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Evaluation and Assessment 9

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Pre-Test 1. Evaluation and assessment are different words

with the same meaning. T/F 2. In the field of early childhood education,

standardized tests are the most respected method of child assessment. T/F

3. The primary benefit of observation as an assessment method is that anyone can do it, even if they have no training or expertise in the area of assessment. T/F

4. Early childhood administrators are not responsible for diagnosing a child’s special need. T/F

5. Accreditation is the most reliable measure for assessing program quality. T/F

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define child assessment and describe the importance of a comprehensive and ongoing child assessment plan.

2. Summarize the benefits of child assessment for children, families, and the staff of early childhood programs.

3. Describe the characteristics of high-quality assessment.

4. Explain the role of observation in child assessment practices, and name three assessment methods that use observation.

5. Describe the evaluation and assessment process for the identification of a child’s special need.

6. Examine the relationship between child assessment and program assessment, and describe examples of situa- tions that demonstrate this relationship.

CHAPTER 9Introduction

Lindsay Miller is meeting with the lead teachers of the center’s two pre-k classrooms, Gina and Mindy. These two classrooms serve the oldest children in the center, those who are 4 and 5 years old. The teachers have been preparing information to share with families at the upcoming parent-teacher conferences. The program usually holds parent-teacher conferences twice a year, and this will be the first round of conferences since Lindsay came on board as the director.

“Tell me about how you’ve been preparing. What do you think parents of the pre-k children will most want to talk about at the conferences?” asks Lindsay.

“They’re all thinking about kindergarten,” replies Gina. “They want to know if their children are ready.”

“Yes,” says Mindy. “They often ask questions about whether their children can count or write let- ters, but I want to let them know that social skills are important too.”

Lindsay nods. “So what specific information about each child have you collected and prepared?”

As the two teachers respond to her questions, Lindsay is struck by how differently they each approach the task. Gina, a former Head Start teacher, has created a checklist based on her experience using the High Scope Child Observation Record (COR), a child assessment tool that is used in Head Start classrooms to collect information about children’s growth and progress in each developmental area (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001). To prepare for the parent-teacher confer- ences, Gina has created a chart showing which letters and numbers each child in her class can rec- ognize and name.

Mindy, on the other hand, has created a portfolio for each child in her class. Each portfolio consists of a folder that contains photos and artwork. Mindy is eager to talk with the parents about the items in the portfolios and tell them stories about the funny and interesting things the children have been doing in her classroom.

Lindsay sees the value of each teacher’s preparations. Gina knows specific details about exactly what the children can do, especially regarding the traditional school-readiness skills, such as letter recognition. Mindy’s portfolios demonstrate her enthusiasm and affection for the children. Lindsay realizes that her program does not yet have a clearly defined approach to how children’s growth and progress will be measured and shared with families. As the director, she has some work to do. She needs to develop a vision and plan for evaluation and assessment in her program.

Introduction

This chapter will look closely at the role of administrators like Lindsay in child assessment and examine the relationships between child assessment and program assessment. We will also examine aspects of program assessment that may not be directly addressed through

licensing or accreditation.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 What Is Child Assessment?

9.1 What Is Child Assessment?

How do we measure the outcomes of our work to determine if we’ve been successful? The answer, put simply, is through something called child assessment, the process of measur- ing children’s progress regarding their learning and development.

Assessment is part of a broader evaluation process. In early childhood education, evaluation involves determining the quality of outcomes achieved through education and care services. The term assessment refers to the parts of the evaluation process that involve collecting and analyzing data. Specifically, child assessment involves collecting information about what individual children can do, what they know, and how they feel in order to gain a better understanding of how the children are responding to the services they receive.

The results of child assessment can be used for a variety of purposes, such as identifying spe- cial needs, reporting progress to families, setting individual learning goals, and determining the effectiveness of the program. Early childhood administrators can also use child assessment results collectively to make programming decisions related to curriculum, staffing, scheduling, and the environment. Program assessment is closely linked to concepts and practices of child assessment. The quality of a program parallels the program’s ability to produce positive outcomes for children.

The Child Assessment Plan An early childhood administrator is often respon- sible for developing plans and structures for the evaluation activities that take place in the program. The evaluation plans should be aligned with the program’s vision, and should address the question, “How will we know if we are making progress toward our vision?” The administrator can select assess- ment practices that will help answer that question.

After developing a child assessment plan, admin- istrators then supervise the implementation of the plan and use the information to lead and shape the program (Bowers, 2008).

Depending on the type and structure of the pro- gram, some aspects of the assessment plan may be predetermined or mandated. For example, a pre-k program that is affiliated with a public school may be required by the school board to use a specific child assessment system. Some early childhood pro- grams, however, may have the flexibility to develop their own assessment plan.

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A comprehensive child assessment plan looks at all domains of development, including physical, cognitive, and social- emotional.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 What Is Child Assessment?

A child assessment plan is a comprehensive and ongoing structure for the collection, interpre- tation, and sharing of assessment information of children’s learning, growth, and development. The plan may include a wide range of assessment strategies and practices, such as observations, checklists, narratives, or video recordings. It may include specific guidelines for the storage and organization of assessment materials in child files or child portfolios, as well as specific directives about how assessment results are shared with families and used to make collective decisions about curriculum planning. Ideally, a child assessment plan would include participation and col- laboration with teachers, families, and the community as a whole.

Assessment Activities Most early childhood programs conduct some kind of child assessment activities, though some may be more informal than others. As described in the opening scenario, checklists and charts that record which letters and numbers each child can identify is an example of a more structured assessment activity (Figure 9.1). Creating an open-ended portfolio of photos and artwork is more informal; the contents of each portfolio may vary from child to child.

Some programs may implement very few child assessment activities. A part-day play-based pre- school program run primarily by parent volunteers may, for example, collect child assessment information only through a brief developmental checklist.

Creating and implementing an ongoing child assessment plan that incorporates data from mul- tiple sources is considered best practice in the field of early childhood education because multiple sources and methods are more likely to yield accurate and comprehensive results. The standard set by the NAEYC’s accreditation criteria is that “Programs use assessments to support children’s learning, using a variety of methods such as observations, checklists, rating scales . . .” (p. 41, National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2017).

CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 What Is Child Assessment?

Figure 9.1: Developmental Checklist for 4- and 5-Year-Olds

The primary purpose of a developmental checklist is to identify children with delays or gaps in development that may require further assessment. This type of assessment activity does not generate detailed information about individual children. Source: Early Childhood Direction Center. (2006) Developmental Checklists: Birth to Five. Buffalo, NY: Women & Children’s Hospital of Buffalo. Used by permission of The Mid-State Early Childhood Direction Center (ECDC), Syracuse University.

Questions to Think About 1. How is an administrator’s role in evaluation and assessment different from a teacher’s

role? 2. As an administrator, would evaluation and assessment tasks be among your favorite

activities? Why or why not?

DEVELOPMENTAL CHECKLIST - 4 to 5 YEARS

CHILD’S NAME:

DATE OF BIRTH:

PARENT OR GUARDIAN:

MOVEMENT DATE OBSERVED

MILESTONES IN HAND AND FINGER SKILLS

LANGUAGE MILESTONES

COGNITIVE MILESTONES

SOCIAL MILESTONES

Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer Hops, somersaults Swings, climbs

Copies triangle and other geometric patterns Draws person with body Prints some letters Dresses and undresses without assistance

Recalls parts of a story Speaks sentences of more than 5 words Uses future tense Says name and address

Can count 10 or more objects Correctly names at least 4 colors Better understands the concept of time Knows about things used every day in the home (money, food, etc.)

Wants to please and be with friends More likely to agree to rules Likes to sing, dance and act Shows more independence

CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Benefits of Child Assessment

9.2 Benefits of Child Assessment

The primary benefits of child assessment are to children and families. Collecting and analyz- ing child assessment results helps early childhood professionals better support each child’s learning and development because the assessment process provides details and demon-

strates patterns that improve practice.

For example, suppose a preschool program uses a child assessment system that is developed to align with state early learning standards and one of those standards is “Describe and sort objects by color.” The program develops an observational checklist, administered twice a year, that docu- ments the ability of each child to meet this standard. Perhaps the results of the assessment show that one child, a 4-year-old, is able to identify most objects by color but is not yet able to sort objects by color. The teachers can use this information to plan activities that will give this child more opportunities to play sorting games. While the child may have played sorting games anyway, the assessment results and the process of examining and discussing the results as a teaching team will lead to more intentional curriculum planning and classroom interactions that will better sup- port this child’s development and likely lead to more positive outcomes.

When shared through conferences and other meth- ods, child assessment information also benefits par- ents and family members because it helps them to understand their children, the curriculum, and child development. Child assessment benefits children, families, and staff because it improves program quality. Teachers and administrators make more accurate and intentional decisions about curriculum and programming when they use child assessment results collectively to inform their decisions.

As Ann S. Epstein describes in her book, The Inten- tional Teacher: Choosing the Best Strategies for Young Children’s Learning (2007), intentional teach- ers create optimal learning experiences for children when they act purposefully and can articulate why they are choosing specific curriculum activities and instructional practices. Child assessment is essential to intentional teaching because it informs, supports, and shapes the decisions teachers make each day (Epstein, 2007).

In the preceding example in which the assessment results reveal that an individual child has not yet met the learning objective for sorting colors, the

teacher uses the assessment information to make intentional and informed decisions about what activities and materials to include in the curriculum plan. If the teacher chooses to introduce a new sorting game, she does so not just because the game is fun and engaging, but because the activity will likely support the child’s learning and development.

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Child assessment results inform curriculum development as teachers set goals for individual children and plan for the pace of the whole group.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Types of Assessment

Questions to Think About 1. Suppose you are an administrator working with a teacher who is reluctant to participate

in child assessment activities. What might you say to that teacher to convince her that child assessment has benefits to children and families?

2. Do you think child assessment is a topic that administers should discuss with prospective parents when they are giving initial tours of their programs? Why or why not?

9.3 Types of Assessment

The NAEYC, in partnership with the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE), has published a joint position statement sup- porting appropriate assessment practices.

From Where We Stand on Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation:

To assess young children’s strengths, progress, and needs, use assessment meth- ods that are developmentally appropriate, culturally and linguistically responsive, tied to children’s daily activities, supported by professional development, inclu- sive of families, and connected to specific, beneficial purposes:

1. making sound decisions about teaching and learning, 2. identifying significant concerns that may require focused intervention for individual

children, and 3. helping programs improve their educational and developmental interventions.

Indicators of Effectiveness

• Ethical principles guide assessment practices. • Assessment instruments are used for their intended purposes. • Assessments are appropriate for ages and other characteristics of children being as-

sessed. • Assessment instruments are in compliance with professional criteria for quality. • What is assessed is developmentally and educationally significant. • Assessment evidence is used to understand and improve learning. • Assessment evidence is gathered from realistic settings and situations that reflect

children’s actual performance. • Assessments use multiple sources of evidence gathered over time. • Screening is always linked to follow-up. • Use of individually administered, norm-referenced tests is limited. • Staff and families are knowledgeable about assessment.

(NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2009)

Let’s look more closely at what it means to assess young children in ways that are not just devel- opmentally appropriate but are also aligned with standards of best practice in the field for quality programming and professional ethics.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Types of Assessment

We can best respect and support children and families when the assessment methods we use are authentic and responsible and the tools we select are valid and reliable. Appropriate assessment practices also mean making informed and intentional decisions about when to use more formal methods and tools and when to use more informal, less-structured methods and tools. Research plays a significant role in informing and shaping child assessment practices that are high quality and developmentally appropriate.

Authentic and Responsible Assessment Assessment should be both authentic and responsible. Authentic assessment is embedded in the classroom experience (Grace, 2001). Children are observed and evaluated doing the kinds of things, such as playing and having conversations with teachers, that they would ordinarily do each day. In contrast, artificial assessment would involve asking children to perform tasks in isolation of context.

When a child is asked to count how many of her friends are at school that day, there is authenticity to the task. If a child is asked to count a set of unfamiliar objects for a test, the task is not meaning- ful to the child and there is no authenticity (Rencken, 1996). Also, authentic assessment usually takes place in children’s natural environments—their classrooms, playgrounds, and homes.

Responsible assessment means assessment that is accurate, relevant, and ethical; it is grounded in professional standards. Assessing a child’s learning in just one domain, such as language devel- opment, and using that information to predict or make assumptions about the child’s learning in other domains, such as social-emotional development, would not be responsible; it is best to draw on multiple sources of information that assess multiple domains.

Responsible assessment also means keeping in mind that the ultimate purpose of assessment is to benefit children and families. The focus should be on children’s strengths—what they can do, as opposed to what they cannot do.

Responsible assessment methods and tools are culturally and linguistically appropriate. Every effort should be made to conduct assessments in a child’s home language. If parents do not speak English, assessment results should be translated and an interpreter should be available to assist families in having conversations with staff about their children’s progress.

Valid and Reliable To be accurate, child assessment practices must be both valid and reliable. Validity is the degree to which the assessment measures what it intended. For example, suppose a team of preschool teachers intend to assess how well the children in their class can kick a ball, but the assessment is structured in such a way that it requires children to respond to a verbal prompt from the teach- ers. This assessment may actually only measure how well children can follow verbal instructions. There may be children who are able to kick a ball very well but are not able to demonstrate that skill during the assessment activity because they are not able to follow the instructions.

Reliability refers to the overall accuracy of the assessment tool. For administrators, one of the advantages of purchasing or subscribing to formal assessment tools—rather than developing your

CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Types of Assessment

own assessment tools—is that most formal tools that are widely used in early childhood pro- grams, have been proven to be reliable (Teaching Strategies, 2011).

And finally, one of the most important characteristics of authentic and responsible assessment is that it is aligned with curriculum goals. There’s no sense in measuring things that children have no opportunity to learn. For example, if children are going to be assessed for their ability to identify letters and numbers, then the curriculum goals and activities should teach those concepts. Align- ment with curriculum standards does not mean “teaching to the test.” On the contrary, it means testing what we teach.

Formal and Informal Assessment Formal assessment practices are highly structured and replicable. This means that the identical tool or method is used with each child. An example of a formal assessment practice is the admin- istration of the Learning Accomplishment Profile (LAP), a systematic method for observing and recording children’s skill development in seven different domains: gross motor, fine motor, pre- writing, cognitive, language, self-help, and personal/social (Chapel Hill Training-Outreach Project, 2003). The teacher or other adult collects data by engaging with each child one-on-one using 383 sequenced activity cards. When using formal assessment practices such as the LAP, the results will vary from child to child, but the method for eliciting the responses will be the same for every child, whether that method involves checking items on a checklist, completing the fields on an observation form, answering questions on a survey, or any number of other standardized assess- ment methods.

Informal assessment practices are less structured and more open ended. The methods and tools may vary from child to child. As mentioned earlier, portfolio assessment is an informal method because the items in each portfolio may vary from child to child. Informal assessment is what happens any time teachers gather notes, images, or artifacts that demonstrate children’s growth, skills, interests, or ideas. This may involve having open-ended conversations with children, asking open-ended questions, observing their play, or taking photos of children’s art projects or block constructions. Informal assessment practices will be explored further in this chapter in the discus- sions of observation, narrative records, and portfolios.

Research Based In the NAEYC joint position statement on appropriate assessment, one of the primary indicators of effectiveness is that the assessment instruments “are in compliance with professional criteria for quality” (p. 2, NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2009). One of the significant ways that professional criteria for quality can be measured is through research. Research-based assessment are studies that have compared assessment results using specific instruments with large numbers of children over time. If researchers are able to conclude that the replication of similar trends and results among many children in the general population creates enough evidence that the assessment instrument is yielding accurate results, that instrument meets professional standards in the field. Examples of research-based instruments are Teaching Strategies GOLD (Teaching Strategies, 2011) and the Preschool Child Observation Record (COR) (High Scope Educational Research Foundation, 2003).

http://chtop.org/Products/LAP-System/The-LAP-3.html

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Questions to Think About 1. What might be an example of an activity that is an authentic way to assess how well

a child is able to throw a ball? What might be an activity that is an inauthentic way to measure the same thing?

2. What are the differences between the terms validity and reliability in relation to child assessment?

9.4 Assessment Methods

Assessment methods are the processes used to gather data. The primary method used in child assessment is observation, but there are many ways to conduct observations and many ways to record and organize the data collected during observations.

Observation The best way to learn about a child is to watch and listen; therefore, observation is often at the core of authentic and responsible assessment. Observation for assessment is an active, not pas- sive process, and the documentation that is generated is an essential component of any child assessment plan.

Teachers and caregivers are always observing children; however, observation for assessment pur- poses must be planned and intentional. A plan begins with a decision about whom to observe—a list, chart, or schedule that ensures every child will be included. The next step is to determine what activity will be observed and when to conduct the observation. These decisions will be influ- enced by the assessment method, which can range from very informal and unstructured, such as a daily log kept in a steno notebook, to very formal and structured, such as a specimen record in which the observer records the frequency of specific behaviors during a specific period of time.

Observation is a popular and fruitful method of assessment for many reasons. It is fairly easy to implement because teachers and caregivers can conduct observations at any time during the day. They can sometimes observe while they work, as long as they maintain their supervision and over- sight of the classroom. The timing of observations can be flexible; teachers can observe for long or short periods of time, depending on their availability for the task (Rencken, 1996). Observation can also be used in combination with other assessment practices, and it is appropriate for any age group served by early childhood programs, from infants through school-age.

There are some disadvantages to observation, however. While any adult can conduct an observa- tion, the quality of the observation depends on the skill of the observer. He or she needs to know how to pay attention to what is important and to write it objectively and accurately. Also, observ- ers can often be unintentionally biased, and the results of the observation may be influenced by preconceived expectations of that child or children in general.

Another disadvantage is that the content of the observation is based on only observable behav- ior and conversations. When we are limited to what can be seen or heard in that moment, it can sometimes be difficult to draw accurate conclusions about what children are thinking and their motivations.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Training Teachers How to Observe Teachers and caregivers require training and support in order to conduct child observations appropriately and to record assessment data accurately and objectively. Observations must be completed without distraction, which means that additional staff may be necessary for safe super- vision during some observation sessions.

Teachers must be trained on what to write and how to write it. They need to know the character- istics of a quality observation, such as noting the context for the observation, the setting, and the situation, describing the specific actions of the child or children observed, writing down quotes from conversations, and including descriptions of gestures and facial expressions that may provide information about the children’s emotions. Training teachers to conduct and document observa- tions can take place in staff meetings, at specialized workshops, or during one-on-one mentoring or supervision sessions.

Administrators can use videos to lead practice observation ses- sions. Teachers can practice tak- ing notes while they observe the video, and afterward the notes can be discussed and reviewed with their peers or with the supervisor. Opportunities to receive feedback in these pro- fessional development sessions help to improve teacher’s obser- vational skills.

Teachers must be trained to resist the temptation to draw conclu- sions about a child’s thoughts and feelings based on the child’s behavior. An observational note such as, “James was easily frustrated by the challenge of stacking the blocks,” is poorly written because it does not describe the child’s behavior; it only presumes to conclude what James is feel- ing. This might be a better example:

James placed one cube block on top of another until he had five blocks stacked into a tower. James placed a sixth cube on top, and the tower fell over. James repeated this process three times, and each time he added a sixth cube, the tower fell. After the tower fell for the fourth time, James threw the blocks onto the floor.

In this example, the observer has recorded the specific actions that the child uses to manipulate the blocks, including the frequency of the actions. The final action, throwing blocks on the floor, may indeed indicate frustration, but the observer has objectively recorded the behavior, describ- ing what the child does rather than stating what the child is feeling.

San Diego County Office of Education

Learning to write detailed and objective observation notes requires training and practice.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Narrative Records A narrative record is a written description of an individual child or group of children, based on obser- vation. Narrative records can take on many different formats, from informal, loosely structured notes to structured text that conforms to the specific requirements of a formal assessment tool.

On the informal end of the continuum are journals or logs maintained by classroom teachers to help them monitor and reflect on children’s behavior and learning. The log may be as simple as notes that will later be transferred to more formal records. In many early childhood programs, one notebook is designated for each child. Sometimes these types of open-ended logs are used as a communication tool between school and home; parents or guardians may be invited to read and contribute notes to an individual child’s log on a regular basis.

Another version of the classroom log is what’s known as anecdotal records. These are brief and objec- tive accounts that describe children’s actions, behaviors, and conversations. Anecdotal records are often more structured in length and content than a simple classroom log, in that a schedule or rota- tion of note taking may be developed to ensure that each child is observed regularly and in detail (Figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2: Child Observation Record (COR) Anecdotal Record Form

This form from the High Scope COR assessment system is an example of one way to organize anecdotal records. The space for each record is small, indicating that the notes should be brief. The letters and numbers at the top of each section correspond to categories and domains in the assessment system. From Preschool Child Observation Record: Child anecdotes (p. 4) by HighScope Educational Research Foundation, Ypsilanti, MI: HighScope Press .2003 HighScope Educational Research Foundation. Used with permission.

Initiative

(Circle one) Item

(Circle one) Level

A B C D

1 2 3 4 5___________

___/___/____ Date

Observer

Initiative

(Circle one) Item

(Circle one) Level

A B C D

1 2 3 4 5___________

___/___/____ Date

Observer

(Circle one) Item

(Circle one) Level

A B C D

1 2 3 4 5___________

___/___/____ Date

Observer

(Circle one) Item

(Circle one) Level

A B C D

1 2 3 4 5___________

___/___/____ Date

Observer

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Similarly, a running record is a narrative record that includes a detailed account of a child’s behav- ior at specific intervals. The intervals could be short, such as every five minutes, or long, such as once a day or once a week. The running record is a good tool for collecting information about how a child’s behavior may be influenced by what is happening in the classroom over time. However, running records can be very time consuming to complete and require a high level of sustained objectivity and concentration from the observer.

Sampling Methods As the name implies, sampling methods involve collecting pieces of information that represent children’s behavior or learning. These samples can be used to demonstrate a child’s learning or development. Sampling is way to add structure to observational assessment practices. The benefit of sampling is that it narrows the focus of the observation to specific times, intervals, or events, yielding more detail and depth than many less-structured observation methods (Clemens, Shap- iro, & Seibert, 2012).

With time sampling, a checklist or chart is used to document targeted behaviors at specific times. A time sampling observation is structured to include the identification of the targeted behav- ior and then descriptions of that behavior at specific time intervals. The advantage of this struc- ture when observing the targeted behavior is that the observer collects multiple examples of the targeted behavior and responses to the behavior, yielding much more information than a single observation. Time sampling works well for assessing social interactions because it can allow for the observation of several children at the same time.

Similarly, event sampling usu- ally involves the completion of a tally sheet to record specific behaviors during a designated event or activity. Event sampling is good for measuring atypical or inappropriate behaviors, such as wandering or hitting, during a busy classroom time, such as free play. Usually an event sam- pling document will collect the following types of information: the behavior or action, the time of day the behavior occurred, what happened just before the behavior (the antecedent), and what happened just after the behavior (the consequence).

The Work Sampling System (WSS) is frequently used in Head Start and child development pro- grams. This system documents and assesses children’s skills, knowledge, and accomplishments across multiple domains using three complementary components: checklists, portfolios, and sum- mary reports.

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Event sampling is a helpful tool for assessing the cause of a child’s behavior.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Though the term sampling is in the title of WSS, it actually involves much more than just sampling. It is an example of a curriculum-embedded assessment that includes provisions for many of the elements of best practice, such as involving the child’s family in the assessment process.

Another element of best practice included in the Work Sampling System is the frequency of assessment. Developmental observations are recorded three times a year, giving teachers mul- tiple opportunities to document children’s specific strengths and weaknesses over time. WSS is an example of an assessment system that has been researched to confirm its validity (Meisels, 1995).

A similar assessment system has been developed for younger children, from infancy to age three. The Ounce Scale, an observational assessment for infants, toddlers, and families, is an example of an authentic performance assessment system. The Ounce Scale is frequently used in publicly funded programs such as Early Head Start. Other examples of assessment tools used with infants and toddlers include the Infant & Toddler Child Observation Record (High Scope Educational Research Foundation, 2002) and the Brief Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) (Briggs-Gowan & Carter, 2006).

Administering assessments of infants and toddlers can be especially challenging due to their short attention spans and their sensitivity to contextual factors (Dichtelmiller & Ensler, 2004). For exam- ple, a hungry or tired baby will respond differently to an assessment cue, such as an invitation to reach for a toy, than a baby who is fed and rested. Also, since infants and toddlers are often car- ried and held by their caregivers, it is more difficult for staff to observe and take notes at the same time. As a result, an infant-toddler assessment plan will usually involve less documentation than a plan for older children. Administrators must keep these considerations in mind when planning for child assessment.

Focus On: Technology and Child Assessment Technology provides opportunities for early childhood professionals to improve the collection, stor- age, and use of assessment information. Creating and storing information digitally, improves the ease and efficiency of working with these documents because the documents can be updated frequently without reworking or reprinting, and it reduces the need for hard copy storage. Technology also allows professionals to create and store images, video, and audio as digital files.

Compiling checklists and evaluation scores on spreadsheets and in databases opens new opportuni- ties for making connections between different pieces of information. For example, an administrator could track an individual child’s progress over time or look at assessment trends among groups of chil- dren. While these same tasks can be accomplished with basic office software such as Microsoft Word and Excel, specific child assessment software systems are available that make the organization and reporting processes more efficient.

Commercial child assessment systems are designed to support an early childhood program in its efforts to track children’s progress over time, analyze and report learning outcomes for various audi- ences, such as parents and funders, and create linkages between assessment and planning. For example, Teaching Strategies GOLD is a widely used child assessment system that includes online data collection and reporting options that allow administrators to manipulate and organize the assess- ment information for a variety of formats. Using this kind of technology, an administrator could create graphs or charts that show growth or progress over time, as well as print reports and lists that demon- strate assessment trends by classroom or by program. (continued)

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Checklists and Rating Scales Checklists are widely used as assessment tools in early childhood education because they require less time than observations and sampling, and because completing a checklist appropriately and accurately requires less training and support than learning to conduct observations or use sam- pling methods. Checklists can be used in combination with other assessment methods as part of a broader child assessment system, or they can be used as stand-alone assessment tools.

A child assessment checklist (Figure 9.3) is usually a form or list of observable skills, behaviors, or milestones. Teachers or other observers record the presence or absence of a specific skill or behavior with a check mark. Or the checklist may allow for use of a rating scale, a system for dif- ferentiating for multiple levels of mastery or quality. For example, for each item on the checklist, there would be the opportunity to write a symbol or letter indicating the level of mastery. A check- list may require that the observer indicate “D” for a developing skill, “M” for a mastered skill, and “E” for a skill level that exceeds the established standard or expectation.

Focus On: Technology and Child Assessment (continued) Paper-based child assessment systems are still available, but most are moving toward either a hybrid that mixes paper-based tools with technology, or a fully electronic or online system. The paperless systems are more likely to be used in early childhood programs that serve large numbers of children; the volume of important informa- tion is so great that technology is essential to manage it. Some fund- ing structures, such as public schools or Head Start, require specific types of child assessment systems that incorporate the use of tech- nology so that assessment information can be easily accessible to agency administrators for reporting purposes.

Web-based assessment systems allow early childhood profession- als to enter data online, which makes it possible to record, store, aggregate, and report data for large numbers of children. Some web- based systems also allow for the electronic management of learning (EML), a level of technology that allows continuous access to infor- mation with a broad range of reporting and filtering capabilities.

Even the most sophisticated technology is only as good as the peo- ple who use it. For example, even though a narrative observation is uploaded and stored in an online system, the information itself must be accurate and objective. The observation skills of the teachers are still critically important.

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One of the benefits of using technology to collect, store, and organize assessment information is that early childhood administrators are better able to generate reports.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

Figure 9.3: Example of a Checklist: Large Motor Skills

A checklist such as this large motor checklist would probably be completed on the playground while the child is playing.

Portfolios A portfolio assessment includes a collection of documents, images, and artifacts that demon- strate children’s work, accomplishments, and behaviors over time. Portfolios are open ended assessment tools, and typically part of an ongoing process for collecting assessment information in a way that enhances and facilitates communication, analysis, goals setting, and reflection. The benefit of developing a diverse and rich portfolio is that it makes the child’s learning visible in very tangible and authentic ways.

The following items might be included in a child assessment portfolio:

• photos of child participating in various activities, such as an image of a child fitting puzzle pieces together that demonstrates the child’s small motor skills;

• photos of child’s projects or products, such as an image of a child’s block structure that demonstrates the child’s use of symmetry;

• artwork, such as a self-portrait that demonstrates the child’s ability to represent body parts;

• writing samples, such as an example of how a child writes her name that demonstrates both small letter skills and letter recognition;

• dictated stories or narratives, such as a dictated narrative about a child’s trip to the zoo that demonstrates the child’s ability to form sentences and use descriptive words;

• transcripts of conversations, such as a conversation between two children at the snack table that demonstrates a child’s ability to compromise and resolve conflicts independently;

• audio or video records, such as a video of a small group of children dancing that demon- strates the children’s large motor skills such as jumping and turning;

• notes, logs, anecdotal records, or observations, such as anecdotal notes that describe a toddler’s progress in learning to use a spoon at lunch time;

• checklists, such as a series checklist that records the child’s ability to meet developmen- tal milestones conducted at six-month intervals over a two-year period; the series would demonstrate that the child is consistently on target for growth and development.

Balances on one foot

Balances on a narrow beam

Runs with coordination

Jumps forwards, backwards, and sideways

Climbs a ladder, alternating hands and feet

Throws and catches a beanbag

Throws and catches a ball

Kicks a ball

LARGE MOTOR CHECKLIST

DATE OBSERVED

CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Assessment Methods

The primary benefit of assem- bling a portfolio is that it becomes a dynamic record of the child’s development over time. The process of creating and adding to the portfolios also supports and informs teachers’ ability to plan effectively, both in terms of setting individual goals for children and developing cur- riculum plans. When teachers collect, examine, and reflect on the items in a child’s portfolio, they may notice that there are domains and topics in which the child or children have less expe- rience, such as writing or draw- ing. The portfolio assessment process may result in adding or changing curriculum plans or individual goals for children in order to ensure the children are receiving opportunities to build skills in all areas.

Portfolios also facilitate communication between school and families, because the content of the portfolios demonstrates assessment and curriculum information using tangible, visual examples. Portfolios can also be used with children to help them reflect on and deepen their own learning. When children are invited to view their own portfolios, they can be engaged in conversations about what they’ve learned and how they’ve grown. This may lead to new ideas and discoveries and encourages children to think of themselves as learners to develop skills and knowledge over time.

Standardized Tests Standardized testing is a controversial topic in education. For more than a decade, policy mak- ers and funders in the field of education have been increasingly looking at child assessment as a method for gauging program quality and improving outcomes for children. This trend has been growing especially in elementary and secondary education and has trickled down to early child- hood education as well.

Although standardized testing is not mandated in early childhood education, the federal No Child Left Behind Act, passed in 2001, has created a climate of increasing accountability at the elemen- tary and secondary level that has permeated the early childhood field. Early childhood teachers and administrators are under growing pressure to assess children using methods that may not be appropriate.

David De Lossy/Photodisc/Thinkstock

Paintings and drawings can be used in a child’s assessment portfolio to document the child’s fine motor skills and cognitive skills.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.5 Identification of Special Needs

The 2003 NAEYC position state- ment, “Early Childhood Curricu- lum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation: Building an Effective, Accountable System in Programs for Children Birth through Age 8,” was developed in large part as a response to this pressure. The position clearly supports appro- priate assessment practices, par- ticularly in the statements that assessment evidence should be “gathered from realistic set- tings and situations that reflect children’s actual performance” and the statement that the “use of individually administered, norm-referenced tests is limited” (NAEYC/NAECS/SDE, 2003).

Questions to Think About 1. As an administrator, how would you decide how much training the staff needs in con-

ducting observations for assessment? 2. What resources and information do teachers need from the administrator in order to

create and maintain assessment portfolios?

9.5 Identification of Special Needs

One of the important functions of child assessment is to find out if any of the children need further evaluation due to the possibility of a special need, such as a physical or cognitive delay or disability. Note that teachers, administrators and classroom staff do not diagnose

a special need. Rather, early childhood professionals help identify which children might benefit from additional screening and evaluation services, and refer parents to the appropriate sources for those services.

Many parents of children with special needs may not yet be aware that their child has a delay or disability. Early childhood teachers and caregivers are often the first professionals to realize a child may need additional services or support. Administrators are responsible for training staff and working with families to ensure that this process is conducted with sensitivity and understanding.

The identification of a special need is usually a two-step process. The first step is an initial screen- ing, and the second step is an in-depth evaluation.

Screening Some early childhood programs routinely administer a broad developmental screening on site for all the children enrolled. Other program screenings are recommended when a teacher or parent has a concern about a child’s learning or development. Federal law guarantees free screening for

Juice Images/SuperStock

Most early childhood educators agree that standardized testing is not an authentic or responsible assessment practice for young children.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.5 Identification of Special Needs

developmental delays or disabilities by public school districts, but the ease of accessibility and the format of the screening can vary quite a bit from district to district.

Among the most common screening tools is a checklist of observable behaviors (Figure 9.4) that is completed by working one-on-one with a child, using conversation or play to prompt the child’s responses. Another common format is a questionnaire to be completed by a teacher, caregiver, or parent.

A broad developmental screening tool has items that are based on developmental milestones and are designed to answer the question, “Is this child’s development like other children of the same age?” Other screening tools may have a more narrow focus, such as a vision or hearing screening that is administered in order to determine which children may need specific referrals for evalua- tion by an optometrist or audiologist.

Screenings are intended to be a general measure, not a diagnostic tool. The only purpose is to determine if additional assessment is recommended. Therefore, most screening tools can be administered by someone without specific training in child assessment.

Figure 9.4: Screening Sample

Screening observations can be conducted and recorded by any caregiver, including a parent or teacher.

Diagnostic Assessment If the initial screening indicates that the child might benefit from additional evaluation, the family receives a referral for evaluation services, such as a diagnostic assessment. This is conducted by a school or private psychologist and typically involves a structured assessment session in which the child is asked to complete tasks, such as point to a picture or stack blocks.

If a child is identified as needing intervention or support services, special plans, such as an IEP or IFSP (both discussed in Chapter 8) are made. If there is any indication of physical or neurological issues, the child’s pediatrician may be the best sources for a referral.

Respond to pictures in a picture book “What is the dog doing?”

Point to body parts: nose, hair, feet

String beads

Stack blocks

Kick a ball

Use a spoon

Put on a shirt

SCREENING CHECKLIST

DATE OBSERVED

CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Program Assessment

For issues related to cognitive development and learning, vari- ous formal evaluation tools are available for diagnostic assess- ment. These are one-on-one tests conducted by a trained tester, often a psychologist, who asks the child to perform a set of tasks or answer a variety of questions.

One of the most commonly administered early childhood evaluation tools of this type is the Kaufman battery. These tests focus on cognitive development, providing scores in the areas of verbal comprehension, percep- tual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. The final scores for the Kaufman tests are nationally normed, which means they are in the form of percentages that indicate how the child performed compared to other children of the same age who also took the test.

Questions to Think About 1. What might be some of the benefits of identifying a special need in early childhood

rather than waiting until a child is in elementary school? 2. If you were an administrator explaining to a parent the differences between a screening

and a diagnostic assessment, what would you say?

9.6 Program Assessment

In Chapter 3, program assessment, an evaluation process that accurately and continually mea- sures the quality of an early childhood program, was discussed in relation to licensing and accreditation. The focus of that chapter was on the administrator’s role in ensuring the pro-

gram meets external requirements and standards. The topic is worth revisiting in relation to child assessment because the two processes are so closely linked.

Accreditation is one process for measuring quality, but accreditation is not the only choice, and there are aspects of program quality that may not be adequately addressed through accredita- tion. Administrators must continually evaluate the quality of their programs not only to satisfy external agencies but also to ensure that the program is maximizing every opportunity to improve outcomes for children.

A dynamic relationship exists between child assessment and program assessment: Both influence program planning and development, and both significantly inform decision making for early child- hood administrators. Using more than one assessment instrument can broaden the focus and improve the effectiveness of the program assessment process.

Digital Vision/Thinkstock

An in-depth evaluation may reveal delays in development as well as areas where the child is advanced.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Program Assessment

Early Childhood Rating Scales Examples of program assessment tools that have been proven reliable and valid include the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scales (ECERS). There are four versions of the ECERS, each designed for a different type of early childhood program.

1. The Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised (ECERS-R) is designed to assess programs for preschool-kindergarten aged children.

2. The Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale-Revised (ITERS-R) is designed to assess programs for children from birth to 2 and 1/2 years of age.

3. The Family Child Care Environment Rating Scale-Revised (FCCERS-R) is designed to assess family child care programs conducted in a provider’s home.

4. The School-Age Care Environment Rating Scale (SACERS) is designed to assess before and after school group care programs for school-age children, 5 to 12 years of age. (Harms,

Clifford, & Cryer, 2004)

The ECERS tools are also exam- ples of process quality assess- ment. The focus of assessment is on interactions, such as those between staff and chil- dren, between staff and par- ents, interactions among the children themselves, and the interactions children have with the materials in the environ- ment, as well as those features, such as space, schedule, and materials that support these interactions. Process quality is assessed primarily through observation.

Best Practice in Program Assessment There are three important characteristics of effective program assessment practices:

• a definition of quality as a continuum rather than a single finish line; • program assessment looks at the entire program, including administrative functions such

as fiscal management, because these are the systems that support what happens in the classrooms; and

• program assessment includes the input of those who have the most at stake in the pro- cess such as parents, family members, and community partners. (Epstein, 2000)

Quality as a Continuum The most effective program assessment practices define quality along a continuum. Quality pro- gramming that creates optimal outcomes for children is a dynamic and complex process requiring more than just compliance with a fixed set of standards. The best program assessment tools and

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Program assessment based on multiple sources of information measures both the processes, such as interactions between staff and children, and outcomes.

CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Program Assessment

practices are those that allow administrators and staff members to document more than just a yes or no response to assessment criteria.

In real life, quality is a moving target that is continually influenced by a variety of factors, such as changes in staffing and the individual needs and development of the children. By using a con- tinuum to rate quality, assessment practices are more responsive to these variables and better able to identify the path to quality.

Administrative Structures Influence Quality Program assessments must look beyond the walls of the classrooms and evaluate the systems that support direct service. Administrative functions such as fiscal management, governance, and strategic planning are all part of the infrastructure that support the direct services provided to children and families. NAEYC accreditation criteria include the category of Leadership and Man- agement, which covers topics such as administrator credentials and professional development (NAEYC, 2012b). The assessment of specialized administrative functions, such as fiscal manage- ment, legal contracts, and board relations, may require the consultation with professionals out- side the field of early childhood.

For example, some funding agencies, such as United Way, may require programs they fund to con- duct an audit, an official examination and verification of financial accounts. A formal audit requires the services of a certified public accountant. The evaluation of the administrative structures in a small or single-site program can be led by the early childhood administrator while program evalua- tion in larger programs and multisite programs is more complex and requires collaboration among multiple leaders and administrators.

What Would You Do? Alexa Rosenberg is the director of a child care center that is part of a large multisite human service agency. She and her staff are in the early stages of a self-study process for NAEYC accreditation. The head of the agency has set a goal that all the early childhood programs will be accredited within the next three years. Alexa feels a lot of pressure to complete the self-study process quickly and success- fully. She is also concerned because her program is short staffed, and the agency budget does not allow for the hiring of additional teachers.

As Alexa and her staff begin collecting information for the self-study, it becomes clear that they will not be able to meet many of the criteria without adding staff. Although they are maintaining appropri- ate teacher-child ratios, they do not have enough staff available to cover the classrooms for planning time and professional development activities.

If you were in Alexa’s position, what would you do?

a. Do the best you can with the staff you have. The budget is tight for a reason. Times are tough, and there are no new funds coming in.

b. Meet with the head of the agency and describe the staffing situation in detail. Be clear that with- out additional staff the program will not be able to provide the level of quality care and educa- tion to achieve accreditation. (continued)

CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Program Assessment

Involving Families and Community Members in Program Assessment Program assessment should include all the stakeholders—everyone who has an interest in the evaluation results. In early childhood education those stakeholders include families and commu- nity members.

Depending on the location and structure of the program, community members may include fami- lies or businesses located near the program’s facility, leaders of religious or cultural groups who represent the families served, or local community leaders such as aldermen or park district com- missioners. Best practice in program assessment involves inviting these community stakeholders, as well parents and family members, to express their praise, concerns, and ideas about the early childhood program.

Two methods for inviting input from families and community members are surveys and meetings. Surveys can be a very effective method of gathering information from parents, because the survey process allows for broad participation. Surveys can be conducted on paper, electronically, or ver- bally. A survey can be administered as an interview, in person, or over the phone.

Parent survey questions may be open-ended, standardized, or a mix of both. Examples of open- ended questions are, “What do you like best about this program?” or “What would you like to see improved?” Standardized questions are structured to require a specific range of answers, such as “yes” or “no,” or a rating scale. When the format of the survey is standardized, the results can be used collectively to identify trends.

An evaluation meeting can sometimes yield more participation or more detail than a survey. The format of an evaluation meeting may be closed or open, formal or informal. An example of a for- mal, closed meeting would be a meeting of a board of directors with a specific agenda of program assessment items to discuss. An example of an open, informal meeting would be a parent meeting with a loosely structured agenda for the purpose of discussing feedback about the program’s cur- riculum. When working with large groups in an evaluation meeting, it may be helpful to divide into small groups for discussion, with one member of each group designated to take notes, recording feedback from group members.

What Would You Do? (continued) c. Use the accreditation self-study process as an opportunity to assess the overall program, includ-

ing administrative structures such as fiscal management, staffing, and budgeting. Involve all lev- els of administrators in this process, including the head of the agency.

d. Resign from your position, and seek a leadership role in an agency with better funding.

Explanation: Unfortunately, Alexa’s situation is not unusual. Most programs are not funded at a level to support optimal planning and professional development activities. Alexa has the added pressure of a mandate to achieve NAEYC accreditation by a specific deadline. The good news is that three years may be enough time to advocate for resources and lead her program through a quality improvement process. Alexa will need to form positive relationships with the agency leaders who can support her through the process. She can also use the self-study process and the documents she will create as part of this program assessment process as evidence to support her position as she advocates for addi- tional funding to expand her staff.

CHAPTER 9Chapter Summary

Focus On: Outcome Measurements An important trend in program assessment is outcome measurements, quantitative data that dem- onstrate the program has created positive outcomes for the children and families it serves. In educa- tion and among human service agencies, more and more policies related to funding are increasing accountability and requiring programs to document outcome measurements. When programs receive ongoing grants that are renewed from year to year, the funders need to see evidence that the money has been put to good use and has made a difference in the lives of children and families. Administra- tors of early childhood programs that receive ongoing grants need to know how to document out- come measurements in order to satisfy documentation and reporting requirements.

One of the first steps in this direction was in 1996 when the United Way of America developed a now widely used approach to outcome measurement in the nonprofit sector. This approach included the following distinguishing features to measuring and documenting program outcomes:

• quantitative measurement of outcomes; • regular, systematic measurement; • program improvement as main objective; and • programs identify their own outcomes. (Hendricks, Plantz, & Pritchard, 2008)

For an early childhood program, measurement outcomes might be structured around the number of families served, the number of hours children spend in the program, as well as child performance out- comes, such as the number of children meeting or exceeding early learning standards before entering kindergarten.

Questions to Think About 1. In what ways are child assessment and program assessment related? 2. Do you think it might be possible for a program with poor fiscal management and admin-

istrative functioning to become accredited? Why or why not?

Chapter Summary • Child assessment is the process of evaluating children’s progress regarding their learning

and development. The results of a child assessment can be used for various purposes, such as reporting progress to families or setting learning goals. Child assessment results can also be used collectively to make programming decisions related to curriculum, staff- ing, scheduling, and the environment.

• A child assessment plan is a comprehensive and ongoing structure for the collection, interpretation, and sharing of assessment information of children’s learning, growth, and development. A child assessment plan may include a wide range of assessment strate- gies and practices such as observations, checklists, narratives, or video recordings.

• Assessment should be both authentic and responsible. Authentic assessment is embed- ded in the classroom experience. Responsible assessment means assessment that is accurate, relevant, and ethical.

• Observation is at the core of authentic and responsible assessment. Observation is used in the creation of narrative records, such as anecdotal notes, as well as in sampling methods such as time sampling and event sampling.

CHAPTER 9Post-Test

• Portfolio assessment is a method of collecting and documenting assessment information in a way that enhances and facilitates communication, analysis, goals setting, and reflec- tion by collecting documents, images, and artifacts that demonstrate children’s work, accomplishments, and behaviors over time. Portfolios make the child’s learning visible in very tangible and authentic ways.

• One of the important functions of child assessment is to identify children who may need further evaluation because there is the possibility of a special need. The identification is usually a two-step process, an initial screening followed by an in-depth evaluation.

• Program assessment is important because quality must be continually evaluated to ensure that the program is maximizing every opportunity to improve outcomes for children. There is a dynamic relationship between child assessment and program assessment.

• Three important characteristics of effective program assessment practices include defin- ing quality as a continuum rather than a single finish line; creating a program assessment process that looks at the entire program, including administrative functions; and includ- ing the input of all stakeholders in the program assessment process.

Post-Test

1. Which of the following is NOT one of the purposes of child assessment? a. identifying special needs b. reporting progress to families c. setting learning goals d. determining staff salaries

2. Collecting and analyzing child assessment results help early childhood professionals a. conduct classroom observations. b. support each child’s learning. c. manage transitions to the playground. d. meet deadlines and manage schedules.

3. Which of the following settings for child assessment activities would be considered the least authentic? a. the child’s home b. a playground c. a doctor’s office d. the child’s classroom

4. Best practice in child assessment suggests that assessment methods and instruments should be a. reliable, valid, and research based. b. open ended and informally structured. c. designed by parents and family members. d. implemented only once or twice a year.

CHAPTER 9Discussion Questions

5. One disadvantage of using observation for child assessment is that it does not reveal the child’s a. expressive language ability. b. play preferences and interests. c. social and communication skills. d. thoughts and motivations.

6. An anecdotal record is a a. detailed account of a child’s behavior at specific intervals. b. brief, objective account describing children’s actions, behaviors, and conversations. c. checklist or chart used to document targeted behaviors at specific times. d. performance assessment system used with infants and toddlers.

7. The Kauffman battery is an example of a a. diagnostic assessment tool. b. developmental screening. c. vision and hearing test. d. student portfolio system.

8. Using more than one program assessment method is helpful because a. some methods are not reliable and valid. b. multiple methods cover a broader scope of issues. c. accreditation will eventually expire and must be renewed. d. most programs serve more than one age group.

9. Process quality is primarily measured through a. surveys. b. meetings. c. software. d. observation.

10. One measure of the quality of fiscal management of an early childhood program is accomplished by conducting a. a parent meeting. b. a series of observations. c. an accounting audit. d. an appraisal of the facility.

Answers: 1 (d); 2 (b); 3 (c); 4 (a); 5 (d); 6 (b); 7 (a); 8 (b); 9 (d); 10 (c)

Discussion Questions

1. Many teachers and caregivers consider child assessment as something they are required to do but don’t enjoy . Why do you think they feel that way? What could an administra- tor do to help generate more enthusiasm for child assessment from her staff?

2. Child assessment information is reported to parents and to funding agencies. What might be some of the similarities and differences between the way information is shared with each of these two groups of stakeholders?

3. What are some of the ways technology can improve the efficiency, accuracy, and quality of assessment?

CHAPTER 9Additional Resources

Answers and Rejoinders to Pre-Test

1. False. Evaluation is a broad term that refers to making judgments about value or quality while assessment is just one part of evaluation—the part that involves gathering data.

2. False. Standardized tests are not considered developmentally appropriate. 3. False. While anyone can conduct an observation, it takes training and experience to

learn how to record information that is objective and descriptive. 4. True. Early childhood administrators are not responsible for diagnosing a child’s special

need. A diagnosis must be made by a physician or someone with the appropriate spe- cialized training.

5. False. Accreditation is just one of many reliable measures for assessing program quality.

Additional Resources

Web sites Performance Assessment http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/assessment/perfassess.htm A brief article by early childhood assessment expert and lead author of the Work Sampling System, Samuel Meisels, summarizing the arguments against standardized testing and in favor of authentic assessment.

The Power of Portfolios http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/power-portfolios This article introduces preschool and kindergartner teachers to assessment portfolios. The emphasis is on using the portfolio items as reference points for children to reflect on their own growth.

Further Reading Cohen, D. H., Stern, V., Balaban, N., & Gropper, N. (2008). Observing and recording the behavior of young children. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

A classic resource that outlines methods for observation and record keeping that provide an accurate picture of each child’s interactions and experiences in the classroom.

Gronlind, G., & James, M. (2013). Focused observations: How to observe young children for assessment and curriculum planning. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

This book offers techniques and suggestions to help early childhood educators purpose- fully observe children, create portfolios with rich documentation, and use that assess- ment information to plan curriculum that supports every child.

http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/assessment/perfassess.htm

http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/power-portfolios

CHAPTER 9Key Terms

Key Terms

anecdotal records Brief, factual, and objec- tive accounts describing children’s actions, behaviors, and conversations.

assessment methods The processes used to gather assessment data.

audit An official examination and verification of financial accounts, usually carried out by a certified public accountant.

child assessment plan A comprehensive and ongoing structure for the collection, inter- pretation, and sharing of assessment infor- mation of children’s learning, growth, and development.

diagnostic assessment An in-depth evalua- tion used to determine a specific diagnosis or identify a special need.

evaluation The determination or measure- ment of quality, value, or progress.

event sampling Collecting assessment infor- mation using a tally sheet to record specific behaviors during a designated event or activity.

narrative record A written description of an individual child or group of children, based on observation.

outcome measurements Quantitative data that demonstrates the program has created positive outcomes for children and families.

portfolio assessment Collecting of docu- ments, images, and artifacts that demonstrate children’s work, accomplishments, and behav- iors over time for the purpose of assessing children’s learning and development.

program assessment An ongoing evaluation process that measures the quality of an early childhood program.

process quality assessment An assessment of the processes and interactions that contribute to program quality.

rating scale A system for differentiating for multiple levels of mastery or quality.

reliability A measure of the overall accuracy of an assessment tool.

Research-based assessment Studies that have compared assessment results using specific instruments with large numbers of children over time.

responsible assessment Accurate, relevant, and ethical assessment that is grounded in professional standards.

running record A narrative record that includes a detailed account of a child’s behav- ior at specific intervals.

sampling Collecting pieces of information that each represent a sample of children’s behavior or learning.

screening A general measure of children’s development used to determine if additional evaluation is necessary.

stakeholders Anyone who has an interest in the program outcomes, such as parents, fami- lies, and community members.

time sampling Collecting assessment infor- mation using an observation checklist or chart developed to document targeted behaviors at specific times.

validity The degree to which the assessment measures what it intended.

CHAPTER 9References

References

Bowers, F. B. (2008, November/December). Developing a child assessment plan: An integral part of program quality. Child Care Information Exchange, 184, 51–57. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press.

Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2006). Brief infant toddler social emotional assessment. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

Chapel Hill Training-Outreach Project. (2003). Learning accomplishment profile. Chapel Hill, NC: CHTOP, Inc. http://chtop.org/Products/LAP-System

Clemens, N. H., Shapiro, E. S., & Seibert, A. L. (2012). Conducting systematic direct classroom observations to define and assess school-related problems. In R. Brown-Chidsey & K. J. Andren (Eds.), Assessment for intervention: A problem-solving approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Dichtelmiller, M. L., & Ensler, L. (2004). Infant/toddler assessment: One program’s experience. Young Children: Beyond the Journal, 30–33. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Retrieved from www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200401 /dichtel.pdf

Early Childhood Direction Center. (2006). Developmental checklists: Birth to five. Buffalo, NY: Women & Children’s Hospital of Buffalo.

Epstein, A. S. (2000, September). Measuring the quality of early childhood programs. Child Care Information Exchange, 135(9), 66–68. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press.

Epstein, A. S. (2007). The intentional teacher: Choosing the best strategies for young children’s learning. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Grace, C. (2001). Assessing young children. PBS Teachers. Retrieved February 1, 2013, from http://www.pbs.org/teachers/earlychildhood/articles/assessing.html

Hendricks, M., Plantz, M. C., & Pritchard, K. J. (2008). Measuring outcomes of United Way– funded programs: Expectations and reality. In J. G. Carman & K. A. Fredericks (Eds.), Nonprofits and evaluation: New directions for evaluation, Number 119 (pp. 13–35). Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass.

High Scope Education Research Foundation. (2002). Infant & toddler child observation record. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope. http://www.highscope.org/Content.asp?ContentId=85

High Scope Education Research Foundation. (2003). Preschool Child Observation Record. Ypsi- lanti, MI: High Scope. http://www.highscope.org/Content.asp?ContentId=113

Meisels, S. J. (1995). Performance assessment in early childhood education: The work sampling system. ED382407, ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED382407.pdf

http://chtop.org/Products/LAP-System

www.naeyc.org/files/yc/file/200401/dichtel.pdf

http://www.pbs.org/teachers/earlychildhood/articles/assessing.html

http://www.highscope.org/Content.asp?ContentId=85

http://www.highscope.org/Content.asp?ContentId=113

http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED382407.pdf

CHAPTER 9References

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) & National Association of Early Childhood Specialists (NAECS) in State Departments of Education (SDE). (2009). Where we stand on curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation (position statement). Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/ PDFs/resources/position-statements/StandCurrAss.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (2017). NAEYC Early learning standards and accreditation criteria & guidance for assessment. Retrieved June 24, 2018, from https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/accred- itation/early-learning/Standards%20and%20Accreditation%20Criteria%20%26%20Guid- ance%20for%20Assessment_April%202017_3.pdf

Rencken, K. S. (1996, November). Observation: The primary tool in assessment. Child Care Infor- mation Exchange, 108, 50–52. Redmond, WA: Exchange Press. Retrieved from http:// www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=ca8db8a58de678c7b3d26d3fc913d228&rgn= div8&view=text&node=7:4.1.1.1.5.5.1.3&idno=7

Teaching Strategies. (2011). Teaching Strategies GOLD Assessment Touring Guide. Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies.

United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Screening and assessment in Head Start. Head Start Bulletin #70. Retrieved February 1, 2013, from http://eclkc.ohs .acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/eecd/assessment/screening/screeningandass.htm

https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/StandCurrAss.pdf

https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/accreditation/early-learning/Standards%20and%20Accreditation%20Criteria%20%26%20Guidance%20for%20Assessment_April%202017_3.pdf

http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=ca8db8a58de678c7b3d26d3fc913d228&rgn=div8&view=text&node=7:4.1.1.1.5.5.1.3&idno=7

http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/eecd/assessment/screening/screeningandass.htm