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8Daily Lesson Planning

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Oh, if you’re a bird, be an early bird And catch the worm for your breakfast plate. If you’re a bird, be an early bird— But if you’re a worm, sleep late.

—Shel Silverstein, Where the Sidewalk Ends

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

ሁ Explain the basic principles of lesson planning. ሁ Describe the distinct phases of the direct-instruction planning model. ሁ Identify the purpose of inquiry-based instruction. ሁ Analyze the social-interaction planning model and its relationship to the lesson study format of professional development.

ሁ Recognize the common pitfalls in lesson planning, and generate possible solutions.

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Introduction The most detailed and specific type of instructional plan is the daily lesson plan. This plan is not just a list of what you plan to do in class, jotted on a calendar; the lesson plan defines the learning objectives, class activities, and assessment tools for a single class period. Lesson plans provide a detailed agenda and outline of pacing that you can refer to during class. The lesson plan serves the rudder of your teaching boat, steering your teaching, on course, to the exact spot of learning necessary for students to meet the lesson objectives. Lesson plans are derived from the unit plan (see Chapter 7) and therefore fit into the big picture, or context, for a particular segment of learning. Lesson plans also help other members of the teaching team know what you are doing and how you are doing it, so that instruction is coordinated within the grade level and across subject areas. Thorough planning during the pre-active phase of teaching includes anticipation of student responses so that you can be prepared for all eventualities.

Lesson planning means deciding in advance what to teach (curriculum), how to teach it (instruction), and how to anticipate student responses (learning). Lesson planning also helps you develop time-management strategies, allowing you to make efficient use of your resources and instructional time. During lesson planning, teachers think about the relative value of vari- ous activities and how much time they should devote to each activity. Lesson planning pro- vides a level of confidence—you will enter class with all materials necessary to conduct the lesson, having anticipated potential problems or safety issues, ensuring that you are prepared with possible solutions or alternative actions. And, finally, lesson planning is important because it schedules “reality checks” of student learning you can use to provide constructive feedback to the learners, refine your own teaching skills, and notify you of what material you need to reteach tomorrow.

This chapter will walk you through the process of developing a daily lesson plan. Each lesson plan details the learning objectives, procedures for delivering instruction, methods of forma- tive assessment, student groupings, and materials needed to carry out the lesson plan. The format of the lesson will vary depending on the instructional model (see Chapter 6) you’re using. Your lesson plans should be detailed enough that a substitute teacher could conduct the lesson for you. As a rule, allow a moment at the end of the lesson to write notes about the success of the lesson, what worked and what did not, and document what you would do dif- ferently next time. This reflective commentary will inform your future lesson-planning decisions.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Finish this sentence: “Good lesson plans do not ensure students will learn what is intended, but they certainly .”

I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 8

Standard #7: Planning for Instruction. The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice. The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the needs of each learner.

Introduction

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Section 8.1 Principles of Lesson Planning

8.1 Principles of Lesson Planning A good lesson plan is the result of macro, intermediate, and micro planning. On the macro level, a lesson plan fits into the course’s overall syllabus. On the intermediate level, a lesson plan is a component of the unit plan and a reflection of a particular instructional model. On the micro level, daily lesson plans detail exactly what teachers expect students to learn and how they will teach the content. Usually, teachers plan by the week using the unit plan as a guiding document (see Chapter 7). This way, teachers can sequence activities logically, according to the school’s bell schedule. For example, if a longer class period happens for science classes on Fridays, then that is a good day to plan a laboratory activity that takes more time.

2 1 S T C E N T U R Y F R A M E W O R K E L E M E N T S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 8

Learning and Innovation Skills A focus on creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration.

21st Century Standards Focus on 21st century skills, content knowledge, and expertise.

21st Century Professional Development Helps teachers develop their abilities to use various strategies (such as formative assess- ments) to reach diverse students and create environments that support differentiated teaching and learning.

21st Century Learning Environments Support professional learning communities that enable educators to collaborate, share best practices, and integrate 21st century skills into classroom practice.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Finish this sentence: “Good lesson plans do not ensure students will learn what is intended, but they certainly .”

I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 8

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Section 8.1 Principles of Lesson Planning

Most teachers develop their lesson plans on a computer using a format that is appropriate for the type of lesson they are planning. The advantage of an electronic lesson plan is that you can easily archive it for referencing next school year, readily modify it when needed, and easily copy and share it with colleagues or administrators.

Characteristics of a Good Lesson Plan Lesson planning is a skill that becomes easier with practice. A good lesson plan has the quali- ties of good teaching: coherence, variety, and flexibility (Celce-Murcia & Brinton, 2013).

1. Coherence—A good lesson plan has a sense of flow; it is not just a collection of discrete activities. Each activity smoothly transitions to the next activity, which is a logical extension of the previous activity. On a macro level, each day’s lessons should also connect with each other.

2. Variety—A good lesson plan also exhibits variety. Teachers can avoid boredom, fatigue, and off-task behaviors by using lesson plans that don’t rely on the same instructional strategies day after day. The percent of teacher-centered time and student-centered time should also vary from lesson to lesson. Teachers should build variety into the lesson plan by considering whole-class activities, small-group, pair, and individual work.

3. Flexibility—And, finally, a good lesson plan is flexible. Teaching involves thinking on your feet. If it is time to change activities within the lesson, then that is what you do, no matter when the lesson plan estimated that the change should occur. As a teacher, you have autonomy to make decisions that are in the best interest of student learning. Remember to record the reasons for changing the original lesson plan in the reflec- tion section of the lesson plan.

Micro-level Planning: The Lesson Plan No matter what model of instruction you are following, or what lesson plan format you are using, the basic structure of a lesson plan can be divided into five elements:

1. Vital information

a. Descriptive data—Include your name, the topic or unit of study, and grade level. While this information may seem obvious to you, the lesson plans are sometimes shared with administrators, team teachers, or substitute teachers. Also provide descriptive data on the student demographics and logistical information such as when and where the class is taught.

b. Measurable objective—What will the students learn as a result of the learning activity? Don’t confuse the objective with the actual learning activity. For example, “lead a discussion on photosynthesis” is the class activity. The learning objective of this activity might be “students list three end products of photosynthesis.”

c. Rationale—The rationale is an explanation of the importance of the lesson and a defense of why particular instructional strategies were chosen to achieve the stated objectives.

d. Summary of lesson—In this section of the lesson plan, you would describe the larger unit of study or general context for this daily lesson and consider the activ- ities that came before and the activities that will follow.

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Section 8.1 Principles of Lesson Planning

2. Standards and assessments

a. Standards—Select “power” standards that can drive instruction for the lesson, and list these in the lesson plan. Begin this selection process by consulting the relevant standards identified in the curriculum map or unit plan.

b. Assessment—What activities will assess how well your students are learning (formative assessments) and how well they have learned (summative assess- ment)? Daily lesson plans usually include some sort of formative assessment; the summative assessment comes at the end of the unit of instruction.

3. Materials and resources

a. Supplies—Consider the instructional materials needed to teach the lesson: hand- outs, PowerPoints, hands-on materials, apps, bookmarked websites, samples of student work, graphic organizers, and any other needed supplies.

b. Resources—List text pages, graphics, and location of audiovisual materials or resources to be used in class.

4. Implementation

a. Procedure—The procedure is the actual plan of action. Usually, you plan an intro- duction or initiating activity, an active-learning segment, and a closure or end-of- the-lesson activity. The lesson plan is detailed. If you plan to conduct a discussion on a topic, write out the discussion questions that will guide the conversation. If you plan an inquiry, prepare for different paths students could use to solve the problem. If applicable, note seating arrangements and preplanning for pair and group work in this section.

b. Strategies for differentiated instruction—First, consider how choices in materi- als, content, procedures, and activities encourage participation by most or all students, including English-language learners, students who are struggling, and advanced learners (a basic principle of differentiated instruction; see Chapter 2). Also list in this section any further adaptations for students with special needs (as guided by the student’s IEP).

c. Time allotments—Time management is important so that learning is kept fast paced and attention spans are not exceeded. Denote on the lesson plan how long you expect each activity segment to last. Be sure to allow for transition time when switching from one activity to another. Teachers also need to contemplate con- tingency plans for when they have fully implemented the lesson plan, but there is still class time left.

d. Learning activities—Provide a detailed explanation of how students would com- plete the learning activity, and consider how students will interact with each other, class material, and the teacher.

e. Closure—The concluding activity should allow students an opportunity to demon- strate what they have learned, reinforce the key points of the lesson, and provide time for students to ask questions.

5. Reflection—Reflect on how you might improve implementation in the future and help students exceed the standard(s) addressed. Consider additional comments that document student successes (or lack of success), or that might help another teacher implement this lesson.

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Section 8.1 Principles of Lesson Planning

As you will notice when we discuss lesson plan formats that are specific to particular models of instruction, not every component of the five elements above will be present in every writ- ten lesson plan, nor must they be presented in this particular order. However, every lesson plan will contain some iteration of these five elements.

Lesson Planning Myths Some assumptions (adapted from Kellough & Carjuzaa, 2006) made about lesson planning can lead to myths. For example, a new teacher who sees that a veteran teacher is not writing a detailed lesson plan might assume that not all teachers are required to have a lesson plan. This is a myth. As teachers become more and more experienced, they may not need elaborate writ- ten lesson plans for each class. However, rest assured that all effective teachers have a lesson plan. They know what the objective of their lesson is and how they will determine if students are learning. Whether that plan is written or not, veteran teachers have thought through and planned instructional activities for every lesson. These veterans were once beginning teach- ers and probably did write formal lesson plans every day to organize their practice, but now they are able to keep mental notes on their plan. Failing to prepare is preparing to fail!

Another assumption that new teachers make is that all teachers must follow a single lesson plan format. This is also a myth. The format of the lesson plan depends on the type of les- son the teacher is presenting. If the teacher is following a direct-instruction teaching model or using lecture/discussion as the chief teaching strategy, then Madeline Hunter’s lesson- planning format (standards, objectives, anticipatory set, instructional input, guided practice, independent practice, assessments, and closure) is a good format for the lesson plan. How- ever, if the teacher is following an inductive-teaching model and using an inquiry-teaching strategy, then the lesson plan format developed by the Biological Science Curriculum Study’s 5E lesson plan format (engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate) is more appropriate. We will cover both of these formats later in the chapter.

Many beginning teachers assume that, once they write a plan, they must follow it to the let- ter, and to the day. This is a myth. Lesson plans need to remain flexible to accommodate the daily interests and ability levels of your students. A “teachable moment” might occur during the class period that generates an impromptu teaching session. This occurrence will throw off the pacing of your lesson plan, but, hopefully, you have prethought contingency plans for each daily lesson—what you will do if the lesson runs short or long. Other naturally occurring events in schools, such as buses that run late, assemblies that run long, emergency drills, or early or late dismissal due to weather events, will disrupt the sequence and pacing of not only your lesson plan, but also your weekly plan. These occurrences are normal, and teachers and their plans must be flexible enough to accommodate the reality.

A final assumption sometimes made about planning for lessons is that one size of instruction fits all. This is a myth. In today’s public schools, the diversity of students, differences in inter- ests, and differences in ability levels all necessitate careful and thoughtful consideration

C O N S I D E R T H I S

What aspect of lesson planning do you feel is the most daunting? How would you go about reinforcing your skills in this area of lesson planning?

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Section 8.2 Lesson Planning for Direct Instruction

about differentiating the content, the processes and strategies used to engage with the con- tent, and the product that students use to demonstrate what they have learned. To incorpo- rate design elements that make the best use of cognitive, social, and physical participation of all students requires preplanning to a degree that can only be done through thoughtfully writ- ten lesson plans.

As you read in Chapter 6, an instructional model is an overall teaching approach used to guide student learning in a specific way toward the attainment of particular lesson objective. Think of the instructional model as a blueprint for teaching. And, just as blueprints do not dictate the exact actions of contractors, teaching models do not dictate the exact actions of teach- ers. However, lesson plan formats are tailored to specific instructional models. This chapter describes three lesson plan formats: direct instruction, inquiry, and social interaction. Each section begins with a review of the instruction model, followed by a lesson plan format tai- lored to that instructional model.

8.2 Lesson Planning for Direct Instruction Sometimes the best way for students to learn a skill is for teachers to teach it directly. The direct-instruction model provides teachers with a framework to do just that. Direct instruc- tion is one of the most common teaching methods used in education. Let’s begin with a review of this model, which was first described in Chapter 6.

Review of Direct Instruction The direct-instruction model, developed by Madeline Hunter (1983), has teacher decision- making as its foundation. In this model, the teacher structures the topic, explains it to stu- dents, and provides students with opportunities for guided practice and independent prac- tice. Along the way, the teacher is making decisions about how to scaffold instruction and build on prior knowledge. For these reasons, direct instruction is considered a teacher-centered approach, although, arguably, providing skills a student needs to learn could also be consid- ered an inherently student-centered practice, whether explicitly or implicitly taught (Archer & Hughes, 2011). One of the key aspects of this model is that control of learning gradually shifts from the teacher to learners as the teacher provides learners with feedback as learn- ers practice independently. The benefit of this model for lesson planning is that instruction is developed to provide fast-paced delivery of content. When using direct instruction as the framework for lesson planning, the teacher follows a format of designing learning objectives in congruence with Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy (see Chapter 4) and measuring the level of understanding of those objectives through frequent formative evaluations with immediate feedback. Then, the teacher adjusts instruction, as needed, and reteaches it, if indicated by student performance. The limitation of using this model as a basis for lesson planning is that the teacher’s creativity is hindered. Because this model follows a step-by-step procedure of instruction, teachers may feel that it allows little room for improvisation.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

What is an assumption that you have made about lesson planning? Do you think that your assumption would prove to be fact or myth? Why?

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Section 8.2 Lesson Planning for Direct Instruction

Components of the Direct-Instruction Lesson Plan Madeline Hunter’s direct-instruction planning model has stood the test of time (Hunter & Hunter, 2004). Understanding the components of this model will strengthen your ability to write an effective lesson plan. Remember that the direct-instruction model focuses on teach- ing skills, facts, and content knowledge to students. This is a highly structured model, and each part of the lesson plan fulfills some purpose in communicating the specific content, the objective, the materials required, the sequence of student and teacher activities, and the actual assessment procedures. The overall process looks like this:

Input � Process � Output

A direct-instruction lesson plan has specific components. What follows is a description of each component, including an explanation of what you might include in this section of your lesson plan. For each component of the lesson plan, denote how much time of the total class period you would spend in this instructional mode, and note how you would transition from one section of the lesson plan to the next.

Before writing the main components of a direct-instruction lesson plan, start with the basic lesson identifiers. These are as follows:

• Title of lesson—This title reminds you what the lesson is about, useful if you archive your lesson plans for future reference.

• Grade level/discipline—Indicate the grade level and subject matter of the lesson. • Date to be taught—The date keeps daily lesson plans in chronological order. • Part of unit—This identifier tells you where you are in terms of your overall unit

plan (see Chapter 7). In this section, you would also provide relevant textbook pages and any supplementary reading resources you might use.

• Materials needed—List all supplies you will need to conduct the lesson, model, or demonstration.

Once these basics are completed, fill out the main sections, which adhere to Hunter’s model. These are described in the following sections, beginning with standards.

State Standards/Common Core Standards

Select the standards that most closely align with the content the lesson will address.

Learning Objectives

In this section, state the learning objective, or objectives, you want students to achieve by the end of the lesson. Recall from Chapter 4 that learning objectives help inform students what they will be able to do or understand by the end of instruction and why that con- tent or skill is important or useful. Whether the learning objective describes growth that is primarily cognitive (thinking), affective (emotion/feeling), or psychomotor (physical/ kinesthetic), each should be written in a manner that is measurable and sets forth expecta- tions of understanding.

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Section 8.2 Lesson Planning for Direct Instruction

Anticipatory Set (Also Known as Set Induction or Hook)

In this section, state the anticipatory set. This activity, used to focus student attention at the very beginning of the lesson, is presented when students are arriving to class and helps stu- dents to mentally shift gears. The purpose of the opening activity is to establish a conceptual framework for the information that follows. Use the anticipatory set to practice (previous academic language), motivate students’ interest for activities to follow, or diagnosis student misconceptions or prior knowledge of the topic. Anticipatory sets can include activities such as the following:

• Discrepant event—One way to gain students’ attention is to demonstrate a discrep- ant event. This is a “puzzling” happening or a surprising phenomenon and causes the students to wonder why the event occurred as it did. A discrepant event leaves the learner at a momentary loss to explain what happened and sets the stage for the day’s thinking. The suspense can generate excitement, interest, and involvement from even the most reluctant learner.

• Models, diagrams, pictures—Another technique to capture attention is to display models, diagrams, or photographs. From these props, the teacher can ask questions, solicit student comment, and arouse curiosity. Some teachers also use advanced organizers as an anticipatory set.

• Warm-up problems, journaling— When students enter the classroom and must address a warm-up prob- lem or journal prompt, the activity helps focus student thinking and transition them from one subject to another. High-interest journal prompts encourage students to describe, explain, persuade, and narrate in their own words. A good collection of journal prompts can be found at http://www.daily teachingtools.com/journal-writing -prompts.html.

• Advance or graphical organizer— Popularized by David Ausubel in 1968, an advance organizer is a means to introduce to a new topic, with the goal of connecting new information to what the students already know and illustrating the configuration of the new concept or information to be processed and learned. Words (spoken or written), diagrams and charts, photographs, or actual models of finished products serve as advance organizers. A concept map is a good example of an advance organizer, as illustrated in Figure 8.1.

Creatas/Thinkstock

ሁ Using models, diagrams, or pictures is one strategy for capturing students’ attention.

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http://www.dailyteachingtools.com/journal-writing-prompts.html

can be

shows

more easily

connects with

will facilitate

related to

What Is an Advance Organizer?

More general knowledge

Concept map

Integration/ assimilation

An advance organizer

New specific knowledge

Existing knowledge

Section 8.2 Lesson Planning for Direct Instruction

Instructional Input—The “I Do” Phase

In this section of the lesson plan, record the instructional input—that is, what information students need to meet the objectives and what you will do to get this information to them in the most effective way. This task includes determining the following:

1. Content—Facts or concepts that are the focus of the lesson. 2. Teaching strategies—Lecture, demonstration, explanations. 3. Modeling—Visual and verbal input that focuses students on an acceptable product

or process. Modeling helps to conceptualize a finished activity, product, or process through demonstration or examples.

Some teachers explain this step of the direct-instruction lesson as the “I do” phase, especially when teaching a foundational skill. For example, a teacher may demonstrate a think-aloud strategy while solving a math problem, or read a passage to emphasize a literary point or a particular inflection. Considering a variety of instructional input methods (such as lecture paired with demonstration and visuals or a choice of reading materials) will serve to preplan for predictable variations among learners and minimize the planning needed for children with special needs.

Checking for Understanding/Formative Assessment

In this section, record how students will be informally assessed to make sure they exhibit the knowledge and skills set forth in the objective. For example, you might ask students,

Figure 8.1: Example of an advance organizer ሁ The purpose of an advance organizer is to help students make connections between what they

already know and new information.

Source: http://cmapsinternal.ihmc.us/rid=1FYDDGZ61-17VHX76-6B2/Q-28%20What%20is%20an%20advance%20organizer.cmap

can be

shows

more easily

connects with

will facilitate

related to

What Is an Advance Organizer?

More general knowledge

Concept map

Integration/ assimilation

An advance organizer

New specific knowledge

Existing knowledge

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http://cmapsinternal.ihmc.us/rid=1FYDDGZ61-17VHX76-6B2/Q-28%20What%20is%20an%20advance%20organizer.cmap

Section 8.2 Lesson Planning for Direct Instruction

as a group, to signal understanding, or ask an individual student’s response; or, you might design an activity that would review material covered. The benefit to frequently checking for understanding is that it provides you with instant feedback about how well learners are understanding the lesson, it provides a means for you to correct any misconceptions before they become ingrained, and it provides a diagnosis of areas that might need reinforcement in future lessons.

Guided Practice—The “We Do” Phase

In this section of the lesson plan, include plans for guided practice. Since initial attempts at new learning need to be carefully directed and monitored, the beginning stages of learning are critical in the determination of future success. The teacher must carefully guide prac- tice before allowing students to work independently. Some teachers explain this step of the direct-instruction lesson as the “we do” phase. For example, the teacher may ask students to solve a math problem while completing each step with them; or present a series of pictures or models and work with the class, as a group, to classify or sort them according to distinguish- ing characteristics; or, the class might spell a short set of difficult words chorally, together.

Independent Practice—The “You Do” Phase

In this section, describe the independent practice, which details the tasks that develop fluency or competence, with the aim of performing without major errors or confusion. For example, the lesson might require students to complete written assignments, read a passage aloud to establish fluency, keep a notebook, or solve a problem on their own. Some teach- ers explain this step of the direct-instruction lesson as the “you do” phase. When designing independent practice, consider the variability most likely to be present among this group of students, and provide options for students to practice the skill. For example, parallel tasks get at the same idea and same context, but at different developmental levels (such as “What coin combinations can you use to show your amount?” when given a choice of 13¢ or 65¢.) Con- sider offering choices in how the student can express what is known, such as “Use descrip- tive narrative, visuals, or materials to explain the three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. “

Closure

In this section, include a summation of the day’s activities. A closure is designed to summa- rize what students have learned and bring the instructional period to a logical conclusion. Use this time to pull content together, organize concepts, and integrate them with students’ existing cognitive structures. Closure is also a great time to explain what the expectations are for the next instructional period.

Many strategies can be used for closure, including:

• Exit tickets—Exit tickets are handed, or electronically conveyed, to learners at the conclusion of instruction. The exit tickets may ask students to list three things they learned, two things they would want to know more about, and one thing they might have questions on.

• Cueing—Cueing is another strategy for providing closure. Have students complete an outline that has cues (clues) about the main points of the lesson. In the court- room, cueing might be considered “leading the witness”; however, in the classroom, it is a means of helping students organize their thoughts on a topic. Cueing questions

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Section 8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

might be, “Today we learned about two types of fruits that plants produce: 1) fruits with stony pits are called ___________; 2) fruits with fleshy ovaries are called __________.”

• Application—Another common way to conclude a lesson is to ask learners to apply what they have learned. An example of this technique might include a teacher ques- tion such as, “From this word list, can you select the adverbs?” Connecting new and previously learned material can help students achieve closure, so this is a very important part of your lesson plan.

Summative Assessment

This section may be a part of the unit plan and not necessarily in the daily plan. A summative assessment is a formal demonstration of student’s mastery of the objective of the lesson (or unit), usually for a grade or individual credit. For example, students might be required to com- plete a written exam, make an oral presentation, or create a model, project, poster, essay, portfolio, or research paper.

8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

The inductive model is another popular approach to teaching. In this model, the teacher’s role is to provide examples that illustrate the content and then guide students’ efforts to find pat- terns in the information. Teaching practices associated with the inductive model are known as inquiry-based instruction or guided discovery.

Review of the Inductive Model In the inductive model, students use information to search for relationships that lead to uncovering principles, generalizations, and rules. The inductive model is grounded in the view that learners construct their own understanding of the world, rather than recording it in an already-organized form. The teaching strategies under the inductive-model umbrella are based on research findings that show students learn by fitting new information into existing cognitive structures and are unlikely to learn if the information has few apparent connections to what they already know and believe.

Teaching methods based on the inductive model come in many forms, including problem- based learning, project-based learning, discovery learning, just-in-time teaching, and inquiry- based learning. What these methods have in common is that the teacher presents students with a challenge and then uses questioning and guidance to steer learners toward what they need to know so they can meet the challenge. Project-based learning and problem-based

C O N S I D E R T H I S

What needs to be considered in planning anticipatory sets and closures? Does every lesson need an anticipatory set and closing activity? Why or why not?

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Section 8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

learning were discussed in previous chapters. Here, we focus on inquiry-based learning and offer a lesson-planning format to aid in its implementation.

In an inquiry-based learning approach, the teacher begins with examples or a problem to solve. The information needed to solve the problem usually builds from previously known materials, but the teacher does not provide the information explicitly through lecture or read- ing. The teacher presents students with a set of data (or ask students to build their own set), and students look for differences and similarities between categories and develop hypoth- eses to test. In this manner, students are actively making sense of the data, using critical thinking skills as they develop a solution that can then be tested to determine if it is valid or unsupported.

Planning for Inquiry-based Instruction: The 5E Lesson Plan The 5E lesson plan format was developed by the Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS) to support inquiry-based instruction. The role of the teacher in this planning style is to facili- tate and support students as they use prior knowledge to build new knowledge. When plan- ning a lesson, the teacher considers the “5Es”: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evalu- ate. The plan begins with basic identifying information, which includes:

• Title of lesson • Grade level/discipline • Date to be taught • Part of unit • Materials needed • State standards/Common Core Standards • Learning objectives

The 5E lesson plan format then proceeds to the main parts of the lesson plan, described as follows.

Engage

To engage means to excite and to inspire students’ curiosity. It means to wow students in a way that catches their attention so that they will engage in the problem solving at hand. Teachers introduce students to the instructional task during this engage stage of the les- son. This stage is when you give students the information they need to do the lesson, ask the appropriate questions, and solve the problem or task. This part of the lesson plan provides a description that includes specific language you will use to explain the purpose of the lesson and/or samples of texts or other materials you will use to introduce the question that will be studied. In this portion of the lesson, the teacher:

• Poses a problem or challenge to be investigated. • Provides a rationale for the activity, connecting it with previous learning, real-world

application, and/or students’ prior experiences. • Provides students with the language or structures, but not the explicit information

needed, to solve the problem and/or engage with the activity.

The roles of the teacher and the learner during the engage portion of the lesson are outlined in Table 8.1.

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Section 8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

Table 8.1: Roles of the teacher and the learner during the engage stage

Learner Teacher

Calls up prior knowledge Poses problems

Has an interest in the topic Asks questions

Experiences doubt or disequilibrium Reveals discrepancies

Identifies problems to solve, decisions to be made, conflicts to be resolved

Accesses prior knowledge

Has questions and develops a need to know

Self reflects and evaluates

Source: Needham, R. L., Powell, D. A., & Bentley, M. (1994). Using big books in science and social studies. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Reading Association, Toronto, Canada, 1994. Reprinted with permission.

Explore

The purpose of the explore stage is to provide students with the opportunity to build their own understanding. This portion of the lesson is where students work individually or in small groups to solve the problem. The teacher acts as a facilitator, providing materials and guiding the students’ focus. Emphasis is placed on hypothesizing, making predictions, and delving into possibilities.

• In the lesson plan, write a paragraph describing what students will do to explore the problem. Be specific about the task, as well as the structures and supports that you will provide students. Where appropriate, attach materials that will be used in the investigation.

• Describe the anticipated methods students might use to solve the problem. Dis- cuss what you might do, as the teacher, to help support student learning during the explore portion of the lesson. Write out potential questions that you might ask to get students to probe deeper into a problem or to help students over a hurdle. Describe the potential challenges you envision might occur during this portion of the lesson.

The roles of the learner and the teacher during the explore stage are summarized in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2: Roles of the teacher and the learner during the explore stage

Learner Teacher

Hypothesizes and predicts Questions and probes

Explores resources and materials to design and plan Models when needed

Collects data Makes suggestions and provides feedback

Builds models Provides resources

Self reflects and evaluates Assesses understandings and processes

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Section 8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

Explain

The purpose of the explain stage in inquiry learning is to provide students with an opportunity to communicate what they have learned so far and figure out what it means. Students come back together and explain their answers and their problem-solving processes. The teacher facilitates discussion, assesses student understanding, and guides students to identify a rule/ formula/approach that may guide solving similar problems in the future. Communication occurs between peers, with the facilitator, and through the reflective process. This segment also introduces vocabulary in context and redirects any misconceptions. The teacher’s and the student’s roles are outlined in Table 8.3.

Table 8.3: Roles of the teacher and the learner during the explain stage

Learner Teacher

Clarifies understandings Provides feedback

Shares understandings for feedback Asks questions, poses new problems and issues

Forms generalizations Models or suggest possible patterns or trends

Reflects on plausibility Offers alternative explanations

Seeks new explanations Enhances or clarifies explanations

Employs various modes for explanation such as writing, art, modeling, presentation

Evaluates explanations

Elaborate

The purpose for the elaborate stage is to allow students to use their new knowledge and continue to explore its implications. At this stage, students make connections to other related concepts, applying their understandings to the world around them in new ways by using what they learned in new and unfamiliar situations. This section of the lesson plan describes how students will be expected to apply their learning to additional problems or situations, and lists specific problems, prompts, and/or task expectations that would further connect the les- son to these applications. The teacher’s and the student’s roles during this stage are outlined in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Roles of the teacher and the learner during the elaborate stage Learner Teacher

Applies new knowledge Asks questions

Solves problems and resolves conflicts Makes suggestions and provides feedback

Makes decisions Provides resources

Plans and carries out new project Models when necessary

Asks new questions Evaluates

Seeks further clarification

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Section 8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

Evaluate

The purpose of the evaluate section of an inquiry lesson plan is for both student and teacher to determine how much learning and understanding has taken place. This is an ongoing diag- nostic process. Students can demonstrate their understanding through journals, drawings, models, performance tasks, video productions, interviews, portfolios, etc. In this section of the lesson plan, address the following concerns:

• What work products will you collect from students? • How will you assess the work product? (Note: Assess is not the same as grade.) • What are you expecting to see from the work? • What else might you see in the work? • How will you determine next steps for future lessons?

While evaluation and assessment can occur at all points along the instructional process, this section specifically addresses if the instructional objectives have been met.

Tips for Inquiry-based Lesson Planning With inquiry instruction, students pose questions, conduct experiments based on their ques- tions, and build ideas around the results. The benefits of inquiry-based instruction are that it teaches problem-solving and critical-thinking skills, and promotes content building in the disciplinary area. Inquiry-based instruction also promotes the transfer of concepts to new problem questions and teaches student to build self-directed learning skills. The criteria for a successful inquiry (Wilheim, 1996) include:

• Start with a guided exploration of a topic as a whole class—Activate prior knowledge through questionnaires or engaging students in a conversation about what they already know. Provide background information from articles, museum exhibits, pri- mary source materials, websites, art, etc. so that students can formulate meaningful questions to investigate.

• Establish an inquiry question—A broad problem question or topic provides a basis on which students can ask individual, specific inquiry questions. Encourage stu- dents to ask measurable questions that they can investigate and for which they can formulate answers. The construction of a powerful question is critical to the inquiry process. Review Figure 8.2, a continuum for construction of a powerful question, and consider how instruction changes as you move to “what if ” questions from a simple yes/no question. At the “more powerful” end of the spectrum, opportunities for reflective thinking and more creative responses are generated.

Also consider the scope of the question. Questions may be interesting, but also may be beyond the scope of the objectives or one’s teaching capacity. The scope should match the classroom resources so that students can plan and implement an inves- tigation to answer the question. And, finally, when developing an inquiry question, remember to consider the degree of assumption built into it. Does the question assume a solution, errors or blame, or lead to narrow discussion or defensiveness? Paying attention to the construction, scope, and implied assumptions of the inquiry question will lead to smoother inquiry instruction (Vogt, Brown, & Issacs, 2003).

Figure 8.2: Continuum for construction of a powerful question ሁ A “what if ”’ question is most powerful because it prompts reflective thinking and requires a more

creative response.

Retrieved from: http://design.umn.edu/about/intranet/documents/AppreciativeInquiry-Asking%20Powerful%20Questions.pdf)

Less Powerful Questions More Powerful Questions

Yes/No Which Who When Where What How Why What if?

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http://design.umn.edu/about/intranet/documents/AppreciativeInquiry-Asking%20Powerful%20Questions.pdf

Less Powerful Questions More Powerful Questions

Yes/No Which Who When Where What How Why What if?

Section 8.3 Lesson Planning Using the Inductive Model

Evaluate

While evaluation and assessment can occur at all points along the instructional process, this section specifically addresses if the instructional objectives have been met.

Figure 8.2: Continuum for construction of a powerful question ሁ A “what if ”’ question is most powerful because it prompts reflective thinking and requires a more

creative response.

Retrieved from: http://design.umn.edu/about/intranet/documents/AppreciativeInquiry-Asking%20Powerful%20Questions.pdf)

Less Powerful Questions More Powerful Questions

Yes/No Which Who When Where What How Why What if?

• Establish and communicate an inquiry presentation framework—This might include: state problem question; provide background information; formulate a hypothesis; determine materials needed, and construct a plan of investigation; collect data; look at data for patterns, themes, ranges, and evidence that will support claims; support conclusions with generated data, facts, statistics, examples, expert authority, logic and reasoning; answer inquiry question, propose solution and action ideas. Students are expected to do the following: describe, compare, and search for patterns; explain similarities and differences; hypothesize outcomes for different conditions; and gen- eralize to form broad relationships.

• Provide a forum for student presentations of their inquiry—Support technology and art design product presentations to share discoveries with other student teams and the larger Internet community.

Additional Applications for the 5E Lesson Plan Problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning, and just-in-time teaching are other teaching strategies that could be used in a 5E lesson plan. These methods have many features in common. They are all student-centered, meaning that students are more responsible for their own learning, and these strategies can be character- ized as constructivist, meaning students form their own versions of reality rather than relying on versions their teachers present. The end product of a project-based assignment is typically a formal written and/or oral report. The end product of a guided inquiry may simply be the

Try It!

Review and consider the assumptions imbedded in the following set of questions. Which questions assume a solution? Which assume errors or blame? Which stimulate ref lection and creativity?

a. What is the best way to ensure that English-only speaking students and English as a second language students both exit high school as bilingual?

b. How can we create a bilingual education system in New York?

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http://design.umn.edu/about/intranet/documents/AppreciativeInquiry-Asking%20Powerful%20Questions.pdf

Section 8.4 Lesson Planning for Social-Interaction Teaching

answer to an interesting question, such as why the porridge in the Three Bears’ bowls was at different temperatures. Case-based instruction and problem-based learning involve exten- sive analysis of real or hypothetical scenarios, while just-in-time teaching may simply call on students to answer questions about readings prior to hearing about the content of the read- ings in lectures (Prince & Felder, 2006).

8.4 Lesson Planning for Social- Interaction Teaching

Another popular approach to lesson planning is the social-interaction model. This model involves students working collaboratively to reach common goals, increasing learner involve- ment and providing leadership opportunities and decision-making experiences. Let’s begin with a review of the social-interaction model.

Review of the Social-Interaction Model In the social-interaction model, instruction usually begins with an introduction the teacher leads. Then the learners break into groups, and the instructor continues to monitor and assess teams and their work. The teams conclude with their results and findings. During this pro- cess, students negotiate, compromise, and explain concepts to one another while the teacher monitors. This model takes various forms, including group work (e.g., think-pair-share, pairs check, and combining pairs), cooperative learning (e.g., student teams achievement division, jigsaw, and group investigation), and discussion. Teachers may guide learning using an essen- tial question. This student-centered learning model capitalizes on the fact that students are more motivated when working together.

Social-interaction teaching strategies can also promote leadership skills, teamwork, and opportunities for learners to come to consensus. A challenge of implementing this model is that it is very time consuming, so it is a good model to use with block scheduling. One social- interaction strategy that encourages collaboration and cooperation is to place learners into groups. Remember to consider group dynamics. Some students may “hitchhike” in a group and not participate fully, while other students in the group end up doing all of the work; there- fore, teachers must consistently monitor group behavior to maintain on-task behaviors by all.

Lesson Study Lesson study is a professional development practice based on a social-interaction model. Popularized in Japanese math classes in the 1990s, this method enables teachers to system- atically examine their practice, with the goal of becoming more effective. At the heart of the study is the lesson plan. In the lesson-study process (see Figure 8.3), three to six teachers form a team to develop learning goals. Teachers then jointly draw up a detailed lesson plan that one of the teachers implements while other members of the group observe. The group then comes together to discuss their observations of the lesson, providing suggestions for les- son revision. Then another teacher in the group implements the lesson in a second classroom, while group members again observe. Finally, the teachers come together again to discuss the observed instruction and produce a report on how they can serve their students more effec- tively. Lesson study can be done in all subject and grade levels.

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Between Stages 4 & 1 After revising the lesson, additional teaching of the research lesson, reviewing video documentation, reflecting on the process after the excitement of the public lesson activities

1. Set Goals Identify specific student needs and formulate curricular goals

Between Stages 1 & 2 Researching, brainstorming, going off on valuable tangents, exploring mathematics concepts as teachers

2. Plan • Developing lesson plans • Data collection strategies • Rationale for the approach • Anticipated student responses

Between Stages 2 & 3 Planning pre and post lessons in the sequence, carefully considering student groupings, conducting exploratory lessons, acclimatizing students to presence of video camera

3. Implement One or two members of the team teach/co-teach the “public” lesson, other members observe and collect data, such as video and work samples

Between Stages 3 & 4 Feelings of accomplishment, immediate reflection on action and possible lesson adjustments, time to develop comments from notes made

Lesson study cycle

4. Debrief • Analysis of data collected • Discussion of student learning, teacher learning, pedagogical content learning

These parts of the cycle usually occur on a single day

Section 8.4 Lesson Planning for Social-Interaction Teaching

Lesson study involves backward design (see Chapter 4), which starts by clarifying the goal of the learning process. Once the team of teachers clarifies the goal, they design a lesson plan of instructional experience that will lead to the goal. What is unique about this lesson plan template is that it includes a section about how students are likely to respond to each element of the lesson. Teachers try to anticipate how students will interpret the subject matter, what kind of difficulties students may experience, and, specifically, what kinds of experiences are most likely to support student learning. Teachers’ focus never strays from a concern with stu- dent learning, as evidenced by the following teacher actions (Lewis, 2002):

• Basing the lesson design on their ideas about how students learn. • Observing student learning when the lesson is taught. • Analyzing observation of student learning after the lesson is taught. • Using information about student learning to revise the lesson.

In lesson study, teachers carefully explore how student learning, thinking, and behavior change because of the lesson.

Figure 8.3 Lesson-study cycle ሁ Teachers develop a lesson-study cycle that will help students meet a specific learning-

process goal.

Source: From “What’s Going on Backstage? Revealing the Work of Lesson Study with Mathematics Teachers,” Catherine D. Bruce and Mary S. Ladky, Lesson Study Research and Practice in Mathematics Education 2011, pp. 243–249. Reprinted by kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

1. Set Goals Identify specific student needs and formulate curricular goals

Between Stages 1 & 2 Researching, brainstorming, going off on valuable tangents, exploring mathematics concepts as teachers

2. Plan • Developing lesson plans • Data collection strategies • Rationale for the approach • Anticipated student responses

Between Stages 2 & 3 Planning pre and post lessons in the sequence, carefully considering student groupings, conducting exploratory lessons, acclimatizing students to presence of video camera

3. Implement One or two members of the team teach/co-teach the “public” lesson, other members observe and collect data, such as video and work samples

Between Stages 3 & 4 Feelings of accomplishment, immediate reflection on action and possible lesson adjustments, time to develop comments from notes made

Lesson study cycle

4. Debrief • Analysis of data collected • Discussion of student learning, teacher learning, pedagogical content learning

These parts of the cycle usually occur on a single day

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Section 8.4 Lesson Planning for Social-Interaction Teaching

Components of the Lesson-Study Lesson Plan When writing a lesson plan that will be used in a lesson study, begin by describing the context of the lesson.

Context of the Lesson

In this section of the lesson plan, write a paragraph describing the context within which this lesson will take place. Address the following questions:

• Who is this lesson designed for? What are the demographics of the class? • What are the assessed needs that prompted this lesson? • What is the goal for this lesson? • What standards does this unit address? What standards does this lesson specifically

address?

Planning Team

In this section, list the members of the lesson-study team.

Instructor

In this section, identify who will be teaching the lesson first.

Understandings

In this section, record the “big ideas” you want students to take away from this lesson. Think of the essential understandings as the “moral of the story” of your activity, or its theme.

Essential Question

In this section, record the essential questions that students will consider in this activity (see Chapter 4). Essential questions are arguable and thought-provoking questions at the heart of a discipline. They should stimulate inquiry and discussion. The questions should be explicitly addressed in the activity and assessment.

Knowledge and Skills

In this section, record the key knowledge and skills students need to tackle the understand- ings and essential questions. What must students know and be able to do so they can thought- fully pursue and consider the understandings and questions? Teachers should directly assess the knowledge and skills presented here during or after the activity.

Additional Key Elements

The key elements of a lesson plan that will be used as part of a lesson study are listed in Table 8.5.

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Section 8.5 Common Lesson-Planning Pitfalls

Table 8.5: Key considerations in a lesson plan for lesson study

Pacing of the lesson: How much time will be spent performing each learning activity?

Steps of the lesson: learning activities and key questions: List key learning experiences, which will help to develop knowledge and skills, bring out the identified understandings, and prepare students for their cul- minating performance(s). A full set of lesson plans for each day is not expected, just a list of key daily events.

Performance task: Summarize the performance task for students here. A performance task is meant to be a real-world challenge in the thoughtful and effective use of knowledge and skill—an authentic test of under- standing, in context. (A prompt, while also a constructed-response performance product, is a more academic exercise, typically done under testing conditions and restraints.)

Anticipated student responses: Try to anticipate student responses by solving the problem as many ways as you can. Use published materials or student responses from previous years.

Teacher’s response to student reactions: Pre-think questions that could be used to probe student thinking.

Method(s) of evaluation: Consider how you will know if students have learned the content to the expected level of knowledge.

Differentiated instruction: How will you differentiate the instruction for students who may have special needs? These include special education students, English learners, students at risk of failing, and advanced learners. How will you help these students meet or exceed the standard(s) your lesson addresses?

Resources: Attach or provide references for any resources you will need for your activity—textbooks, readings, primary sources, teacher-created materials, etc. Include any necessary props, logistics, videos used, adults who are serving as judges or role-play participants, etc. Also, provide URLs for relevant web- based resources.

8.5 Common Lesson-Planning Pitfalls We will end the chapter by discussing some of the most common pitfalls that teachers make when designing lesson plans. These pitfalls apply to all the lesson plan formats discussed in this chapter. Jones, Jones, and Vermette (2011) conducted a three-year study examining nov- ice teachers’ lesson planning and implementation to determine the six most common lesson- planning blunders. Knowing what the most common lesson plan impediments are will help you navigate around them. You may notice that these are similar to the pitfalls to writing instructional objectives, first described in Chapter 3; many of the same principles apply.

Unclear Learning Objective This lesson-planning misstep happens when teachers focus on what content they will cover in the lesson instead of focusing on the learning outcomes the students will have because of exposure to that content. Teachers who focus on learning outcomes assure that the les- son is learning-centered, and eliminate the difficulties of determining whether the lesson is teacher-centered or student-centered. How will you know what you want students to learn? It is stated in your instructional objectives. To overcome this pitfall, write the learning out- come from the student’s perspective. For example, “At the end of this lesson, I can identify five types of carbohydrates” or “I can compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.”

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Section 8.5 Common Lesson-Planning Pitfalls

Assessment of Understanding Not Administered New teachers, overwhelmed with classroom-management issues, administration tasks, and extensive content to cover, sometime continue teaching without ever stopping to see what (if anything) students have learned. In many cases, discussion is the sole way to evaluate student thinking. While this strategy is a useful formative assessment, without any tangible evidence of student learning, there is no real accountability or indication that students have learned anything at all. To overcome this pitfall, consider authentic assessment as a strategy so that students create a learning product that is evidenced in an active and visible process that helps students link content learned to the intended learning objectives.

Failure to Collect Multiple Formative Assessments During Lesson To provide clues to students’ current level of understanding, teachers should use multiple means of collecting information about students’ thinking throughout the lesson. They can then use this information to differentiate instruction to meet learners’ exact needs. A strong focus on evidence creation during the lesson will help document student achievement.

To overcome this pitfall, consider interspersing throughout the lesson plan Wiggins and McTighe’s (2011) deconstruction of understanding into six facets: explain, interpret, apply, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.

Assessment Fails to Match the Learning Objective By mismatching the assessment of learning with the instructional objective, you will never know if the objective was met. This pitfall can be tricky because teachers assume that stu- dents who are engaged in the assigned task will automatically gain the cognitive attribute intended.

To overcome this pitfall, consider using learning targets and the backward design process (Stiggins, 2008; Wiggins & McTighe, 2011) and begin lesson planning with “identify desired results.” Rather than beginning lesson planning with a set of topics you need to cover and then, after the fact, creating an assessment to match the topics, begin with the walk-away knowledge, skills, or dispositions you want students to have and then schedule activities that will lead to these take-aways. (For more information on the backward planning process, see Chapter 4.)

Lesson Plan Lacks an Engaging Start Beginning a lesson with a quick “hook” with little or no meaningful student engagement leads to students being frustrated and unfocused rather than motivated to learn. Failure to start the lesson effectively leads to classroom-management issues, confusion, and off-task behaviors.

To overcome this pitfall, take the beginning of the lesson time to create conditions in which the students can play with ideas to help assimilate new concepts into their existing schema. This activity may take a longer or shorter amount of time depending on the discovery task, level of students’ motivation, or depth of prior knowledge.

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Section 8.6 Cases From the Classroom

Students Are Passive Recipients of Knowledge Lessons that only involve PowerPoint presentations or teacher lectures in which students sit quietly and listen have been shown to be ineffective. Likewise, lessons that focus on recollection of facts rather than a negotiation of conceptual meaning are also ineffective for enduring understanding. Plan instructional strategies that are student-centered and learning oriented.

The traditional “passive learner” paradigm is easier to overcome if preservice teachers are able to experience effective teaching during their own K–16 experiences.

8.6 Cases From the Classroom

C O N S I D E R T H I S

What do you think is the most damaging lesson-planning pitfall? Why?

From the Desk of: Valerie

March 7

Hello Dr. Z.—

So, you want to know about lesson planning? Well, let me tell you—it isn’t always as easy or as logical as the textbooks make it out to be. This is something I have had to learn the hard way—because with 35 squirmy eighth graders in each of my science classes, many whose hormones are rising here in the spring and all—well, you just can’t afford to come to school unprepared—and live to tell about it, that is. I can’t always think in the “heat of the battle.” I have to have the relevant vocabulary terms listed out, and at least the words I am going to use to explain them, or I end up getting my “mords wixed up!” Then I can relax and let the planned activities just f low. But, not just any activity—it has to relate to what we are doing in science or they start to just “blow it off.”

So, I find lesson planning to be difficult, but necessary. I work mainly from the eighth-grade science syllabus and the unit plans that we put together with other science teachers from the district last fall. I developed a lesson plan form that I saved as a template in Word, so it comes up each time as a blank document and it automatically saves to a different name without lock- ing up my original form. I plan for one week at a time—sometimes two, if I have the time, and try to make sure I know what I am doing in general the next week by Friday of each week. That way I can enjoy the weekend more, and not have that feeling of dread that used to hit on Sunday afternoon. Next year should be easier, since I will have most of the details already developed, and can modify the lessons depending on the students and what I have to work with, instead of starting from scratch.

The models for lesson planning that we learned at university are useful, and I have tweaked them a bit to make them relevant to my own teaching context. I know (and have been taught over and over again) that one plans from the objectives and the assessment, and then develops the activities to match. While this works to keep me focused, I still think about the activity, or

(continued)

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Section 8.6 Cases From the Classroom

how to teach the objective, while planning the assessment, because for me it really is a recur- sive process. Like, how can you unpack a standard if you have no idea about what the student could be doing to demonstrate that understanding?

Another thing that makes planning easier for me is to get a weekly routine that I can use to structure the learning objectives and assessment around. For example, Monday I introduce a new concept (or bring in new information regarding a concept from the week before), and plan for a demonstration, some lecture, some discussion, and a jigsaw group or two. So the learning objectives and assessments for that day focus on an NGSS disciplinary core idea, and the ability to explain the concept in one’s own words. For example, the core idea for these next two weeks is:

Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surface and provides a framework for understanding its geologic history. (ESS2.B Grade 8 GBE)

My objective for Monday’s lesson was for the students to explain the terms fault and plate boundaries, to define the various types of faults, normal, reverse, and strike slip, and the vari- ous types of plate boundaries, divergent, convergent, and transform. On Tuesday, I scheduled a lab activity that investigated the core idea presented on Monday. So the objectives and assess- ments related to science and engineering practices (from the NGSS) applied to the topic, like constructing explanations. We took pieces of foam blocks and cut them to represent the types of faults and fault boundaries, and discussed concepts such as extension, moving apart, down- dropped blocks, and devised explanations of what happens when these faults move, as in an earthquake. Wednesdays are research days. We took the essential questions from this part of the unit, the observations from the lab reports, and working in teams (usually four) formu- lated a specific question and organized an Internet research strategy—using the laptop carts that are reserved on that day. We started with a site that allowed the students to chart the movement of land masses to better understand plate tectonics, and then they developed their own questions to research from there. Thursday is model-planning day—the teams report to each other on the results of their research and develop one visual model (2D or 3D) per team of what they found in their research. The models must depict the cross-cutting concepts associ- ated with that standard. For example, in the current unit (plate tectonics), the concepts they must show are either a pattern (like a numerical relationship) or a scale (some concepts are too small to see, and others occur too slowly; they must show what scale they are using). On Friday, each team presents the visual model and everyone submits an individually written report on what was learned. When planning, I match up the objectives and assessment strategies to the activity type, and then schedule that objective for the corresponding day.

Is this the best way to do it? I don’t know. In an ideal world, Internet research and labs would be more spontaneous, driven by “teachable moments” as they arise. But I can only schedule a set of laptops one day per week—they are shared with other classrooms. And the lab is only avail- able one day per week—so I have to plan carefully. Not only that—I have two students with disabilities in the fourth-period class, and several students throughout the day who struggle aca- demically, and at least ten students scattered among the classes who are eager, interested, and clearly ready for advanced work. So, within these activity-scheduled days, I can plan for some predictable differences in advance. For instance, I always post my notes, PowerPoints, video clips, and websites that explain the same or similar concepts as the book chapter to Edmodo, our course LMS, so the students can view them at home ahead of time or after class. Those who are still learning academic English or who read slowly can use computer screen readers to go

From the Desk of: Valerie (continued)

(continued)

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Section 8.6 Cases From the Classroom

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

March 14

This week’s post from Valerie illustrates the thought processes that many novice teachers go through when planning. While she understands the value of lesson planning and the confidence it brings to implementation, she is surprised by how much time it takes. Furthermore, when asked to analyze how she plans, she realizes that the linear process explained in most textbooks is only part of the story. Like many other new teachers, Valerie plans with the content and an activity in mind, and then adapts it to make sure it aligns with the objective and assessment systems. At this point in her development as a teacher, she still has to make those connections explicit.

I noticed how her organizational schedule is really an attempt to reduce the cognitive load of planning. Given the complexities of the content, the student needs, and the limitations on resources, she is developing manageable strategies that meet the needs of most of her stu- dents at the same time. The routines that she developed provide a logical structure for those strategies and allow her to concentrate on delivering the curriculum.

One place that has been especially helpful in instructional planning is an activity types tax- onomy, http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME. This site lists three basic activity types for science: conceptual knowledge building (such as read, attend to a demonstration, or dis- cuss), procedural knowledge (such as practice, prepare, record data, or collect samples), and knowledge expression (such as write a report, create an image, develop a model, or develop a concept map). This site also offers a taxonomy of activity types for other subject areas, such as literacy, mathematics, music, science, social studies, visual arts—and more. A number of teachers have used this site to help focus their thinking in planning. In most cases, well- defined objectives and assessments can be interpreted as aligning to one or more of these activity types, and the suggestions can spark teacher thinking on appropriate activities.

over the information one more time. On Wednesday, research day, students who want to explore advanced concepts can do so. And I try to mix the groups up so that each is as balanced as pos- sible with each group having a mix of abilities.

So what planning model do I use? That also depends on the day, the objective, and the activity. I think that in eighth-grade science, given the resources and schedule that I have to work with, disciplinary core ideas (from the NGSS) are best introduced with a direct-instruction approach. This seems to be the most efficient for me. And it matches what I know about teaching content— you have to start somewhere with science concepts—read, or listen, or view a video clip. We still explore and wonder using this type of lesson—I always have them develop a prediction or pose questions. Now that’s a hard one. They are so accustomed to trying to figure out cor- rect answers, it is really hard for them to ask a relevant question. On Tuesday and Wednesday, I definitely use a 5E plan, since it fits so well with science, and it is more of an inquiry-based approach. The students are getting used to it; at first, they just wanted me to tell them the answers. I guess I use a social-interaction approach on Thursday and Friday, since they are pri- marily working in groups and have to figure out how to report their findings.

Gotta go—team planning meeting in five minutes—see you Friday and we will catch up.

—Valerie

From the Desk of: Valerie (continued)

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http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME

Summary & Resources

Discussion Questions

1. Visit the learning activity types wiki provided by the College of William and Mary School of Education, and review a set of activity types for one of the subject areas listed. (Go to http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME.) Discuss possible connec- tions between this taxonomy of activities and the objectives and assessments of any plausible daily lesson plan. What descriptions would need to be added to assure an alignment of an activity with objective and assessment?

2. The lesson-planning process described in this chapter is linear, but the process that Valerie and Dr. Z. speak of describes a more recursive thought and action. What are your thoughts as you plan a lesson? Describe your mental processes.

3. Valerie claims to use three different planning models: direct instruction, inquiry based (specifically, the 5E model), and social interaction, depending on the day, the objective, and the activity. Critique her match of models with the lesson purpose. Offer your own examples of each of these models for a curricular area of your choice.

I followed up with Valerie regarding the team meeting she was heading to. Her team has decided that next year, they want to develop at least one thematic and interdisciplinary unit in the fall, and plan for one project-based unit in the spring. To help with the planning, they have decided to embark on a lesson study among the members of the team; the eighth-grade teach- ers of math, science, English, social studies, technology, and art. The purpose of the lesson study is to learn something about the content of each other’s classes, and to identify places where the content could be integrated for a theme or a project. For example, Valerie requires that the visual models her students produce use cross-cutting concepts identified in the standards, and she makes sure that she tries to connect to the state Common Core Standards in ELA and Math as much as possible. She doesn’t always see the connections that could be made, however. In the plate tectonics series of lesson plans, for example, visual models could be explained by using variables in a mathematical problem. The math teacher readily sees those connections, while it might take Valerie a bit longer, if at all, to discover and add them to her lesson. So, the team is embarking on a lesson study to familiarize themselves with each other’s curriculum and ways of planning and structuring a lesson, in the hopes of generating some ideas for their goals for the following year. And, guess who is presenting first!

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

Summary & Resources Chapter Summary

This chapter focused on writing a lesson plan. The planning of daily lessons should be viewed as one of the most important aspects of effective teaching. Starting with an interesting antici- patory set, problem, or question can set the tone of the lesson and generate interest for the instructional input that follows. Using student-centered strategies for lessons are more engaging and will help students achieve enduring understanding of concepts rather than a passing knowledge of information. The selection of strategies used in any lesson is dependent on the instructional model frame, the content, and objectives, as guided by standards, and the characteristics of the learners and the learning environment. In Chapter 9, we will examine how technology can be effectively used in lessons to enhance learning.

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz (continued)

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http://activitytypes.wmwikis.net/HOME

Summary & Resources

advance organizer A means of organiz- ing or summarizing information to bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and new information being pre- sented. An example is a graphic organizer.

anticipatory set Activity at the very begin- ning of the lesson intended to get students’ undivided attention, arouse their inter- est, and establish a focus and conceptual framework.

closure An activity designed to pull a lesson together and bring it to a logical conclusion.

guided practice An activity that provides students with the opportunity to grasp and develop concepts or skills.

independent practice An activity that allows learners to develop fluency by prac- ticing without the availability of the teacher; one activity is homework.

instructional input Sequence of steps designed to lead students to the acquisition of the desired learning.

lesson plan Details the learning objec- tives, procedures, and timing for delivering instruction, methods of assessment, and materials needed to carry out the instruc- tional period.

lesson study Teachers work in small groups to design a lesson, observe how it works in practice, revise the lesson, and then report on the results so other teachers can learn from it.

Key Terms

Key Ideas

1. Lesson plans define what is taught (curriculum), how it is taught (instruction), and the anticipated student responses (learning).

2. The components of a lesson plan include instructional objectives, standards addressed, resources and materials, learning activities, assessment plan, and differentiation.

3. Instructional models provide a framework for developing lesson plans. 4. The direct-instruction lesson plan is highly structured and includes an explanation

of the topic and opportunities for guided and independent practice. 5. The inquiry-based lesson plan describes a process where information is used to

search for relationships that lead to general principles. 6. The 5E model (engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate) is a variation of the

inquiry-based lesson plan model. 7. The social-interaction lesson plan is characterized by group work and helps to

develop leadership skills. 8. Lesson study is a professional development activity that is based on the social-

interaction lesson plan. 9. Common pitfalls in lesson planning include unclear objectives; lack of assessment of

the learning, either in a formative or summative manner; poor alignment of objec- tives and assessment; failure to develop an engaging start to the lesson; and viewing students as passive recipients.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What content/learning objective would best lend itself to inquiry-learning strate- gies? Direct instruction? Lesson study?

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Summary & Resources

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of teacher-centered instruction and student-centered instruction?

3. Based on your experiences as a student, what recommendations do you have for a teacher’s daily lesson planning?

Additional Resources

Reading

Doig, B., & Groves, S. (2011). Japanese lesson study: Teacher professional development through communities of inquiry. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development, 13(1), 77–93. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ960950.pdf

Eisenkraft, A. (2003). Expanding the 5E model: A proposed 7E model emphasizes “transfer of learning” and the importance of eliciting prior understanding. The Science Teacher, 70(6), 56–59. Retrieved from http://emp.byui.edu/firestonel/bio405/readings /learning%20models/expanding%205e.pdf

Websites

The Five-Minute Lesson Plan: This video shows how to reduce planning time and focus on key learning phases within a lesson. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPPkwfLbzkM

Inquiry, the Learning Cycle, & the 5E Instructional Model: Guidelines for lesson planning from the Electronic Journal of Science Education. http://www.kacee.org/files/Inquiry%20 &%205E%20Instructional%20Model.pdf

iPad Lesson Planning: Visit this website for a quick demo on how one teacher designed and used lesson plan templates on an iPad, using Numbers for iOS. http://www.youtube .com/watch?v=tY0AoKOySUI

New Teacher Survival Guide: Lesson Planning: This video from the Teaching Channel shows how a new teacher goes step by step through the process of planning a day’s lesson. https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/lesson-planning

Common Core Lesson Plan Implementation Kit: This kit shows how to create a Common Core–aligned lesson plan with just a few clicks using Microsoft® Word 2013; it provides daily learning targets and instructional notes, along with other tools. http://www.pil-network.com/Resources/Tools/Details/c0cc62c3-e3c2-428b-93ac -0a67ded2617b

Teaching Guide: Writing Lesson Plans: No single formula for writing lesson plans works for all teachers, but this guide shows some of the processes that other instructors have found helpful to lesson planning. http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching /lesson_plans/

Inquiry Approach: Using the learning-cycle model, the teacher “invents” the science concept of the lesson in the second stage, rather than defining it at the start of the lesson. http://faculty.mwsu.edu/west/maryann.coe/coe/inquire/inquiry.htm

Help on Learning to Write Lesson Plans: This website provides several useful links to help teachers develop lesson plans. www.adprima.com/lesson.htm

Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains of Objectives: All teachers should know the three domains of learning and use them to construct lessons; each domain on this page has a taxonomy associated with it. http://thesecondprinciple.com /instructional-design/threedomainsoflearning/

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http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ960950.pdf

http://emp.byui.edu/firestonel/bio405/readings/learning%20models/expanding%205e.pdf

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPPkwfLbzkM

http://www.kacee.org/files/Inquiry%20&%205E%20Instructional%20Model.pdf

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tY0AoKOySUI

https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/lesson-planning

http://www.pil-network.com/Resources/Tools/Details/c0cc62c3-e3c2-428b-93ac-0a67ded2617b

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/lesson_plans/

http://faculty.mwsu.edu/west/maryann.coe/coe/inquire/inquiry.htm

www.adprima.com/lesson.htm

http://thesecondprinciple.com/instructional-design/threedomainsoflearning/