roles. The Code does not apply to the purely private conduct of psychologists, although the APA may take action against a member after his or her conviction for a felony, whether or not it directly resulted from activities performed in the member’s role as a psychologist.In some situations, distinctions between professional and personal activities may appear ambiguous. For example, if a psychology professor has a personal web page that includes racist comments, will these comments be relevant to his professional role if some of his students have access to this page? If a counseling psychologist criticizes the professionalism of a school psychologist during a parent meeting at her children’s school, will other parents perceive her statements as at least partially professional? Pipes, Holstein, and Aguirre (2005) suggested some questions that may help psychologists determine when their personal actions overlap their role as a psychologist and thus are subject to the Ethics Code:Is the behavior linked to a role played by psychologists?Does the behavior, on its face, seem at least partially professional?Is there a high probability that those with whom the psychologist works will be affected?Does the action threaten the professional credibility of the psychologist or the discipline of psychology?Professional Versus Personal ValuesActions that are contrary to the Ethics Code principles and standards can arise when psychologists apply values that may be virtuous in personal relationships to professional contexts in which the same values may be harmful (Knapp, Handelsman, Gottlieb, & VandeCreek, 2013). For example, the personal values of family caring and connectedness may lead a clinical child psychologist to believe it ethically appropriate to agree to a request from her brother to help set up a behavioral management program for his daughter who has been diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder. An understanding of professional values would alert the psychologist to the potential harm of adding a professional relationship to her close personal relationship with her brother and his family and lead to the more ethical decision to provide an appropriate referral (Principle B, Fidelity and Responsibility; Standard 3.04, Avoiding Harm; Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships).At the same time, displacing a set of personal values with mechanical and narrow interpretations of specific ethical standards and laws can lead to thoughtless or unethical responses in the context of the complex moral issues encountered by psychologists across the full spectrum of role responsibilities. For example, a research psychologist specializing in ethnographic studies of youth gangs who has just learned from a participant about the planned murder of another youth might apply a strict interpretation of Standard 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality, to dictate a decision not to alert the youth or law enforcement, rather than the more nuanced moral evaluation called for by Principle A, Beneficence and Nonmaleficence and Standard 4.05, Disclosures.To best ensure psychologists appropriately balance professional and personal values, Handlesman and colleagues (Anderson & Handelsman, 2010, 2013; Handelsman, Gottlieb, & Knapp, 2005) recommended that training in the discipline of psychology must help students integrate new professional and scientific values with their preexisting moral values in ways that promote the adoption and internalization of the unique ethical responsibilities and social roles expected of psychologists. This issue is further addressed in the discussion of aspirational principles later in this chapter and the treatment of virtues in Chapter 3.What Is the Relevance of Specific Language Used in the Ethics Code?To fulfill the Ethics Code’s professional, educational, public, and enforcement goals, the language of the Ethics Code needs (a) to have the clarity necessary to provide adequate notice of behaviors that would be considered code violations, (b) to be applicable across many multifaceted roles and responsibilities of psychologists, and (c) to enhance and not impede good scientific and professional practice. The language of the Ethics Code must be specific enough to provide guidance yet general enough to allow for critical thinking and professional judgment.This section includes some general guidance for interpreting the language of the Ethics Code. The implications of specific terminology for specific standards are addressed in greater detail in relevant chapters.Due NoticeAdjudicatory decisions based on an ethics code remain vulnerable to overturn on appeal if defendants can argue they had no forewarning that specific behaviors were ethical violations (Bersoff, 1994). For example, language in enforceable standards requiring psychologists to be “alert to,” “to guard against,” or “to respect” certain factors is problematic because the behaviors expected by these terms remain undefined and are thus vulnerable to subjective interpretation by psychologists, consumers, and ethics committees. Accordingly, the language of the enforceable standards in the Ethics Code was crafted to describe the behaviors that are required and those that are proscribed in a manner that readers would reasonably understand.Applicability Across Diverse Roles and ContextsPsychologists teach, conduct research, provide therapy, administer and interpret psychological tests, consult to business, provide legal testimony, evaluate school programs, serve in public service sectors and the military, and take on a multitude of scientific and professional roles. An enforceable ethics code for psychologists must therefore be worded broadly enough to ensure that (a) standards apply across a broad range of activities in which psychologists are engaged; (b) role-specific standards are clearly presented as such; and (c) standards do not compromise scientific, practice, or consulting activities through inattention to or inconsistencies with the constantly changing realities of professional and legal responsibilities.This requirement, viewed alongside the need for language providing due notice, means that some standards reflecting generally accepted ethical values in one work area were not included in the current Ethics Code because they could not be worded in such a way as to prevent undue burden on psychologists working in another area. For example, the Ethics Code Task Force (ECTF) struggled with appropriate wording for a general “honesty” standard within the Human Relations section that would reflect the aspirational principle of integrity. However, such a general standard had to be abandoned because it risked prohibiting ethically acceptable practices such as paradoxical therapy and deception research. The principle of integrity is reflected in more circumscribed standards, including Standards 5.01, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements; 5.02, Statements by Others; 6.06, Accuracy in Reports to Payors and Funding Sources; and 8.10, Reporting Research Results. For additional discussion of this issue, readers may wish to refer to the Hot Topic in Chapter 8 on avoiding false and deceptive statements in scientific and clinical expert testimony.The Use of ModifiersA modifier is a word or phrase that qualifies the meaning of an ethical rule. Modifiers in the Ethics Code include terms such as appropriate, potentially, to the extent feasible, and attempt to. An explanation of the use of modifiers is provided in the Introduction and Applicability section of the Code. The use of modifiers is necessary in standards that are written broadly to allow for professional judgment across a wide range of psychological activities and contexts. For example, the term feasible in a standard permits psychologists to evaluate whether factors within the specific context in which they are working justify delaying or not implementing behaviors required by a particular standard. Modifiers are also used to eliminate injustice or inequality that would occur without the modifier. For example, a modifier such as appropriate signals that the behaviors required to comply with a standard can vary with the psychological characteristics of the persons involved, psychologists’ roles, or specific situational demands. A modifier such as the term relevant is used in standards to guard against language that would create a rigid rule that would be quickly outdated. Below are three examples of the use of modifiers:Standard 10.01a, Informed Consent to Therapy, requires psychologists to obtain informed consent from clients/patients as early as is feasible in the therapeutic relationship. The phrase as early as is feasible provides decisional latitude when fully informed consent during an initial therapy session may not be possible or clinically appropriate. A client/patient may be experiencing acute distress that requires immediate psychological intervention and for which informed consent procedures may be clinically contraindicated. As another example, psychologists may need to wait for feedback from a client’s/patient’s HMO before consent discussions regarding fees can be completed.Standard 3.10b, Informed Consent, requires that for persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent, psychologists “provide an appropriate explanation.” The term appropriate indicates that the nature of the explanation will vary depending on, among other factors, the person’s developmental level, cognitive capacities, mental status, and language preferences and proficiencies.Under Standard 2.01c, Boundaries of Competence, psychologists planning to engage in activities new to them must undertake relevant education, training, supervised experience, consultation, or study. By including the term relevant, this standard can continue to be applied to new roles, new techniques, and new technologies as they emerge over time.What Is “Reasonable”?In the Introduction and Applicability section, the term reasonable is defined as the “prevailing professional judgment of psychologists engaged in similar activities in similar circumstances, given the knowledge the psychologist had or should have had at the time.” The use of this term serves two functions. It prohibits psychologists from exercising idiosyncratic ethical judgments inconsistent with the prevailing values and behaviors of members of the profession. In doing so, it provides other psychologists and recipients of psychological services, students, and research participants a professional standard against which to judge psychologists’ ethical behaviors. At the same time, by requiring that criteria for compliance or violation of an Ethical Standard be judged against the prevailing practices of peers, the use of the term reasonable guards against unrealistic or unfair expectations of responsible conduct. The wording enables psychologists to launch a legitimate defense of their actions based on current best practices in the field and documentation of efforts to resolve problems in an ethical manner. The examples below illustrate these two applications of the term reasonable:Standard 4.07, Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes, prohibits psychologists from disclosing in public statements confidential and personally identifiable information about those with whom they work unless they have taken “reasonable steps to disguise the person or organization.” The term reasonable recognizes that despite steps to protect confidentiality that would be considered ethically acceptable by other psychologists (i.e., the use of pseudonyms; disguising gender, ethnicity, age, setting, and business products), persons to whom the statements refer may recognize (or erroneously attribute the description to) themselves or others may be privy to information not under the psychologist’s control that leads to identification.Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others, requires that psychologists who delegate work to employees, supervisees, research or teaching assistants, interpreters, or others “take reasonable steps to authorize only those responsibilities that such persons can be expected to perform competently on the basis of their education, training, or experience, either independently or with the level of supervision being provided.” In this case, a psychologist who asked a secretary who spoke the same language as a client/patient to serve as an interpreter during an assessment would not have taken steps considered reasonable in the prevailing view of the profession. On the other hand, a psychologist who hired an interpreter based on an impressive set of credentials in mental health evaluation would not be in violation if the interpreter had fabricated the credentials.“Client/Patient” and “Organizational Client”Throughout the Ethics Code, the combined term client/patient refers to individual persons to whom a psychologist is providing treatment, intervention, or assessment services. The term organizational clients, organizations, or clients refers to organizations, representatives of organizations, or other individuals for whom the psychologist is providing consultation, organization or personnel evaluations, test development, research, forensic expertise, or other services that do not involve a treatment, intervention, or diagnostic professional relationship with the person to whom services are provided. For example, a bank hired a psychologist to provide counseling services to employees who had experienced trauma during a recent robbery. In this context, the bank was the psychologist’s “client” or “organizational client,” and the employees who sought the psychologist’s counseling services were the clients/patients. To further illustrate this distinction, readers can compare the use of the term client in Standard 3.11, Psychological Services Delivered To or Through Organizations, with the use of the term client/patient in Standard 10.01, Informed Consent to Therapy.How Is the Ethics Code Related to APA Ethics Enforcement?The APA Ethics Committee investigates complaints against APA members alleging violations of the APA Ethics Code that was in effect at the time the conduct occurred. The APA Ethics Committee Rules and Procedures detail the ethics enforcement process and can be obtained online at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code.committee-2016.aspx. Below is a brief summary of these rules and procedures.Ethics ComplaintsComplaints to the Ethics Committee may be brought by APA members or nonmembers or initiated by members of the Ethics Committee (sua sponte complaints) within specified time periods. A complaint may be dismissed prior to review by the Ethics Committee if it does not meet jurisdictional criteria or if, on preliminary review, the Ethics Office director and the Ethics Committee chair or their designees fail to find grounds for action. If the Ethics Committee does have jurisdiction and the complaint provides grounds for action, the case is opened, violations of specific Ethical Standards are charged, and an investigation is begun. The psychologist against whom the complaint is made receives a charge letter and is given an opportunity to provide the committee with comment and materials regarding the allegations.Failure of the respondent to cooperate with the Ethics Committee is itself an ethical violation (APA Ethics Code Standard 1.06, Cooperating With Ethics Committees; see Chapter 4). However, in response to a request by a respondent, the committee may proceed or stay the ethics process if the respondent is involved in civil or criminal litigation or disciplinary proceedings in other jurisdictions. Psychologists who do not wish to contest the allegations may submit to the APA an offer of “resignation while under investigation.”SanctionsThe Ethics Committee reviews the materials and resolves to either dismiss the case or recommend one of the following actions:Reprimand. A reprimand is given when a violation was not of a kind likely to cause harm to another person or to cause substantial harm to the profession and was not otherwise of sufficient gravity as to warrant a more severe sanction.Censure. The Ethics Committee may issue a censure if the violation was of a kind likely to cause harm to another person but not likely to cause substantial harm to another person or to the profession and was not otherwise of sufficient gravity as to warrant a more severe sanction.Expulsion. A member can be expelled from the APA when the violation was of a kind likely to cause substantial harm to another person or the profession or was otherwise of sufficient gravity as to warrant such action.Stipulated resignation. Contingent on execution of an acceptable affidavit and approval by the Board of Directors, members may be offered a stipulated resignation following a committee finding that they committed a violation of the Ethics Code or failed to show good cause why they should not be expelled.The Ethics Committee may also issue directives requiring the respondent to (a) cease and desist from an activity, (b) obtain supervision or additional training or education, (c) be evaluated for and obtain treatment if appropriate, or (d) agree to probationary monitoring.A psychologist who has been found in violation of the Ethics Code may respond to the recommendation by requesting an independent case review or, in the case of expulsion, an in-person proceeding before a formal hearing committee.NotificationThe director of the Ethics Office informs the respondent and the complainant of the final disposition in a matter, provides to the APA membership on an annual basis the names of individuals who have been expelled and those who have resigned from membership while under investigation, and informs the APA Council of Representatives in confidence who received a stipulated resignation and who resigned from membership while under investigation. The Board of Directors or the Ethics Committee may also determine that additional notification is necessary to protect the APA or the public or to maintain APA standards. The Ethics Office director may also notify state boards, affiliated state and regional associations, the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, the Council for the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology, and other appropriate parties. In addition, the APA may provide such information to any person who submits a request about a former member who has lost membership because of an ethical violation.Show Cause ProcedureThe Ethics Committee can also take action against a member if a criminal court, licensing board, or state psychological association has already taken adverse action against the member. The rationale for such actions can go beyond a violation of the Ethics Code and can include conviction of a felony or revocation of state licensure.How Is the Ethics Code Related to Sanctions by Other Bodies?The APA Ethics Code is widely used by other bodies regulating the ethical science and practice of psychology. It is intended to be applied by the APA Ethics Committee and by other bodies that choose to adopt specific standards. The Introduction and Applicability section states,Actions that violate the standards of the Ethics Code may also lead to the imposition of sanctions on psychologists or students whether or not they are APA members by bodies other than APA, including state psychological associations, other professional groups, psychology boards, other state or federal agencies, and payors for health services.In contrast to the Ethical Standards, as stated in the General Principles section, the aspirational principles of the Ethics Code are not intended to represent specific obligations or be the basis for imposing sanctions.Across the country, the Ethics Code is adopted in its entirety or in part in statute by more than half the state boards responsible for licensing the practice of psychology. Insurance companies regularly require psychologists applying or reapplying for professional liability policies to reveal whether they have been the recipient of an ethics complaint or been found in ethical violation by a professional organization, state board, or state or federal agency. Many insurance companies retain the right to raise rates or cancel policies depending on the nature of the violation. In addition, the APA Ethics Committee may notify other bodies and individuals of sanctions it imposes for ethical violations. For information on the procedures for filing, investigating, and resolving ethics complaints, readers should refer to the Rules and Procedures of the APA Ethics Committee at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/committee.aspx.Need to Know: What to Do When You Receive an Ethics ComplaintAlthough the number of complaints is low, receiving a formal inquiry or complaint from a licensing board, ethics committee, or other institutional body can be a stressful experience. Koocher & Keith-Spiegel (2013) provided the following excellent advice for how to handle such complaints.First, gather facts to determine the nature of the complaint and whether it is a formal or informal charge, the jurisdictional authority and rules and procedures of the body handling the complaint, and procedures for responding and the consequences of failing to respond (Standards 1.04, Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations; 1.05, Formal Resolution of Ethical Violations; 1.06, Cooperating With Ethics Committees).Second, do not respond to the complaint without a clear written explanation of the charges against you. Do not contact the complainant directly, and if the complainant is a client/patient, ensure that you are provided with a waiver to disclose confidential information (Standards 1.06, Cooperating With Ethics Committees; 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality). Obtain consultation and, if appropriate, legal advice prior to responding or providing materials.Third, in most cases, psychologists are expected to respond personally to an inquiry, even when they have retained the services of an attorney. In crafting a response, assess the credibility of the charge. Limit your response in writing or in person to the scope of the inquiry and provide appropriate documentation. If you have committed the offense, begin and document remediation actions immediately if possible (e.g., supervision or training to increase competencies in scientific or professional ethics or other competencies).Fourth, understand the professional, legal, and economic consequences of any offered settlement, “consent decree,” sanction, or other resolution that is not a full dismissal of charges and seek additional professional or legal consultation.How Is the APA Ethics Code Related to Law?Civil LitigationThe Introduction and Applicability section clearly states that the Ethics Code is not intended to be a basis of civil liability: “Whether a psychologist has violated the Ethics Code standards does not by itself determine whether the psychologist is legally liable in a court action, whether a contract is enforceable, or whether other legal consequences occur.” However, psychologists should be aware that it seems highly unlikely that such a disclaimer would have any legally binding effect. Compliance with or violation of the Ethics Code may be admissible as evidence in some legal proceedings, depending on the circumstances. Similarly, although the Ethics Code states that using the General Principles as a representation of obligations or to apply sanctions distorts the meaning and purpose of the aspirational principles, attorneys may introduce into litigation the General Principles or Ethical Standards as evidence of the ethical values, requirements, or prohibitions of the discipline.Compliance With LawLaw does not dictate ethics, but sensitivity to law protects the integrity of the profession. Whereas few standards require psychologists to comply with the law, many standards were written to minimize the possibility that compliance with the Ethics Code would be in conflict with state laws and federal regulations. Those standards that require compliance with the law include the following:Work-related discrimination, Standard 3.01, Unfair DiscriminationObtaining consent from legally authorized persons for individuals legally incapable of giving such consent, Standard 3.10b, Informed ConsentLegal prohibitions against disclosure of confidential information, Standards 4.05a and b, DisclosuresCreation, storage, and disposal of records, Standard 6.01, Documentation of Professional and Scientific Work and Maintenance of RecordsFee practices, Standard 6.04a, Fees and Financial ArrangementsCare and use of animals in research, Standard 8.09, Humane Care and Use of Animals in ResearchLegal and contractual obligations, Standard 9.11, Maintaining Test SecurityThroughout this volume, the applicability of ethical standards to compliance with federal regulations governing the creation and protection of health care records, third-party payments, and the conduct of research are described. Although there are no specific Ethical Standards for which a criminal conviction is a violation, the Introduction and Applicability section and the APA Rules and Regulations clearly state that the APA may take action against a member after his or her conviction of a felony, including expulsion from the organization.Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal AuthorityIn applying the Ethics Code to their scientific and professional work, psychologists may find relevant laws, regulations, or other governing legal authority that conflicts with the Ethical Standards. As articulated in the Introduction and Applicability section, psychologists must comply with the Ethics Code if it establishes a higher standard of conduct than is required by law. When an Ethical Standard is in direct conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, psychologists must make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take steps to resolve the conflict in a responsible manner in keeping with basic principles of human rights. If the conflict is unresolvable via such means, psychologists are permitted to adhere to the legal requirements, but only if such adherence cannot be used to justify or defend violation of human rights (Standard 1.02, Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority). See also the section on “The 2010 Amendments: The Controversy Over Psychologists’ Involvement in Inhumane Military Interrogations” (Chapter 1) and the section “Psychology and Human Rights” and the Hot Topic “Human Rights and Psychologists’ Involvement in Assessments Related to Death Penalty Cases” (Chapter 4).General PrinciplesEthics are principles of action based on a commonly accepted system of values, and agreement upon these principles and values must be reached before progress toward an acceptable code can be expected.—Bixler and Seeman (1946, p. 486)“A genuine and practical code of ethics . . . stems from a philosophy as well as a need” (Bixler & Seeman, 1946, p. 486). The moral values from which the APA Ethical Standards stem are articulated in five General Principles. These principles are aspirational, intended to inspire psychologists toward the highest ethical ideals of the profession. Unlike the Ethical Standards, they do not represent specific or enforceable behavioral rules of conduct. The General Principles articulate the moral vision of psychology’s common community of purpose. Although psychologists must strive to act in accordance with all the principles, the moral priority of any one principle will be determined by the specific ethical problem. The principles are therefore listed in alphabetical order and are not hierarchically organized.The General Principles help guide psychologists’ decision making by providing an analytic framework from which to identify those Ethical Standards that are appropriate to the situation at hand. Each enforceable standard reflects one or more of these principles. Below, each principle is described, and examples are provided of standards in which the principle ideals are embedded.Principle A: Beneficence and NonmaleficencePrinciple A reflects psychologists’ dual obligation to strive to do good and avoid doing harm. As articulated in the Preamble and in Principle A, psychologists strive to do good by promoting the welfare of others; treating people and animals humanely; increasing scientific and professional knowledge of behavior and people’s understanding of themselves; and improving the condition of individuals, organizations, and society. Examples of standards reflecting the principle of beneficence include Standards 2.02, Providing Services in Emergencies; 3.09, Cooperation With Other Professionals; 8.09, Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research; and 8.14, Sharing Research Data for Verification. Principle A represents the joint influences of beneficence and nonmaleficence in recognition that in rightly practiced psychology, individuals may be harmed without being wronged. For example, to preserve academic standards and to ensure grading fairness, teaching psychologists may be obligated to give a student a poor or failing grade. Similarly, disclosing confidential information to protect a client/patient, student, or research participant from self-harm or from harming others may have moral priority over protecting that individual’s privacy rights (see Standard 4.05, Disclosures). To maximize good and minimize harm, Principle A also calls for psychologists to be alert to and guard against personal problems that could lead to exploitation or harm to individuals or organizations with whom they work (see Standard 2.06, Personal Problems and Conflicts).Throughout the enforceable standards of the Ethics Code, psychologists are expected to avoid harm by maintaining competence, guarding against behaviors that would lead to exploitation of those with whom they work, minimizing intrusions on privacy in reports or consultations with colleagues, providing opinions and reports based only on information or techniques sufficient to substantiate findings, and terminating therapy when the client/patient is likely to be harmed by continued services (Standards 2.01, Competence; 2.03, Maintaining Competence; 3.04, Avoiding Harm; 3.05, Multiple Relationships; 3.08, Exploitative Relationships; 9.01, Bases for Assessments; and 10.10, Terminating Therapy). Psychologists are also required to minimize harm by taking steps to ameliorate harms caused by misuse of their work (Standard 1.01, Misuse of Psychologists’ Work). For additional information, readers may refer to the Hot Topic in Chapter 7, on disclosures and confidentiality relevant to parental involvement in mental health services for children and adolescents, and in Chapter 10, on ethical supervision of trainees.Principle B: Fidelity and ResponsibilityFidelity reflects faithfulness of one human being to another (Ramsey, 2002). In psychology, such faithfulness includes promise keeping; discharge and acceptance of fiduciary responsibilities; and appropriate maintenance of scientific, professional, and teaching relationships. Psychologists recognize their responsibility to obtain and maintain high standards of competence in their own work and to be concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues.Developing a professional identity as a psychologist is a critical step toward understanding how to conduct oneself in a professional manner, to infuse the values of the profession in the conduct of psychological research and practice, to accept responsibility for one’s professional actions, and to resolve situations that challenge professional values and integrity in one’s own work and the work of others (APA, 2012f; Nash, Khatri, Cubic, & Baird, 2013; Standards 1.01, Misuse of Psychologists’ Work, 1.04, Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations, 1.05, Reporting Ethical Violations).The nature of the competencies and responsibilities of psychologists to individuals, organizations, and communities will be determined by the specific scientific or professional relationship. For example, forensic psychologists have distinctive professional obligations and duties that arise through relationships established by those who retain their services (e.g., defense or prosecuting attorneys, insurers, the court) and by those with whom they interact (e.g., examinees, collateral contacts; APA, 2013e). Similarly, psychologists working in organizations established under the Affordable Care Act (ACA), such as Accountable Care Organizations (ACO) or Patient-Centered Medical Homes (PCMH), need to comport themselves in a manner consistent with the operations and culture of integrated primary care settings and at the same time display the knowledge, values, and skills of a psychologist (Nash et al., 2013). Many of the standards on competence discussed in Chapter 5 reflect the aspirations articulated in Principle B.In fulfilling the ideals expressed in Principle B, psychologists seek to meet their responsibilities by avoiding conflicts of interest that would jeopardize trust or lead to exploitation or harm. They also consult with other professionals when necessary (see, e.g., Standards 3.05, Multiple Relationships; 3.06, Conflict of Interest; and 3.09, Cooperation With Other Professionals). The fiduciary and professional obligations to which Principle B asks psychologists to aspire are also reflected in the standards on resolving ethical issues (Chapter 4), record keeping and fees (Chapter 9), and education and training (Chapter 10). Readers may also wish to refer to Standard 8.01, Institutional Approval, for a discussion on submitting research proposals to institutional review boards (IRBs) in Chapter 11, as well as the Hot Topics on psychological assessments and the rules of evidence (Chapter 12) and on the integration of religion and spirituality in therapy (Chapter 13).Principle C: IntegrityMaintaining integrity in psychological activities requires honest communication; truth telling; promise keeping; and accuracy in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. It involves refraining from making professional commitments that cannot be met and avoiding or correcting misrepresentations of one’s work. In following Principle C, psychologists do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud or subterfuge. These ideals are evidenced in Standards 5.01, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements; 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements; and 8.10, Reporting Research Results.Psychologists advertising their services on websites or other media have an ethical responsibility greater than do non-healthcare professionals to present information clearly, because many potential consumers of psychological services do not have the knowledge or experience to understand their own treatment needs or evaluate the legitimacy of claims made. Such individuals may be particularly vulnerable to persuasion or exploitation (Standards 3.08, Exploitive Relationships; 5.01, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements). Consistent with Principle C, psychologists offering expert opinions in legal proceedings need to recognize the adversarial nature of the legal system and treat all participants and weigh all data, opinions, and rival hypotheses impartially (Standards for Forensic Psychology; APA, 2013e).When serving as expert or fact witnesses, providing educational services, or disseminating the results of research, psychologists present their findings objectively and dispassionately, provide all relevant material, and offer reasonable alternative interpretations in an unbiased and impartial manner. For further discussion, refer to the Hot Topics on avoiding false and deceptive statements in expert testimony (Chapter 8) and the ethics of managed care (Chapter 9).In some scientific and professional relationships, deception may be justified to maximize knowledge gained or the welfare of individuals served. As articulated in Standard 8.07, Deception in Research, in each instance, psychologists have a serious obligation to evaluate whether deception is warranted, to decide whether negative consequences outweigh the benefits to participants or society, and to correct any mistrust or harm that arises from the use of such techniques.Principle D: JusticePrinciple D calls for psychologists to strive to provide all people with fair, equitable, and appropriate access to treatment and the benefits of scientific knowledge. Psychologists endeavor to be aware of and guard against their own biases and the prejudices of others that may condone or lead to unjust practices. These ideals are reflected in Standards 1.08, Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents; 3.01, Unfair Discrimination; 3.02, Sexual Harassment; and 3.03, Other Harassment. Readers may also wish to refer to the Hot Topics on human rights and psychological assessment in death penalty cases (Chapter 4) and multicultural ethical competence (Chapter 5).Principle D calls for psychologists to select procedures and services that meet the needs of those with whom they work, recognizing that existing social and economic inequities may require different but comparable scientific and professional techniques. For example, when conducting assessments, psychologists must be cognizant of the fact that fairness and accessibility are fundamental issues in testing that require the unobstructed opportunity for all examinees to demonstrate their standing on the construct(s) being tested through population-sensitive and valid instruments (AERA, APA, & NCME, 2014).Consideration of Standard 2.04, Bases for Scientific and Professional Judgments also helps ensure that individuals and populations are treated fairly by emphasizing the importance of evidence-based practices and requiring psychologists to avoid subjective biases in designing research questions, administering tests, and selecting therapeutic approaches. Additional enforceable standards reflecting the values of fairness articulated in Principle D include 7.06, Assessing Student and Supervisee Performance; 8.04, Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants; 9.01, Bases for Assessments; and 10.02, Therapy Involving Couples or Families.Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and DignityPrinciple E calls for psychologists to “respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.” Standards requiring informed consent to research, assessment, and therapy (Standards 3.10, 8.02, 9.03, and 10.01) reflect respect for the autonomous decision making articulated in Principle E. Psychologists must also be attentive to the circumstances of individuals who may have limited capacity for autonomous decision making and take the extra precautions necessary to safeguard these individuals’ rights and welfare. This responsibility is specifically addressed in Standard 3.10b, Informed Consent. Readers may also wish to refer to the Hot Topic on informed consent involving adults with impaired decisional capacity (Chapter 6) and sections on the informational risk of genetic testing and research involving children and adolescents in Chapter 11.Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status. They ensure that they are familiar with the scientific and professional knowledge relevant to these differences and acquire the competencies necessary to perform their roles effectively. Psychologists strive to be aware of and eliminate from their work the effect of their own and others’ prejudices. Exemplar standards reflecting the ideal of respect for individual differences are Standards 2.01, Boundaries of Competence; 3.01, Unfair Discrimination; and 9.01, Bases for Assessments.Principle E also addresses psychologists’ duty to protect the rights of individuals to determine what personal information will be shared and with whom and psychologists’ responsibility to protect test results from unauthorized use. This ideal is embedded in standards on privacy and confidentiality (Chapter 7), as well as Standards 6.02, Maintenance, Dissemination, and Disposal of Confidential Records of Professional and Scientific Work; 7.04, Student Disclosure of Personal Information; and 10.03, Group Therapy. Readers may also refer to the Hot Topic “Confidentiality and Involvement of Parents in Mental Health Services for Children and Adolescents” in Chapter 7.In accordance with Principle E, psychologists conducting psychological assessments should take appropriate steps to ensure test takers’ rights to information about the purpose of a test prior to test administration, when appropriate, so that test results accurately reflect the abilities, diagnosis, or competencies that are the purpose of the assessment. Psychologists should also be aware of their ethical and legal responsibility to provide test takers appropriate access to their test results. This principle is reflected throughout the standards on assessment (Chapter 12).Chapter Cases and Ethics Discussion QuestionsAccording to the APA Ethics Code, “if neither law nor the Ethics Code resolves an issue, psychologists should consider other professional materials and the dictates of their own conscience, as well as seek consultation with others within the field when this is practical.” The APA Ethics Code makes clear that one’s values may, in conjunction with other professional guidance and professional consultation, play a role in professional decision making. What are the risks of exclusively following the dictates of one’s personal views and values in making ethical decisions in professional research or practice?Dr. Shue is a faculty member in a doctoral psychology program. She is sitting in the faculty–student lounge and overhears two graduate students making derogatory, heterosexist comments about another student in the program. Does she have a professional obligation to intervene in the students’ “private” discussion? Are there ethical reasons she should not intervene? Should she discuss her observations with other faculty?A research psychologist is testing whether a combination of standard behavioral therapy and a standard psychopharmaceutical treatment to prevent alcohol cravings is more effective than either approach alone for individuals diagnosed with alcohol use disorder. Discuss how different ethical theories might be applied to determine whether randomly assigning patients to one of the three conditions (standard behavior therapy, psychopharmaceutical treatment, or a combination of both) is ethically justified.

APA Title and Reference Page

This assignment is designed to help you review APA writing guidelines and to begin finding references for the Critical Thinking Paper that is due in Topic 3. This week you are going to start preparing for the paper you have due in Topic 3. This will allow the instructors to review your research and give feedback you will use to develop the Topic 3 paper.

In Topic 3 you will be given 2 topics to choose from: Right to Die or Video Games and Violent Behavior. Two articles for each topic will be given that support each side of the controversy and you are expected to use both articles. Using the Class Resources find similar, empirical articles to support your rationale for the Topic 3 paper.

Use the resources found to construct an APA title page and reference section that conform to guidelines found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Reference sections should include at least two articles, one e-book, and one electronic source.

This assignment uses a scoring guide. Please review the scoring guide prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.

You are not required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite.

APA Title Page and References Rubric

Spiritual Gifts Test Results

The Spiritual Gifts Test you just took assesses which of the seven gifts listed in Romans 12:6-8 you may have. Look at the list of gifts below and pick the gift, or two, in which you ranked the highest score. That gift(s) would probably be one of your primary gifts.

You can learn more about your gift by clicking on the word "define." Click on the word "uses" to go to a page where you can locate ministries that use your gift and find books and links to help equip you in it. (Use the back button of your browser to return to this page.)

PLEASE NOTE: Be sure to record or print the results prior to closing your browser as this test is not set up to save or e-mail results to you.

Define Uses Exhortation - 10 Define Uses Giving - 12 Define Uses Leadership - 14 Define Uses Mercy - 12 Define Uses Prophecy - 14 Define Uses Service - 11 Define Uses Teaching – 9

Definitions of Spiritual Gifts Specifically Listed in the Bible:

ADMINISTRATION: 1 Cor. 12:28 - to steer the body toward the accomplishment of God-given goals and directives by planning, organizing, and supervising others (Greek Word: kubernesis - to steer, guide, helmsmen)

Books & Internet Resources:

· Christian Education

· Leadership

· Staffing

· Staff Support

Related Online Training Helps on MinTools.com:

· Examples of Gift of Administration in Use

· Leading Types of Spiritual Gifts

· Christian Education Ministry

· Leadership Ministry

· Staffing Ministry

APOSTLE: Eph. 4:11; 1 Cor. 12:28 - to be sent forth to new frontiers with the gospel, providing leadership over church bodies and maintaining authority over spiritual matters pertaining to the church (Greek Word: apostolos - 'apo'=from 'stello'=send; one sent forth)

Books & Internet Resources:

· Cross-Cultural

· Missions

· Other Outreach

· Visionary Leadership

Related Online Training Helps on MinTools.com:

· Outreach Expresses Love

· Outreach Ministry

· Outreach Types of Spiritual Gifts

CELIBACY: 1 Cor. 7:7,8 - to voluntarily remain single without regret and with the ability to maintain controlled sexual impulses so as to serve the Lord without distraction

Books & Internet Resources: