Psychology Article

Psychology

Fifth Edition

Saundra K. Ciccarelli

J. Noland White Saundra K. Ciccarelli

J. Noland White

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Psychology Fifth Edition

Chapter 99

Motivation and Emotion

Learning Objectives 1 of 2

9.1 Distinguish between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic

motivation.

9.2 Identify the key elements of the early instinct and drive-

reduction approaches to motivation.

9.3 Explain the characteristics of the three types of needs.

9.4 Identify the key elements of the arousal and incentive

approaches to motivation.

9.5 Describe how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-

determination theories explain motivation.

9.6 Identify the physical and social factors that influence hunger.

Learning Objectives 2 of 2

9.7 Recognize some of the factors that contribute to obesity.

9.8 Describe the three elements of emotion.

9.9 Distinguish among the common-sense, James-Lange,

Cannon-Bard, and facial feedback theories of emotion.

9.10 Identify the key elements in the cognitive arousal and

cognitive-mediational theories of emotion.

9.11 Summarize the five steps of the GTD method.

Defining Motivation Learning Objective 9.1 Distinguish between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic

motivation.

• Motivation: the process by which activities are

started, directed, and continued so that physical or

psychological needs or wants are met

– Extrinsic motivation: a person performs an action

because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or

external to the person

– Intrinsic motivation: a person performs an action

because the act is fun, challenging, or satisfying in an

internal manner

Early Approaches to Understanding

Motivation 1 of 3 Learning Objective 9.2 Identify the key elements of the early instinct and drive-

reduction approaches to motivation.

• Instincts and the evolutionary approach: approach

to motivation that assumes people are governed

by instincts similar to those of animals

• Instincts: the biologically determined and innate

patterns of behavior that exist in both people and

animals

Early Approaches to Understanding

Motivation 2 of 3

• Drive-Reduction Theory: assumes behavior arises

from physiological needs that cause internal

drives to push the organism to satisfy the need

and reduce tension and arousal

• Need: a requirement of some material essential

for survival of the organism

• Drive: psychological tension and physical arousal

when there is need that motivates organism to act

in order to fulfill need and reduce tension

Early Approaches to Understanding

Motivation 3 of 3

• Primary drives: involve needs of the body such as

hunger and thirst

• Acquired (secondary) drives: learned through

experience or conditioning, such as the need for

money or social approval

• Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to

maintain a steady state

Figure 9.1 Homeostasis

In homeostasis, the body maintains balance in its physical states. For

example, this diagram shows how increased hunger (a state of

imbalance) prompts a person to eat. Eating increases the level of

glucose (blood sugar), causing the feelings of hunger to reduce. After

a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to

stimulate the hunger drive once again, and entire cycle is repeated.

Different Strokes for Different Folks:

Psychological Needs 1 of 2

Learning Objective 9.3 Explain the characteristics of the three types of needs.

• McClelland’s Theory

– Need for affiliation (nAff): the need for friendly social

interactions and relationships with others

– Need for power (nPow): the need to have control or

influence over others

– Need for achievement (nAch): involves a strong desire

to succeed in attaining goals—not only realistic ones,

but also challenging ones

Different Strokes for Different Folks:

Psychological Needs 2 of 2

• Personality and nAch: Carol Dweck’s Self-theory

of Motivation

– Need for achievement closely linked to personality

factors, including view of self

– Locus of control: internal or external?

Arousal and Incentive Approaches 1 of 4 Learning Objective 9.4 Identify the key elements of the arousal and incentive

approaches to motivation.

• Stimulus motive: a motive that appears to be

unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation,

such as curiosity

• Arousal theory: theory of motivation in which

people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal)

level of tension that they seek to maintain by

increasing or decreasing stimulation

Arousal and Incentive Approaches 2 of 4

• Yerkes-Dodson law: law stating performance is

related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead

to better performance than do levels of arousal

that are too low or too high

– Effect varies with the difficulty of the task

▪ Easy tasks require a high-moderate level

▪ More difficult tasks require a low-moderate level

Figure 9.2 Arousal and Performance

The optimal level of

arousal for task

performance depends

on the difficulty of the

task. We generally

perform easy tasks well

if we are at a high–

moderate level of

arousal (green) and

accomplish difficult

tasks well if we are at a

low–moderate level

(red).

Arousal and Incentive Approaches 3 of 4

• Sensation seeker: one

who needs more arousal

than the average person

Does this look fun?

If so, you may score

relatively higher in

sensation seeking.

Table 9.1 Sample Items From the Zuckerman-

Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire

Scale Item Sensation Seeking

I sometimes do “crazy” things just for fun. High

I prefer friends who are exciting and

unpredictable.

High

I am an impulsive person. High

Before I begin a complicated job, I make

careful plans.

Low

I usually think about what I am going to

do before doing it.

Low

Source: Adapted from Zuckerman, M. (2002). Blank cell

Arousal and Incentive Approaches 4 of 4

• Incentive approaches: theories of motivation in

which behavior is explained as a response to the

external stimulus and its rewarding properties

– Incentives: things that attract or lure people into action

Humanistic Approaches 1 of 2 Learning Objective 9.5 Describe how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-

determination theories explain motivation.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

– Several levels of need a person must strive for before

reaching self-actualization

– Self-actualization: point at which people have

sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their

full human potential

– Peak experiences: times in a person’s life during which

self-actualization is temporarily achieved

Figure 9.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic

needs, such as physical and security needs, before being able

to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and

transcendence.

Humanistic Approaches 2 of 2

• Self-determination theory (SDT): the social

context of an action has an effect on the type of

motivation existing for the action

– Autonomy

– Competence

– Relatedness

Physiological and Social Components of

Hunger 1 of 4

Learning Objective 9.6 Identify the physical and social factors that influence

hunger.

• Hormonal Influences

– Insulin and glucagon: hormones secreted by the

pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins, and

carbohydrates in the bloodstream

▪ Insulin reduces level of glucose in bloodstream

▪ Glucagon increases level of glucose in bloodstream

– Leptin: hormone that signals the hypothalamus that the

body has had enough food and reduces the appetite

while increasing the feeling of being full

Physiological and Social Components of

Hunger 2 of 4

• Role of the Hypothalamus

– Responds to levels of glucose and insulin in the body

– Leptin: hormone that signals hypothalamus that body

has had enough food, and reduces appetite while

increasing feeling of being full

Figure 9.4

The rat on the left has reached a high

level of obesity because its ventromedial

hypothalamus has been deliberately

damaged in the laboratory. The result is

a rat that no longer receives signals of

being satiated, and so the rat continues

to eat and eat and eat.

Physiological and Social Components of

Hunger 3 of 4

• Weight set point: the particular level of weight that

the body tries to maintain

• Basal metabolic rate (BMR): the rate at which the

body burns energy when the organism is resting

Figure 9.5

Average BMR for a Female and Male

*Numbers in the table represent the number of calories a person needs to consume each

day to maintain body weight (without exercise)

Physiological and Social Components of

Hunger 4 of 4

• Social Components of Hunger

– Social cues

– Food preferences

– Cultural factors

– Gender

– Comfort device or escape from unpleasantness

▪ Some people may respond to anticipation of eating by

producing an insulin response

Obesity Learning Objective 9.7 Recognize some of the factors that contribute to obesity.

• Obesity

– Body weight is 20 percent or more over the ideal body

weight for that person’s height

– Biological causes include heredity, hormones, and

slowing metabolism with age

– Overeating

– Stress

The Three Elements of Emotion 1 of 4 Learning Objective 9.8 Describe the three elements of emotion.

• Emotion: the “feeling” aspect of consciousness

characterized by:

– Certain physical arousal

– Certain behavior that reveals emotion to outside world

– Inner awareness of feelings

The Three Elements of Emotion 2 of 4

• Which parts of the brain are involved in various

aspects of emotion?

– Amygdala

▪ A complex structure with many different nuclei and

subdivisions, whose roles have been investigated primarily

through studies of fear conditioning

▪ Emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala by both a fast, crude

“low road” (subcortical) and a slower but more involved cortical

“high road”

Figure 9.6

The “Low Road” and “High Road”

When we are exposed to an emotion-provoking stimulus (such as a shark), the neural signals travel by two

pathways to the amygdala. The “low road” is the pathway underneath the cortex and is a faster, simpler path,

allowing for quick responses to the stimulus, sometimes before we are consciously aware of the nature of the

stimulus. The “high road” uses cortical pathways and is slower and more complex, but it allows us to

recognize the threat and, when needed, take more conscious control of our emotional responses. In this

particular example, the low road shouts, “Danger!” and we react before the high road says, “It’s a shark!”

The Three Elements of Emotion 3 of 4

• Which parts of the brain are involved in various

aspects of emotion?

– Other subcortical and cortical areas

▪ Hemisphere

▪ Frontal lobes

▪ Anterior cingulate cortex

▪ Lateral orbitofrontal cortex

The Three Elements of Emotion 4 of 4

• Emotional Expression

– Facial expressions vary across different cultures

– Display rules

▪ Differ by gender

▪ Differ by culture

• Labeling Emotion ▪ Interpreting subjective feelings by giving it a label

▪ Cognitive element

Figure 9.7 Facial Expressions of Emotion

Facial expressions appear to be universal. For example, these faces are consistently

interpreted as showing (a) anger, (b) fear, (c) disgust, (d) happiness, (e) surprise, and (f)

sadness by people of various cultures from all over the world. Although the situations that

cause these emotions may differ from culture to culture, the expression of particular emotions

remains strikingly the same.

Early Theories of Emotion 1 of 4 Learning Objective 9.9 Distinguish among the common-sense, James-Lange,

Cannon-Bard, and facial feedback theories of emotion.

• Common sense theory of emotion: a stimulus

leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily

arousal

Figure 9.8

Common Sense Theory of Emotion

In the common-sense theory of emotion, a stimulus (snarling dog) leads to an

emotion of fear, which then leads to bodily arousal (in this case, indicated by

shaking) through the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

Early Theories of Emotion 2 of 4

• James-Lange theory of emotion: a physiological

reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion

Figure 9.9

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

In the James-Lange theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to bodily arousal first,

which is then interpreted as an emotion.

Early Theories of Emotion 3 of 4

• Cannon-Bard theory of emotion: the physiological

reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at

the same time

Figure 9.10

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

In the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which

then sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time.

Early Theories of Emotion 4 of 4

• Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions

provide feedback to the brain concerning the

emotion being expressed, which in turn causes

and intensifies the emotion

Figure 9.11

Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion

In the facial feedback theory of emotion, a stimulus such as this snarling dog

causes arousal and a facial expression. The facial expression then provides

feedback to the brain about the emotion. The brain then interprets the emotion and

may also intensify it.

Cognitive Theories of Emotion 1 of 2 Learning Objective 9.10 Identify the key elements in the cognitive arousal and

cognitive-mediational theories of emotion.

• Cognitive arousal theory: both the physical

arousal and labeling of that arousal based on cues

from the environment must occur before the

emotion is experienced

Figure 9.12

Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal

Theory of Emotion

Schachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James-Lange

theory but adds the element of cognitive labeling of the arousal. In this theory, a

stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based on

the surrounding context), which leads to the experience and labeling of the

emotional reaction.

Cognitive Theories of Emotion 2 of 2

• Cognitive-mediational theory: a stimulus must be

interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to

result in a physical response and an emotional

reaction

Figure 9.13

Lazarus’s Cognitive-Mediational Theory of

Emotion

In Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an

immediate appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is

dangerous”). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is

then followed by the appropriate bodily response.

Figure 9.14

Comparison of Theories of Emotion

These figures represent the six different theories of emotion as discussed.

When Motivation Is Not Enough Learning Objective 9.11 Summarize the five steps of the GTD method.

• Getting Things Done methodology

1. Capture anything that has your attention in one place.

2. Process and define what you can take action on and

identify the next steps.

3. Organize information and reminders into categories

based on how and when you need them.

4. Complete weekly reviews of your projects, next

actions, and new items.

5. Do your next actions in the appropriate context or

time frame for doing so.