Can someone do my Week 4 Assignment in Organizational Development?

Crowe71

08CH_Bierema_Organization_2e.pdf

Home >Human Resource Management homework help >Can someone do my Week 4 Assignment in Organizational Development?

Group Interventions 8

Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify interventions that OD consultants use to build highly functioning groups and teams.

• Identify situations in which diversity and inclusion interventions are warranted and describe various interventions.

• Recognize when individuals or teams are in conflict and discuss different interventions for resolving the conflict.

• Explain how problem solving and decision making are handled in organizations.

Gradyreese/E+/Getty Images Plus

AutoMark, an automotive parts maker, needed to radically change the sound system it had pro- duced for years. Fast-changing technology and computer advances had made even relatively new vehicular sound systems obsolete. Producing a new sound system posed a host of chal- lenges: designing the component, ensuring compatibility with other components and systems in the vehicle, and communicating across several functional areas, including design, manufactur- ing, engineering, and the union. AutoMark’s general manager, David, was new and had inherited a business with a long history of botching new system launches: They were chronically late, over budget, and under quality specifications. David had recently been exposed to OD in his evening MBA courses and was anxious to see if he could change AutoMark’s track record with the new sound system rollout.

David contacted the company’s internal OD person, Anne, to see what could be done about the anticipated sound system launch. After completing the action research steps to discover the problems, they determined that the team involved had to be more cross-functional and that the team members lacked the requisite skills to pull off a successful launch. They decided to put a new team in charge of the launch.

The new team was composed of representa- tives from design, manufacturing, engineer- ing, and the union. The team’s first meeting consisted of a charge to alter the way Auto- Mark handled new system launches. The team members established roles, ground rules, and a clear purpose statement for their work. They agreed it would be beneficial to build the team’s skills, and so, with Anne’s help, they planned a retreat to set themselves up for success.

The retreat was held the following month at an off-site location. Everyone on the team had taken a DiSC assessment (see Chapter 7); those results were shared with the team so individuals could begin to appreciate their differences and communicate effectively with each other. The team members engaged in activities to help build cohesion and understanding. They learned new skills for managing difficult conversations and for listening during disagree- ments. They also learned a new problem-solving model and reviewed quality standards to make sure these issues were consistently considered in their process. Finally, they revisited their origi- nal purpose, ground rules, and roles to see if these needed to be altered based on their work over the past month.

The retreat was a success, and the group dove into its work. The group was highly functioning, based on its upfront investment to establish a functional, collaborative team. During the first few meetings, there were some moments of confusion; people were not sure of the key goal, and at times roles and responsibilities were not clear. But the group was able to resolve each of these issues. So far, the team was ahead of schedule on making decisions and getting approvals on the new sound system’s design. As the launch date got closer, the team members were under increasing stress, and some began to experience conflict. Meetings were getting bogged down by

Ammit/iStock/Thinkstock On its retreat, AutoMark engaged in activities that built teamwork and communication. What kinds of activities would you recommend for encouraging team cohesion?

disagreements; people argued over decisions, and some resorted to personal attacks. Two mem- bers in particular did not like each other and usually stirred things up for the rest of the team.

David became increasingly concerned that the disagreements were sapping too much time and energy from the team. He decided to intervene and called the two instigators into a meeting, where he could mediate the dispute. Anne facilitated the conversation, because she was a neu- tral party. The two team members aired their grievances and were eventually able to identify common ground and problem solve their issues.

The team went on to complete its work after the midpoint intervention. Using a deliberate team process helped the team turn the launch process around with an on-time, under-budget, and superior-quality product.

This book has focused on undertaking OD using the action research model. We have moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This chapter is devoted to profiling several doing interventions that might be appropriate at the group or team levels of analysis and assumes you have followed the action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention in collaboration with the client (see Table 5.1).

Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in Phase 1 of the action research model. They are implemented in Phase 2, doing or action, and assessed in Phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 defined OD interventions as the actions taken on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start.

The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of the many options available. This book could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD interventions are nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, this chapter presents some of the most common group and team interventions (see Table 7.2).

Human interactions tend to be messy and unpredictable, and groups have fascinating dynam- ics as they negotiate roles, differences, work practices, power relations, and tasks. OD con- sultants commonly address the challenges that arise in groups with interventions to improve group or team processes and development, increase diversity and inclusion, manage conflict, and solve problems and make decisions. The interventions within each of these categories are summarized in Table 8.1 and are profiled in this section.

Table 8.1: Categories of group or team OD intervention

Group or team process and development

Diversity and inclusion Conflict management

Problem solving and decision making

• Dialogue • Team life cycle • Team start-up or

transition • Team building • Team learning • Virtual teams

• Cultural awareness

• Cross-cultural development

• Conflict resolution • Confrontation

meetings • Third-party

intervention • Appreciative

inquiry

• Work-Out • Total quality

management (TQM)

• Quality of work life (QWL)

• Problem-solving models

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

8.1 Group or Team Process and Development Although the terms group and team are often used interchangeably, they have different defini- tions. Suppose a group of people gets on an elevator. A team emerges in the event the elevator gets stuck. A group usually consists of three or more people who may share common percep- tions, motivations, goals, or organization membership. In the case of the elevator, the group shares the common goal of traveling to a different floor. When the elevator becomes stuck, the group is suddenly transformed into a team. These team members not only share a common goal (getting out of the elevator) but must work together to achieve it. The difference is subtle but important for understanding group dynamics. Table 8.2 contrasts groups and teams.

Table 8.2: Contrasting groups and teams

Groups Teams

1. Compete against each other 2. Seek personal agendas 3. Are staid and stodgy 4. Make decisions independently 5. Are motivated by fear 6. Fail to connect teamwork with success 7. Operate dependently or independently 8. Tolerate each other and the work 9. Accept complacency with no sense of urgency 10. Avoid risk

1. Compete outwardly together 2. Share a team agenda 3. Value innovation and continuous

improvement 4. Make decisions participatively 5. Are motivated by opportunity 6. Link team success to organization success 7. Work interdependently 8. Enjoy each other and the work 9. Embrace a sense of urgency 10. Thrive on challenge, take risks

Because an organization’s work is largely carried out by teams whose members have to cooperate, create, and collaborate, helping members build these interpersonal skills and the infrastructure in which they are supported can boost the organization’s ability to accomplish its mission. Building capacity in group or team processes and development is important to ensure that new groups or teams start off on the right foot. It also strengthens established groups or teams that are embroiled in conflict, unproductive, or lacking focus. This section features some interventions that OD consultants use to build highly function- ing groups and teams.

Dialogue Can you recall a conversation in which each person aggressively advocated a point and tried to convince everyone to agree? What was the outcome? Such win–lose conversations do not usually result in constructive outcomes or new learning for the participants, yet they are dif- ficult to avoid. Just turn on your television or radio, listen to politicians, or attend a meeting for numerous examples of such point–counterpoint discussion, which is often heated. This type of communication is a discussion, the dominant form of discourse in U.S. culture, which generally involves participants aggressively advocating their own point of view.

“The word discussion stems from the Latin discutere, which meant ‘to smash to pieces’” (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994, p. 353). The term is also related to the words percussion and concussion, with the general meaning of heaving back and forth to beat the opponent down and prove a point in a win–lose confrontation. Discussion promotes group

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

fragmentation and wars of advocacy between members. Linguist Deborah Tannen (1999) referred to this conversational crisis as the “Argument Culture,” in which communication is focused on confrontational discourse; it is a win–lose proposition for individuals caught in this vicious conversational cycle.

Alternatively, you can probably recall really invigorating, exciting conversations in which each participant built on the points being made and people were open to questioning their view- points, learning from each other, and changing their minds. This type of inquiry-based dis- course is known as dialogue. Dialogue is contrasted with discussion as its polar opposite and is recommended by Tannen (1999) and others (Ellinor & Gerard, 2014; Isaacs, 1999; Senge et al., 1994) as an alternative communication means that is focused on inquiry and learning, rather than advocacy of a certain point of view. Dialogue is a mutual exploration of a concept or viewpoint.

Dialogue is inquiry based; that is, you seek to be open, learn, and probe into the think- ing of the speaker. Discussion, in contrast, focuses on advocating a point of view and convincing the listener to agree with the speaker. Journalist Celeste Headlee offered a wonderful summary of research and strat- egies for having better conversations in her 2017 book We Need to Talk: How to Have Conversations That Matter. An important concept she advanced was that people often engage in narcissistic conversation, that is, the tendency to make every conversation about yourself. Instead of providing support when a person says, “I am having a hard time meeting this deadline,” a narcissistic conversational response would shift the attention back to yourself by saying something like, “I am crushing my deadlines right now.” A more supportive reply would remain focused on the speaker, explore why he or she is hav- ing difficulty meeting deadlines, and engage him or her in an inquiry-based conversation or dialogue. You can avoid the trap of narcissistic conversation and shift to dialogue by asking questions. Although you may shift the conversation toward yourself by sharing your experi- ence or opinions, you eventually shift it back to the listener by asking a question such as, “What have you tried so far to manage your deadlines?” or “What is one thing you could do next week to make progress on your deadlines?”

Dialogue is rooted in the Greek words dia (meaning “through” or “with each other”) and logos (meaning “the word”) (Senge et al., 1994, p. 353). Together, dia logos means “through meaning.” It can be thought of as meaning that flows through a group of people, where new understandings and ideas emerge. Whereas discussion is advocacy based, dialogue is inquiry based. The goal is not to find the right answer, but rather to examine multiple perspectives surrounding an issue that would not have been possible through individual reflection or dis- cussion. Dialogue is the collective engagement in reflective practice, discussed in Chapter 1 of this book. Effective OD consultants hone their dialogue skills and use them across all inter- ventions. Dialogue is an effective team process because it requires individuals to slow down

JasonDoiy/E+/Getty Images Plus You probably engage in true dialogue more often with friends than with coworkers. Why is dialogue important in OD?

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

and listen to each other. The AutoMark team members learned this skill, and it helped them converse about complicated issues that crossed several people’s functional territory. Being skilled at dialogue will also help individuals and teams better apply other interventions.

Why Do OD Consultants Advocate Dialogue? Throughout the action research process, consultants help clients adopt new behaviors, learn new ways of listening and speaking, and cultivate new tools for bridging understanding and dealing with disagreement. Because win–lose conversation is so prevalent in U.S. culture, engaging in dialogue is a major change for most organization members. They need training in how to dialogue, ideally at the beginning of the action research process, so that it can serve the team as it navigates the challenges of implementing change.

Dialogue helps consultants achieve multiple interventions such as listening, problem solv- ing, decision making, strategic planning, talent management, and more. Specific benefits of dialogue include

• conversing in ways that help clients think and reflect differently, • asking good questions that advance the conversation, • using new knowledge created from the conversation, • engaging in questioning that informs better decision making and action, • sharing broader and deeper feedback than a back-and-forth discussion would yield, • steering members away from argumentation and toward deeper inquiry that probes

and challenges ideas, • shifting away from unconditional acceptance of dominant ideas, and • creating an atmosphere that is tough on the issues and easy on the people.

How Do OD Consultants Help Facilitate Dialogue? Dialogue is not easy. It requires new listening and conversing, which for most people means changing lifelong bad habits. There are several ways to use dialogue. Some guidelines for achieving a dialogue that is inquiry based include the following:

• Situate participants in a barrier-free circle (e.g., no tables). This configuration physi- cally removes obstacles and creates a more vulnerable space for the dialogue.

• Ask participants to suspend assumptions and certainties. This means that everyone willingly questions his or her own ideas and beliefs, as well as those of others.

• Listen. This is more important than talking. There are several ways an OD consultant can promote listening: a. Use a “talking stick.” Provide a stick, ball, or some other artifact that signals the

right to speak. Participants must have possession of the talking stick to speak. b. Blindfold participants to remove nonverbal cues that people use to dominate

conversation. c. Involve all participants in monitoring listening and confronting bad listening be-

haviors such as interrupting or signaling to speak before the speaker has finished. • Focus on inquiry and reflection instead of decision and action. • Observe equality of members and give equal air time to everyone who desires to

speak. • Respect differences.

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

• Suspend role identification. This means that participants cannot invoke their roles in the organization hierarchy to make points or dominate (“As the vice president, here is how I see it”). Nor can participants look to people who have certain roles and ask for guidance (“As our vice president, what do you think?”).

• Strive for learning over results. This means that the dialogue is a time to truly think about a problem. Once new knowledge is created and the dialogue ends, insight can be used to make decisions and act. Dialogue helps people slow down and evaluate decisions that are poorly thought out.

• Allow speakers to talk without interrupting. This is probably the most challeng- ing aspect of dialogue, because everyone wants to be heard and advocate his or her viewpoint.

• Ensure confidentiality among the group. What is said in a dialogue stays in the dialogue.

Team Life Cycle There has been an enduring interest in group dynamics since the advent of OD. Tuckman (1965) reviewed 55 articles dealing with stages of small group development and isolated commonalities. From this research, he created a model of stages that groups experience in order to become high performing. He called this the group or team life cycle. Tuckman’s model laid the groundwork for understanding and researching groups and remains one of the best-known models of group development (see Figure 8.1). See if you can identify these stages in a group you belong to or apply them to the AutoMark vignette.

Figure 8.1: Tuckman’s stages of group development

Tuckman’s model, which shows how groups become high performing, remains one of the best-known group development models.

FORMING Group members get familiar with each other

STORMING Group experiences tension or conflict in determining tasks and norms

NORMING Group establishes working agreements and builds productive work relationships

PERFORMING Group matures into effective working relationships and task accomplishment

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

Later group development models have added a fifth stage, adjourning. In this stage, the group disbands after it has moved through the first four stages and met its goals.

Although it is a widely used model of group development, Tuckman’s (1965) model is only one of several that have grown out of Kurt Lewin’s field theory. Lewin suggested that a group has its own psychological field or life space that consists of the group and all the variables in its environment and affects the group’s behavior (Lewin, 1947). Cummings and Worley (2009) proposed that group effectiveness could be judged based on the degree to which the task was accomplished, the level of satisfaction experienced by the group members, and the viability of the group itself.

Why Do OD Consultants Pay Attention to the Team Life Cycle? The team life cycle model serves multiple purposes. First, it helps the consultant observe where the group or team is in its development and plan interventions accordingly. If a team

Consider This Virtual teams have become increasingly common in a global economy where organizations seek to bring teams together that combine needed talent and expertise to solve challenging problems (Furst, Reeves, Rosen, & Blackburn, 2004). Think of virtual teams you have partici- pated in and list the challenges. Furst et al. (2004) offered key interventions for the virtual stages of team development:

Forming Storming Norming Performing

• Share lessons from prior virtual teams

• Coach virtual teams with coaches experienced in virtual teaming

• Develop a shared sense of team identity through deliberate relationship building

• Acquire senior management support

• Engage in face-to-face team building experiences (virtual F2F OK)

• Train members on conflict resolution

• Encourage a spirit of seeking common ground during conflict

• Seek mediation when consensus is impossible

• Create templates for specifying action items and tasks

• Develop individual accountability measures such as due dates and schedules of work

• Distinguish task, social, and contextual information and design procedures for each

• Assign a team coach with virtual facilitation skills

• Ensure the organization culture supports virtual teamwork

• Provide needed support and resources for team performance

Source: Adapted from “Managing the Life Cycle of Virtual Teams,” by S. A. Furst, M. Reeves, B. Rosen, and R. Blackburn, 2004, The Academy of Management Executive (1993–2005), 18(2), 6–20. © Taylor & Francis.

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

is just getting started, it is likely to be at the forming or storming stages. Agenda-driven inter- ventions are probably warranted, and when the group gets stuck storming, conflict resolution can also be helpful.

Helping team members understand the life cycle helps them recognize the challenges and conflicts that arise as normal developmental processes. This in turn helps depersonalize the difficulties associated with collective goal pursuit and allows members to focus on moving to the next stage.

When managers understand the team life cycle, they can help the groups and teams they manage through more effective decision making, problem solving, and conflict resolution.

How Do OD Consultants Help Clients Learn About the Team Life Cycle? An effective way to teach the team life cycle is through an experiential activity. A popular one is the Tinkertoy activity:

1. Organize the team into groups of about four to six people (depending on the size of the group).

2. Give each group a bag of Tinkertoys. They should have the same number and type of pieces in each bag, or give each group their own container.

3. Each group is given the following instructions: a. Build the tallest freestanding tower with the materials provided. b. Groups have 20 minutes to plan and 40 seconds to build. c. Pieces cannot be connected during planning (they will be removed by the

facilitator). 4. Facilitators serve as timekeepers. 5. All pieces are returned to the bag or container before building. 6. Construction must stop when the time limit is reached. 7. Once the activity ends, debrief around the stages of the team life cycle and help par-

ticipants see how they moved through the stages.

There are dozens of such activities available to help develop teams. Find some resources you are comfortable using and become familiar with them.

Team Start-Up or Transition Helping a team get off to a positive and productive start requires support from the beginning. It is common for organizations to set high expectations for teams without giving them the support or training needed to be high functioning; they then wonder why a team could not produce. Effective team-based OD interventions set teams up for success, whether they are new or already exist.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Start-Up? Giving teams a strong foundation at their formation helps them build the capacity to do what is expected of them. At a minimum, new or transitioning teams should be given a clear goal and the necessary resources to accomplish it. They also need training on the team life cycle and the tools for moving through the stages. Providing the team with training and a structure

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

for effective meetings helps them make good use of their time together. Topics to explore to help the team get off on the right foot might include

• the team life cycle, • a change model (such as Lewin’s unfreezing, moving, and refreezing), • a problem-solving model, • meeting-effectiveness tips, and • team-building exercises.

How Do OD Consultants Do Team Start-Up? Some key steps to follow include the following:

1. Establish a clear goal or charge for the team. 2. Create roles (e.g., facilitator, note taker, process observer). 3. Rotate roles. 4. Identify members’ communication expectations and needs. 5. Develop ground rules. 6. Create agendas for meetings. 7. Use tools to enhance meeting facilitation, such as decision-making and consensus

procedures. 8. Evaluate team process on an ongoing basis.

Team Building A common OD intervention is team building, that is, training and other activities that help teams perform more efficiently and effectively. This type of activity can also be used for team start-up. McGregor (1960) defined effective teams as those that

1. foster a relaxed and comfortable atmosphere, 2. clearly understand and accept their tasks, 3. are able to engage in dialogue and effective listening behaviors, 4. are tough on the issues and easy on each other, 5. use consensus decision making, and 6. complete their actions.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Team Building? Team-building OD interventions are centered on helping members move through the stages of group development (Tuckman, 1965) and on helping the team settle on task roles, goals,

Consider This The AutoMark vignette provides a classic case of teams working on parts of a larger project but not collaborating, with problematic results. Considering the strategies and steps for help- ing teams start up, what has been your experience with these start-up strategies when you joined a new team, and what were the consequences?

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

relationship building, group process, and activities to ensure smooth functioning. Team build- ing is often accomplished through training and ongoing process checks as the team works on its activities. Specifically, team building can facilitate

• improved morale and leadership skills among team members,

• the elimination of barriers that thwart creativity and collaboration,

• the definition of clear objectives and goals,

• improved processes and procedures, • improved productivity and results, • targeting and eliminating team weak-

nesses, and • building up team strengths.

How did these strategies play out in the Auto- Mark vignette?

How Do OD Consultants Do Team Building? A successful team is only as good as its mem- bers, so following the team start-up tips will get the team primed to build deeper relation- ships. Burn (2004) suggested that skilled team members use the following approaches:

• Develop norms and roles compatible with team success. • Build a group with norms of cooperation. • Make status assignments based on specific-status characteristics. • Minimize status differences. • Engage in constructive controversy. • Use constructive confrontation when group norms are violated. • Establish a supportive communication climate. • Recognize the benefits of member diversity. • Create a superordinate (shared) group identity. • Use group goal setting. • Rely on explicit coordination and pre-planning. • Persuade members that their contributions are needed, noticed and valued. • Tie valued individual outcomes to group outcomes. • Balance task and socioemotional leadership. • Choose discussion and decision-making procedures that prevent domination by a

few members and ensure that all relevant information and perspectives are consid- ered. (p. 389)

Consultants need to monitor the team and adjust interventions according to its needs.

PeopleImages/E+/Getty Images Plus Team building strengthens the team’s relationships and members’ understandings of roles and responsibilities.

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

Team Learning Team learning is distinct from team building in that it strives to “transform conversational and collective thinking skills, so that groups of people can reliably develop intelligence and ability greater than the sum of individual members’ talents” (Senge et al., 1994, p. 6). Team learning emerged out of the learning organization movement in the 1990s. In addition to team building, team learning engages participants in the use of dialogical communication to bring assumptions to the surface and to address issues faced by the team, with the goal of collective learning.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Learning? Usually, team learning is sought by organizations that have made a commitment to becoming a learning organization. Team learning helps teams apply dialogue and action learning to solv- ing problems encountered in the team dynamics, work projects, or change implementations.

Whereas team building improves courtesy, communication, performance, and relationships, team learning is a process of learning collectively. Team learning challenges individuals intellectually, emotionally, socially, and spiritually. It assumes self-mastery and self-knowl- edge while challenging members to look outward to develop shared alignment around goals and purpose.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Team Learning? Team learning adds to the team-building efforts that have likely taken place with the team. The consultant helps the team focus on its reflection in action and reflection on action through dialogue, action learning, and deliberate efforts to identify learning as it occurs while the team goes about its work, problem solving, and decision making.

To ensure that teams are prepared for learning, they need a clear purpose or goal, effective facilitation, ground rules, and dialogue skills. Usually, teams need to be trained on how to build effective skills. A common focus is on reflective practice using action learning, assump- tion testing, and mistake sharing. Members must be willing to take risks to raise difficult issues, question structures that may inhibit group or organization functioning, and enhance the group’s knowledge base and learning as a whole.

The consultant can also help team members adopt certain behaviors that help them be more effective team learners, such as

• listening to team members; • empathizing with other team members’ viewpoints; • taking interest in teammates by making eye contact, respecting them, and learning

about them; • watching nonverbal behavior (self and others); • resisting the temptation to interrupt teammates; • listening for implicit as well as explicit meaning in the team conversation; • looking for omissions in both thought and action;

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

• affirming the speaker versus evaluating or criticizing; • paraphrasing to check for understanding; and • listening more than talking.

Virtual Teams Organizations and people are increasingly working across the globe. Separated by time and distance, interaction must be mediated with technology, and people often work in virtual teams. Although the art of face-to-face facilitation is well developed, the art of virtual facilita- tion is in its infancy. Technologies that facilitate virtual teamwork include multiple Internet applications, videoconferencing, teleconferencing, and webcams. Engaging with others virtu- ally, with no opportunity to meet face to face, requires cultural awareness and effective com- munication skills.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Virtual Teams? Because of the global workplace, there is a need to develop capacity for effective virtual interactions, and this is accomplished in the same way as traditional team building and team learning. Consultants can help virtual participants be better virtual citizens and help virtual facilitators be effective in that context.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Virtual Teams? Consultants can coach individuals to be good virtual team members. Being a good virtual team member involves the following behaviors:

• Be timely. If team members cannot be on time for the meeting, they should let the organizer know in advance. It is just as disrespectful to be virtually late as it is to be physically late.

• All members should plan to take necessary breaks prior to the meeting. Virtual meetings tend to be efficient, so it can waste everyone’s time if members step away from the session for various reasons. When team members must step away from the meeting, they should let the attendees or organizer know, preferably via an online chat feature.

• Always be professional. Even though team members may be at home or communi- cate solely via an audio feed, they should assume the same behavior they would in a boardroom. No one wants to hear what their children, cats, or dogs are doing.

• Do not do other work during the meeting. All team members’ input is valued, and the attendees are counting on everyone’s thoughts and contributions.

• Actively participate. • If participants are presenting slides or sharing other kinds of information, they

should practice prior to the meeting. • Follow the same respectful behaviors you would in person:

1. Do not interrupt. 2. Listen intently. 3. Stay on topic.

Section 8.1Group or Team Process and Development

Table 8.3 provides strategies for dealing with the challenges that arise from facilitating a vir- tual team. It is based on research by Mittleman, Briggs, and Nunamaker (2000).

Table 8.3: Challenges and strategies for facilitating virtual teams

Challenge Strategies

Following virtual meetings is difficult for participants who may do unrelated tasks, arrive late, leave early, or disappear for long periods.

• Provide explicit preplanning instructions including prework, timed agendas, and the meeting’s purpose and objectives.

• Encourage interest and make it personal. Contact participants individually in advance of the meeting to confirm their participation and discuss their interests.

• Create a scorecard. Use an electronic meeting platform to identify where you are in the agenda and who is participating.

• Distinguish transitions from one topic to another to keep the team focused.

• Clarify the intended outcome(s) for each agenda item (discussion, decision, action, etc.).

Virtual teams receive mini- mal feedback on the meet- ing’s progress and process.

• The facilitator should periodically offer and solicit feedback. • Engage in frequent process checks on the meeting (“Are we on task?”

“Mark, are you still with us?” “Is there any concern about this course of action?”).

• Invite feedback via the meeting platform, email, or online chat.

Participants forget who is attending the meeting.

• Use names during the meeting. The facilitator can use them or ask people to clarify their name before they speak.

• Provide frequent reminders of who is in the meeting (or use a meeting platform that lists attendees).

• Distribute short biographies and photos of attendees.

Virtual team building is challenging.

• Follow the best practices for team building already discussed in this chapter.

• Ensure the team has a clear goal. • Meet face to face when possible, especially when the team is forming. • Create breaks, particularly for long sessions, that promote team

bonding on nonwork topics such as the weather, interests, or hobbies.

Technology is great when it works, but . . .

• Be patient and assume people are on a learning curve with their technology.

• Have a backup plan. • Have technical support ready to assist if needed. • Have a plan for reconnecting if the technology must be reestablished. • Introduce new technology on an as-needed basis.

Communicate effectively, virtually.

• Exchange dialogue and conversation rather than listen to lengthy one- way presentations.

• Speak clearly and into the microphone when you have the floor. • Mute your sound when you are not speaking.

Making decisions can be more difficult virtually.

• Plan decision-making procedures (consensus, vote, etc.). • Conduct process checks to find out where people are in the process.

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

8.2 Diversity and Inclusion Interventions The U.S. work force is diverse and changing. There are more women employed than ever before, racial and ethnic minorities will soon surpass Whites in numbers, the work force is aging, and gender identity diversity is challenging binary definitions of gender as either female or male. Diversity commonly refers to a heterogeneous group—one in which mem- bers differ in gender, race, age, religion, or sexuality. A more useful definition of diversity for OD consultants is “those individual differences that are socially and historically significant and which have resulted in differences in power and privilege inside as well as outside of organizations; namely race, gender, and sexuality” (Thomas, 2005, p. 9).

Thomas (2005) identified several challenges associated with leading modern, diverse organizations. These include attempting to understand

• the differences between how work used to be accomplished and how it will change with an increasingly diverse environment and

• the legal, ethical, and day-to-day issues that arise from employing a more diverse work force composed of immigrants, racial and ethnic minorities, women, older workers, sexual minorities, and the disabled.

Thomas (2005) asserted that a goal for OD is “to maximize the beneficial aspects of diversity for organizations and for individuals while minimizing and perhaps preventing any negative challenges of that same diversity” (p. 3). She further emphasized that those trained in the organizational sciences are uniquely qualified to address diversity issues by monitoring selection and placement, training and development, organization development, performance measurement, and quality of work life. OD consul- tants can help ensure that the dynamic complexity of diversity is respected in policy develop- ment and workplace practices that are fair, equitable, and sensitive.

Organizations can measure diversity intelligence (Hughes, 2016), which is similar to intelli- gence quotient (IQ) or emotional intelligence (EQ). Diversity intelligence (DQ) equips employ- ees to interact more effectively with the changing demographics of workplaces and the global economy by helping them embrace difference and value diversity. See Assessment: Diversity Intelligence Instrument Validation Study.

FatCamera/E+/Getty Images Plus Promoting diversity and inclusion helps an organization build a stronger work force that is more equipped to excel in global markets.

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

OD consultants must be sensitive to diversity issues, regardless of whether their interven- tions currently address an issue related to diversity. Although this book discusses diversity interventions under group-based OD, it is important to note that such interventions may occur at any level and often will be implemented across multiple levels simultaneously. See Case Study: Diversity and Inclusion for a fictional example of a company that needs to address diversity and inclusion.

Assessment: Diversity Intelligence Instrument Validation Study Hughes is in the process of validating a DQ instrument that will be available for organizations to assess ability to effectively lead diverse workers. If you would like to take the survey as part of the research to validate the study, visit the following link: https://www.noark.org/ diversity-intelligence-survey-news-article_544.

Case Study: Diversity and Inclusion Over several decades, TechCo has built a reputation for its commitment to recruiting and developing a diverse work force. But recently, that reputation has slipped. About 5 years ago, the company underwent a top leadership transition. The new CEO dropped diversity and inclusion from its strategic goals because, in his words, “TechCo has already accomplished outstanding diversity and the infrastructure exists to sustain it.”

What the CEO did not anticipate was that TechCo’s competitors would expand their efforts to become more diverse and inclusive organizations. The top employees of TechCo are now being avidly recruited by these competitor organizations, and some begin to jump ship—particu- larly women and people of color—because they see more promising opportunities to work in organizations that appear to value diversity more than TechCo. Meanwhile, TechCo is falling behind in its strategy and ability to do realistic succession planning for future leadership. As management becomes less diverse, so does its recruitment pool and talent development.

Today, TechCo’s top leadership is approximately 90% White and male. Competing firms have much higher percentages of female, African American, Latino, and Asian executives. Few TechCo employees participate in affinity groups (e.g., women leaders, LGBTQ support groups, African American leaders, etc.), whereas its competition has doubled these types of supports.

TechCo needs an intervention, and fast. Its lack of diversity at the top of the organization and absence of a plan to resolve the problem could spell long-term disaster in its ability to recruit and retain the best people and remain competitive in its markets.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What immediate steps can TechCo take to address its problems with diversity and inclusion?

2. What mid- to long-term steps do you recommend TechCo take to become a more diverse and inclusive organization?

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

Cultural Awareness A first step for group members to more competently deal with diversity and inclusion is to gain cultural awareness, which is becoming conscious of and appreciating the differences between the characteristics of your own and other cultures.

Why Do OD Consultants Promote Cultural Awareness? Groups with low levels of cultural awareness will likely experience more conflict and less productivity than groups that exhibit consciousness of and appreciation for other cultures. Groups with low cultural awareness may be candidates for interventions to increase their cultural learning. These include the following:

• Practicing reflection, which can help group members examine how their own culture differs from others

• Assessing values, which allows group members to compare what they value with others and tie values to cultural differences. For example, some cultures place a high value on punctuality, whereas others do not. The punctual culture may view lateness as rudeness without considering cultural meanings of time.

• Encouraging dialogue with people from different cultures. Dialogue, as has been discussed, creates a format for communication that builds inquiry and reflection into the exchange, making it an ideal way to learn about other cultures.

• Participating on diverse teams, which creates the opportunity to focus on achieving tasks and problem solving with people from different backgrounds

• Encouraging group members to share information about their culture with others

How Do OD Consultants Promote Cultural Awareness? One way to measure group members’ cultural awareness is by administering a cultural intelli- gence quotient (or CQ) assessment, such as the one shown in Figure 8.2 (Earley & Ang, 2003) (see also Assessment: Cultural Competence Resources). The assessment measures four distinct CQ capabilities:

1. CQ drive (motivation): interest and confidence in functioning effectively in culturally diverse settings

2. CQ knowledge (cognition): knowledge of how cultures are similar and different 3. CQ strategy (metacognition): how someone makes sense of culturally diverse

experiences 4. CQ action (behavior): capability to adapt behavior to different cultures (Livermore,

2010)

OD consultants can also roughly gauge CQ by observing people while keeping in mind these four capabilities.

There are multiple cultural interventions; consultants should build skill in this area via read- ing and additional training or bring in experts in the area.

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

Figure 8.2: Cultural intelligence scale—self-report

While consultants can gauge CQ by observing, there are more formal methods of assessing it, such as this self-report scale. For a PDF, visit your e-book.

From “Development and Validation of the CQS: The Cultural Intelligence Scale,” by L. Van Dyne, S. Ang, and C. Koh, in S. Ang and L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of Cultural Intelligence (pp. 34–56), 2015, New York, NY: Routledge. © Taylor & Francis 2015.

Read each statement and select the response that best describes your capabilities. Select the answer that BEST describes you AS YOU REALLY ARE (1=strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree)

CQ Factor Questionnaire Items

Motivational CQ: (CQ Drive)

_____ MOT1 I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. _____ MOT2 I am confident that I can socialize with locals in a culture that is unfamiliar to me. _____ MOT3 I am sure I can deal wth the stresses of adjusting to a culture that is new to me. _____ MOT4 I enjoy living in cultures that are unfamiliar to me. _____ MOT5 I am confident that I can get accustomed to the shopping conditions in a different

culture.

Cognitive CQ: (CQ Knowledge)

_____ COG1 I know the legal and economic systems of other cultures. _____ COG2 I know the rules (e.g., vocabulary, grammar) of other languages. _____ COG3 I know the cultural values and religious beliefs of other cultures. _____ COG4 I know the marriage systems of other cultures. _____ COG5 I know the arts and crafts of other cultures. _____ COG6 I know the rules for expressing nonverbal behaviors in other cultures.

Metacognitive CQ: (CQ Strategy)

_____ MC1 I am conscious of the cultural knowledge I use when interacting with people with different cultural backgrounds.

_____ MC2 I adjust my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from a culture that is unfamiliar to me.

_____ MC3 I am conscious of the cultural knowledge I apply to cross-cultural interactions. _____ MC4 I check the accuracy of my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from

different cultures.

Behavioral CQ: (CQ Action)

_____ BEH1 I change my verbal behavior (e.g., accent, tone) when a cross-cultural interaction requires it.

_____ BEH2 I use pause and silence differently to suit different cross-cultural situations. _____ BEH3 I vary the rate of my speaking when a cross-cultural situation requires it. _____ BEH4 I change my nonverbal behavior when a cross-cultural situation requires it. _____ BEH5 I alter my facial expressions when a cross-cultural interaction requires it.

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

Cross-Cultural Development Cross-cultural competence is what defines an employee who manages international business operations. Such an employee is often referred to as a global manager, international manager, or global leader (Ramburuth & Welch, 2005). Educating people to engage cross-culturally involves cross-cultural development. Preparing teams to engage cross-culturally is cross- cultural team building. These are similar interventions; that is, the distinctions pertain more to the type of work group than the specific skills developed.

McLean (2006) lamented that much cross-cultural development is inadequate because it focuses more on the do’s and don’ts of traveling in certain places, versus building the com- petency to productively engage cross-culturally, appreciate difference, and resolve con- flict. Cross-cultural development is often short on actual experiences that build cultural competence.

Researchers directing a 4-year government-sponsored university exchange program between the United States and Brazil that involved 40 professional management and agriculture sci- ence students partaking in a semester-long study abroad experience found that in spite of intensive pre-departure preparation, in-country support, and cultural immersion, the stu- dents failed to improve their levels of intercultural awareness and tended to overestimate individual cross-cultural competence both before and after the experience (Lokkesmoe, Kuchinke, & Ardichvili, 2016). The authors concluded that cross-cultural development requires well-designed interventions, feedback, and mentoring or coaching. See Tips and Wis- dom: Global Business.

Why Do Consultants Promote Cross-Cultural Development? Cross-cultural development is important for a work force that is more culturally diverse and mobile than ever before. Organizations benefit in myriad ways from hiring diverse, culturally

Tips and Wisdom: Global Business

Refer to the U.S. Department of State’s website for useful information relating to trav- eling and doing business globally (https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/).

Assessment: Cultural Competence Resources The National Center for Cultural Competence (NCCC) has compiled a selection of self- assessments that measure an individual’s cultural competence. To take one yourself, visit the following link: https://nccc.georgetown.edu/assessments/.

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

savvy personnel who can relate to diverse work groups, customers, and suppliers. Unfor- tunately, few companies manage cross-cultural training well. See Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Training Programs.

Organizations that send employees abroad to work take significant risks. First, it costs about three times an employee’s annual salary to send her or him abroad. Given that 30% to 40% of international assignments end prematurely, often because the cultural adjustment fails, it is worthwhile to help employees engage new cultures. Further, more than half of expatri- ated executives do not remain with their companies after an overseas assignment. In addi- tion, international joint ventures have poor success rates, making it even more important to develop cultural understanding.

In spite of the high failure rate of cultural ventures, fewer than half of expatriated employees are given formalized cross-cultural training. Not surprisingly, fewer than half are also unable to manage cultural differences when they are sent abroad. The employee’s family typically receives even less assistance.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Cross-Cultural Development? Cross-cultural development should emphasize key competencies needed by global leaders and teams. These include skills, traits, and knowledge across four dimensions (Ramburuth & Welch, 2005):

1. Cultural sensitivity and awareness. This involves awareness of how your own culture affects your behavior and shapes your beliefs (Lane, Maznevski, Dietz, & DiStefano, 2012).

2. Knowledge of other cultures and countries, including their norms, behaviors, cul- tural symbols, rituals, and belief systems (Hofstede, 2001)

3. Concrete business skills that help manage cultural differences, including cross- cultural negotiating, cross-cultural conflict resolution, and cross-cultural teamwork (Laughton & Ottewill, 2000)

4. Personal characteristics that support productive cross-cultural interactions such as emotional intelligence, psychological maturity, and the ability to manage cognitive complexity (Saghafi, 2001)

Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Training Programs This list of cross-cultural training resources from the U.S. Department of State, a compilation of cultural training program providers from around the globe, is useful whether you are seek- ing a consultant or seeking to find employers of consultants: https://2009-2017.state.gov/m/ fsi/tc/79756.htm.

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

Other traits important to cross-cultural competence include tolerance, persistence, flexibility, self-esteem, self-questioning, and openness to learning and growth (Cui & Awa, 1992; Rhine- smith, 1996). See Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Awareness Resources.

Effective cross-cultural development involves creating experiences ahead of time in which participants can experience some of the challenges and emotions that may arise in an unfa- miliar culture. Simply creating opportunities for the employee to interact with people from different cultures can also help. OD interventions that can provide such experiences will pro- mote more cross-cultural exchange. Examples of effective cross-cultural development include the following:

• Engage in self-awareness reflective activities such as the Twenty Statements Test (see Assessment: The Twenty Statements Test).

• Create simulations that “plunge students into a state of uncertainty and confronta- tion, yet discovery and excitement that evokes the sensation of culture shock” (Ram- buruth & Welch, 2005, p. 11). A popular cultural simulation is the game Bafa Bafa.

• Engage in multicultural teamwork. • Perform case studies. • Engage in immersion experiences or exchange programs.

Tips and Wisdom: Cultural Awareness Resources Games and simulations are a fun and effective way to introduce issues of cultural awareness and intercultural communications. The games and simulations on the following site were com- piled by the University of Minnesota Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition: https://carla.umn.edu/culture/res/exercises.html.

Assessment: The Twenty Statements Test The Twenty Statements Test (TST) (Kuhn & McPartland, 1954) is a long-standing psychologi- cal and social psychological assessment that asks participants to reflect on their sense of self by providing answers to 20 questions that ask the participant, “Who am I?” Answers usually reflect the various roles participants play and give clues to their culture. The assessment is simple to administer; an example is provided for you to try (see Figure 8.3).

(continued on next page)

Section 8.2Diversity and Inclusion Interventions

Assessment: The Twenty Statements Test (continued)

Figure 8.3: Twenty Statements Test

There are 20 numbered blanks on the page. Write 20 different answers to the question “Who am I?” in these blanks. Answer as if you were talking to yourself, not another person. There are no right or wrong answers. Simply write things down in the order that they occur to you. Download this assessment as a worksheet in your e-book.

Adapted from “An Empirical Investigation of Self Attitudes,” by M. H. Kuhn and T. S. McPartland, 1954, American Sociological Review, 19, 68–76.

1. Notice the words used to describe yourself. What did you emphasize? What do you notice?

(continued on next page)

There are 20 numbered blanks on the page below. Write 20 different answers to the question “Who am I?” in these blanks. Answer as if you were talking to yourself, not another person. There are no right or wrong answers. Simply write things down in the order that they occur to you.

WHO AM I?

______________________________________________________________________. 1

______________________________________________________________________. 2

______________________________________________________________________. 3

______________________________________________________________________. 4

______________________________________________________________________. 5

______________________________________________________________________. 6

______________________________________________________________________. 7

______________________________________________________________________. 8

______________________________________________________________________. 9

______________________________________________________________________. 01

______________________________________________________________________. 11

______________________________________________________________________. 21

______________________________________________________________________. 31

______________________________________________________________________. 41

______________________________________________________________________. 51

______________________________________________________________________. 61

______________________________________________________________________. 71

______________________________________________________________________. 81

______________________________________________________________________. 91

______________________________________________________________________. 02

Section 8.3Conflict Management

8.3 Conflict Management “A conflict is a problem in which two or more people have a difference of opinions, methods, goals, styles, values, and so on” (Brounstein, 2001, p. 155). Conflict exists in every organiza- tion and is normal. Moreover, conflict has a positive side, because it stimulates new solutions and helps clarify issues.

OD consultants may be called on to resolve conflict between individuals or groups. These conflicts usually involve business concerns or working relationships. Often, OD consultants become aware of conflict while implementing an intervention for another concern. Therefore, OD consultants need to be aware of the symptoms of conflict. These include the following behaviors:

• Ideas are attacked before they are completed.

• Comments are made with vehemence.

• Members belittle one another’s ideas or the ability of the group or team.

• Members accuse one another of not understanding.

• Members distort one another’s ideas.

• Members are impatient with one another.

• Members stick to their own points rather than finding common goals or ground.

• Members take sides. • Suggestions do not build on previous suggestions. • Little movement is made toward resolution. • We–they (win–lose) pressures and attitudes prevail. • Members provoke, attempt to control, and give advice.

Assessment: The Twenty Statements Test (continued) 2. Did you include any of these typical descriptors?

a. Physical description (height, weight, skin color, eye color) b. Social roles (student, spouse, employee, parent) c. Personal traits (competitive, adventurous, quiet) d. Existential statements (spirituality or values statements such as “I believe in

equality for all.”) 3. What did you learn about yourself ? Others? 4. How might this new knowledge assist you in cross-cultural interactions?

fizkes/iStock/Getty Images Plus Conflict can be productive when it is steeped in ideas. When it becomes personal, it can be destructive and require an intervention.

Section 8.3Conflict Management

OD consultants can help clients develop attitudes that are conducive to resolving conflict by cultivating

• a mutual belief in the availability and desirability of finding a solution; • a recognition that conflict is a natural part of relationships; • empathy for others’ views; • a commitment to cooperation, not competition; • realization that the process must gravitate from problem identification to solution; • methods to minimize the power and status differences that elicit defensiveness and

guarded communication; • a belief that the other party can compete, but opts to cooperate; • an attitude of self-examination to assess whether you are part of the problem or the

solution; • awareness of the limitations of arguing; • ardent practice of dialogue; and • a belief that differences of opinion (not interpersonal strife) are helpful.

Conflict can be resolved by developing interpersonal skills, team building, and teamwork. Often, those in conflict need to learn to recognize and value different perspectives, build self- awareness of their biases, improve communication skills, and devise solutions that reconcile the conflicting interests (Burn, 2004). Defusing conflict can be accomplished through dia- logue, trust-building activities, negotiation, or third-party intervention (when a neutral party attempts to resolve conflict). This section profiles conflict resolution through confrontation meetings, role negotiation and analysis, third-party intervention, and appreciative inquiry.

Gonçalves et al. (2016) tested a model of how cultural intelligence and self-monitoring posi- tively influenced the ability to solve interpersonal conflicts more effectively among 399 par- ticipants and found them to be predictors of conflict resolution style. Cultural intelligence helps individuals more effectively resolve conflict and may also contribute positively to deci- sion making and negotiation. They recommend that organizations invest in both helping employees bolster cultural intelligence and teaching them strategies for effectively managing conflict.

Confrontation Meetings A gathering that aims to identify problems, set priorities and targets, and begin working on identified problems is known as a confrontation meeting (Beckhard, 1967). Confronta- tion meetings can be used any time and are especially useful when the organization is in stress and communication problems characterize the relationship between workers and top management.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Confrontation Meetings? Confrontation meetings allow timely intervention around a problem or issue. The process seeks broad participation from employees who represent the entire organization. Confronta- tion meetings work best when management is strongly committed to solving the problems that are communicated and when participants are committed to finding a solution. Confronta- tion meetings are also used when communication must be immediately improved, employee

Section 8.3Conflict Management

morale needs a boost, the culture needs adjusting, relationships are suffering, and solutions are needed.

Confrontation meetings provide top management with specific data regarding organization conditions and recommended actions from employees. The process involves multiple lev- els and gives top management the opportunity to identify key priorities. The entire process engages the organization in problem solving, decision making, strategic planning, and com- mitting to action.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Confrontation Meetings? Consultants facilitate confrontation meetings by gathering relevant stakeholders. The goal of the meeting is to identify problems about the work environment and the organization’s effectiveness. The attendees are organized into smaller groups that represent all of the orga- nization’s departments, but members who have a direct reporting relationship should not be grouped together. These departmental groups are tasked with candidly identifying organiza- tional problems. The ground rules emphasize that neither individuals nor groups will be criti- cized for raising issues. Usually, groups are challenged to see who can raise the most issues.

After the groups have generated issues or problems, they reconvene and hear reports from each group. Next, issues are consolidated and categorized. Participants are divided into prob- lem-solving groups; the composition of these usually differs from the original problem-iden- tification groups, depending on the issues raised. Each group ranks the problems it has been assigned, creates action plans, and determines an appropriate timetable for completing them.

Each group then periodically reports its list of priorities and tactical plans of action to man- agement as a follow-up to the original meeting. The steps of a confrontation meeting are pre- sented in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Confrontation meeting steps

Step Time Description

Climate setting 1 hour • Management explains the confrontation meeting purpose and objectives and shares more background on the issue or problem.

• Open dialogue is invited.

Information collection

1 hour • The group is divided into smaller groups of six to eight participants representing functional areas as much as possible.

• Managers and subordinates are separated. • Topics for information collection may include

1. concerns, 2. obstacles to progress, 3. demotivators in the culture, 4. problematic policies or procedures, 5. goals, 6. other topics as appropriate, and 7. key things that would improve the organization.

(continued on next page)

Section 8.3Conflict Management

Table 8.4: Confrontation meeting steps (continued)

Step Time Description

Information sharing

1 hour • Each group appoints a reporter to share its information, usually put on a flip chart or projected for everyone to see.

• The consultant helps identify major categories of issues and sorts them into groups, with input from participants.

Priority setting and group planning

1 hour + • The entire group engages itself in a conversation about the categories.

• Individuals work to rank the categories in terms of priority. • Participants shift into their functional groups to engage in

planning, including managers. • Each group is asked to

1. dialogue about the problems and issues raised, 2. identify how the issues affect the group, and 3. propose actions or solutions that the group is willing to

commit to.

Organization action plan

2 hours • Participants return to a “group of the whole.” • Each functional unit reports its priorities, commitments, and

plans. • Top management is asked to react to this list and commit to

action where needed. • Participating units also share how they will communicate the

results to colleagues not attending the session.

Immediate follow-up by top team

1 to 3 hours • Top management team convenes immediately after the confrontation meeting ends to plan how it will follow up.

• Management shares its plan within a week.

Progress review

Ongoing • Progress on commitments is assessed periodically as groups present to the top management team.

Third-Party Intervention When individuals or groups are unable to resolve conflicts on their own and enlist a neutral party to provide either mediation or arbitration, they are engaged in third-party interven- tion. Mediation occurs when a third party, after learning about the conflict, makes nonbind- ing recommendations to the parties. Arbitration is similar to mediation, but the recommen- dations are binding. Mediation tends to be the preferred type of third-party intervention in OD. Organizations often train internal members to serve as mediators, but mediators can also be external.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Third-Party Intervention? Third-party intervention is warranted when a conflict has become personal and debilitat- ing to the individuals in conflict and/or those around them, and the individuals are unable or unwilling to engage in conflict-resolution activities themselves. Third-party intervention requires the consent of the individuals embroiled in conflict and is usually sought by col- leagues and/or managers who are exasperated by the conflict and the challenges it poses to the work environment.

Section 8.3Conflict Management

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Third-Party Intervention? Mediation is usually a three-stage process:

• Stage 1, or setting the stage, is when the mediator spells out ground rules between the disputants and gathers information about the conflict.

• Stage 2, problem solving, is when solutions are generated. • Stage 3, achieving a workable agreement, encourages the disputants to settle the

disagreement with a win–win outcome (Burn, 2004).

If the conflict escalates, the mediator may have to meet with the parties separately.

Burn (2004) outlined the following steps for facilitating mediation:

1. Initiate direct contact between disputants only if hostility is low and common ground is high. When hostility is high, direct contact may escalate the conflict. There- fore it is advisable to “caucus” with the two parties separately to identify underlying interests and present the other side’s position in a sympathetic way.

2. Teach the disputants constructive communication skills and negotiation concepts so that direct communication and resolution become possible.

3. Situate the negotiations at a neutral site to prevent one side from gaining a tactical advantage, and to enhance mediator control.

4. Promote trust between the parties by emphasizing overlapping interests and by encouraging both to make small but irrevocable concessions to show they are com- mitted to the conciliatory process.

5. To cool off parties’ emotions, listen carefully and sympathetically to participants’ expressions of emotions such as anger and resentment, holding caucuses with each side.

6. Use the parties’ underlying interests to come up with integrative solutions. 7. Emphasize superordinate goals (common objectives) to promote cooperation. 8. Frame agreements in such a way that each side can make concessions without

appearing weak. 9. To create a sense that agreement is possible, arrange the issues so that participants

can work on easier issues first. 10. After significant progress has been made toward an integrative solution, impose a

deadline by which a final agreement should be reached. Do not impose a deadline too early because time pressure makes joint problem solving less likely. (p. 208)

Appreciative Inquiry As discussed in Chapter 2, appreciative inquiry (AI) was originated by Cooperrider, Barrett, and Srivastva (1995). It is an OD process that focuses on renewal, change, and performance. It can be used to resolve conflict or engage in strategic planning or visioning. AI follows steps similar to the action research model. The major departure is that rather than analyzing the organization’s strengths and weaknesses, AI focuses only on the positive aspects of the issue or culture. AI frames questions and future visioning positively, seeking to identify the basic goodness in a person, a situation, or an organization with the result of enhancing the organi- zation’s capacity for collaboration and change.

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

Why Do OD Consultants Do Appreciative Inquiry? Appreciative inquiry can be used for several reasons. The organization may be in a rut and have difficulty envisioning a solution or desired future. Because AI reverses the human ten- dency to focus on the negative, it can help organizations see issues in a new light. It may also help shift the organization from a deficiency mindset to a more opportunistic one.

How Do OD Consultants Facilitate Appreciative Inquiry? AI uses a four-stage process that focuses on the following:

1. Discover: Identify organizational processes that work well. 2. Dream: Envision processes that would work well in the future. 3. Design: Plan and prioritize processes that would work well. 4. Destiny (or Deliver): Implement (execute) the proposed design.

AI’s precept is to build on what works instead of trying to fix what does not because where you place your attention shapes your reality. AI provides the structure to reframe the problem in a more positive, future-oriented way. Shifting the conflict to focus on what is working and where the group wants to be changes the direction of the inquiry and energy of those involved toward doing more of what works instead of getting bogged down on what does not work. To use AI when conflicts arise, consider posing questions such as these to the group:

What are the positive aspects of this conflict?

What makes you proud to work here?

What are your key relationships in this organization and how can you build more like them?

What values will sustain this organization into the future?

What questions should we be asking each other?

McLean (2006) has suggested that anecdotal research shows it may be beneficial, particularly for organizations with a recent trauma such as a hostile takeover or downsizing. Although AI may be useful in bolstering morale and understanding an organization’s strengths, it may also stifle dialogue on difficult issues, reinforce existing power arrangements, and further privilege management.

8.4 Problem Solving and Decision Making Another group of interventions is used to help organizations solve problems and make deci- sions in ways that promote continuous improvement and innovation. Profiled interventions include total quality management/Six Sigma, quality of work life, problem-solving models, and Work-Out.

Total Quality Management and Six Sigma Total quality management (TQM) is a comprehensive approach to employee involvement that aims to create high-quality goods and services that exceed customer expectations through a

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

process of continuous improvement. This method is therefore also known as continuous pro- cess improvement. TQM programs involve employees in activities focused on quality improve- ment. These usually are accompanied by extensive training, information sharing, shared deci- sion making, and performance-based rewards systems.

Engineers W. Edwards Deming (1982) and Joseph Juran (1974) introduced TQM to the United States during World War II. Their ideas had more traction in Japan, and it was not until the 1980s that TQM received serious attention in the United States. TQM follows a plan, do, check, act cycle (Deming, 1982, 1986) that is similar to the phases of action research.

TQM is associated with the development, deployment, and maintenance of organizational systems that support a range of business processes. It is strategic in that it focuses on main- taining existing quality standards while simultaneously making incremental improvements in quality. TQM is not just an instrumental process of improving processes and products; it is also a cultural intervention that aims to promote collaboration in the organization’s efforts to improve quality. TQM gave rise to Six Sigma.

Six Sigma is a newer approach that is broader than a process improvement program. It focuses on continuous improvement in quality to near-perfection (3.4 defects per million). It uses statistical methods to monitor and control processes. Six Sigma differs from TQM as it is primarily focused on taking quality to the next level. The main difference between Six Sigma and TQM is the approach. Six Sigma focuses on defect reduction, cycle time reduction, and cost savings. Table 8.5 highlights contrasts between the two approaches.

Table 8.5: Contrasting TQM and Six Sigma

TQM Six Sigma

• Articulates vision to improve quality • Reduces dependence on inspections • Aims to change the culture so employees can

alert the organization about issues • Trains employees to understand and seek

quality improvement • Promotes ongoing education

• Focuses quality improvement initiatives on increasing customer satisfaction

• Drives decision making using metrics and data • Aims to reduce variation that affects quality • Separates non-value-added work from value-

added work (reduces waste) • Prioritizes speed

Determining which process is best depends on your industry and product or service. Six Sigma provides benefits of data gathering and monitoring of quality that helps ensure quality products and services with minimal defects. TQM may be more appropriate for service-based industries that are less precise, where the aim is to improve customer service rather than decrease defects and build a collaborative culture around quality processes, products, and services.

Why Do OD Consultants Do TQM/Six Sigma? These processes help organizations improve quality, minimize costs, and satisfy customers. They also help reduce errors and defects in products and services. TQM promotes employee involvement because it develops quality-improvement teams. Both processes also help participants

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

• learn to use problem-solving models; • develop new skills in interpersonal communications, leadership, and facilitation; • base process changes and improvements on data; and • incorporate best practices that meet or exceed expectations.

This, in turn, translates into higher competitiveness, productivity, cost reduction, market share, and job security.

How Do OD Consultants Do TQM? Several steps have been proposed for TQM implementation. Table 8.6 offers examples from well-known quality gurus Deming (1986), Juran (1974), and Crosby (1979), all prominent leaders in the quality movement.

Table 8.6: Quality gurus’ points

Deming Juran Crosby

1. Create constancy of purpose.

2. Adopt the new philosophy of quality.

3. Cease dependence on mass inspection.

4. End practice of choosing suppliers based on cost.

5. Identify problems and continuously improve system.

6. Adopt modern training and development methods on the job.

7. Change focus from quantity to quality.

8. Drive out fear. 9. Break down barriers

between departments. 10. Stop requesting increased

productivity without providing methods to achieve it.

11. Eliminate standards and quotas.

12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship.

13. Vigorously educate and retrain.

14. Create enabling management.

1. Build awareness of opportunities to improve.

2. Set goals for improvement. 3. Organize to reach goals. 4. Provide training. 5. Carry out projects leading

to problem solving. 6. Report progress. 7. Give recognition. 8. Communicate results. 9. Keep score. 10. Keep momentum strong

for continuous quality improvement.

1. Management commitment 2. Quality-improvement

teams 3. Quality measurements 4. Cost of quality 5. Quality awareness 6. Corrective action 7. Zero defects planning 8. Supervisor training and

development 9. Zero defects day 10. Goal setting 11. Error cause removal 12. Recognition 13. Quality councils 14. Do it all over again.

Deming (1986) also identified “seven deadly sins” that organizations should avoid if they are seeking TQM:

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

1. lack of constancy of purpose; 2. emphasizing short-term profits and immediate dividends; 3. evaluation of performance, merit rating, or annual review; 4. mobility of top management; 5. running a company only on visible figures; 6. excessive medical costs; and 7. excessive costs of warranty.

TQM initiatives require long-term senior management commitment, member training in quality methods, creating quality-improvement projects, measuring progress, and rewarding accomplishments.

How Do OD Consultants Do Six Sigma? 1. Identify a high-impact area to improve that is currently suffering losses or losing

against the competition. 2. Align resources with the problem. 3. Teach the Six Sigma methodology:

a. Define the problem and make the case for change. b. Measure performance standards, set goals, and prepare reports to ensure

alignment with project goals. c. Analyze and communicate root causes of process redundancy. d. Improve processes and measure improvements. e. Control by making adjustments to new processes to ensure goals are being

attained. 4. Prioritize activities. 5. Establish ownership or champion. 6. Collect data and use it to make decisions. 7. Establish program governance. 8. Recognize contributions.

Quality of Work Life Programs Quality of work life (QWL) programs are also known as employee involvement programs. QWL emerged as a reaction to the workplace’s poor quality-of-life conditions. This concept has evolved over time into participative management programs. Four key elements are gener- ally regarded as important for effective employee involvement or QWL:

1. Power—when employees have authority to make work-related decisions. This is also referred to as “empowerment.”

2. Information—when employees have timely access to relevant information to foster decision making

3. Knowledge and skills—when employees are given the proper training and skills to effectively function

4. Rewards—when employees are recognized for results

QWL programs yield improved communication, coordination, motivation, capability, and productivity.

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

Why Do OD Consultants Do QWL? QWL interventions seek to develop organization climates that are conducive to healthy work- places, that is, workplaces that maintain a comfortable balance between life and work for employees. QWL initiatives actively involve employees in shaping organization life. There are at least four principles of QWL that serve as a rationale for doing it (Herrick & Maccoby, 1975):

1. Security: The principle of humanism, which undergirds OD, implies a workplace free from anxiety, fear, or loss of employment. Additionally, workers’ health and safety are protected.

2. Equity: An organization is characterized by fairness and justice, including profit sharing.

3. Individuality: Employees’ uniqueness is honored, and they are encouraged to develop to their full potential and competence.

4. Democracy: Authority and responsibility among employees, including decision mak- ing and problem solving, is broadly shared.

How Do OD Consultants Do QWL? Lawler (1982) identified several characteristics of participative systems such as QWL or employee involvement:

• The programs depend on participative organization systems that have a flat, lean, team-based organization structure that is designed around participative structures and decision making.

• The programs often have self-managing teams. • Training is heavily emphasized, including peer training, economic education, and

interpersonal skills. • Information is transparently shared via open job postings, decentralized team man-

agement, participative goal setting, and open-door policies. • The reward system is open, skill based, and egalitarian, often incorporating gain-

sharing or shared ownership of the enterprise, flexible benefits, and an all-salaried work force.

• Selection of coworkers is an open process that seeks team input. It is centered on hiring right-fit employees by giving them a realistic preview of the job and seeking out employees who will contribute to the organization’s participative nature.

• The organization is safe and pleasant and the personnel policies transparent and egalitarian.

• Organizations implementing high-involvement programs seek to improve employee attraction and retention, motivation, productivity, and employee well-being and satisfaction (Cummings & Worley, 2009).

Problem-Solving Models Most groups and teams do not function for long before they encounter a problem to solve. Without any knowledge of team process or steps to resolve issues, teams may flounder and fail to achieve results. Applying a problem-solving model helps teams stay focused and on task.

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

Why Do OD Consultants Do Problem Solving? Problem solving is warranted when the issue is complex, has implications for numerous stakeholders, and has no definitive solution. For example, many American communities struggle with developing safe, walkable, bikeable routes that also allow vehicular traffic. There are many options and much disagreement about what the best solution is. This type of complicated issue that has multiple solutions is a perfect candidate for a problem-solving intervention.

Problem solving is also advisable when information from multiple sources is required to make an informed decision about appropriate courses of action, especially when experts have highly biased views on what makes the most sense. Regarding the safe routes issue again, pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists all have different views on what to do. Expert community developers and road scientists would also take different approaches.

Problem solving as an intervention has both advantages and disadvantages, as noted in Table 8.7.

Table 8.7: Disadvantages and advantages of problem solving as an OD intervention

Disadvantages Advantages

• Competing interests that can escalate into unproductive conflict

• Unwillingness to listen to differing viewpoints • Conformity or tendency for individuals to try

to reach a consensus before all options have been effectively vetted and because they want to avoid conflict

• Lack of objective facilitation. Problem-solving groups require a leader who can provide balanced, neutral guidance for the direction and content of the discussion.

• Time constraints. Effective problem solving takes more time than do arbitrary decisions reached by individuals. Often, the group loses patience and seeks the option that allows the process to finish as quickly as possible.

• Diverse input based on different experience, knowledge, views, and values. This yields a larger volume of potential ideas and solutions.

• Cross-fertilization of ideas between members of the group

• Reduced bias due to a collective responsibility for acting on the problem and challenges from group members to avoid prejudice

• Increased risk taking due to the shared responsibility in the outcome

• Higher commitment based on a “we’re all in this together” mindset, where the group values individual and collective contributions to the process

• Improved communication around potential solutions, conflicts, and decisions

• Better solutions that use the critical thinking and broad thinking of the group

How Do OD Consultants Do Problem Solving? High-performing teams, as well as TQM and QWL processes, usually incorporate defined steps that help address the problem. The benefits of following a problem-solving process are multiple, and these steps can be taken by anyone in the organization at any level to address challenges. Problems happen continuously, so the ability to proactively deal with them and involve key stakeholders is a universal skill that benefits everyone. Being an effective problem solver means that individuals and teams demonstrate observational skills and the abilities to

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

think laterally and analytically. Solving problems requires innovation and collaboration, so becoming strong in this area has multiple benefits to careers, team functioning, and business performance. Problem-solving models follow a series of steps that should be mastered by individuals and teams, such as this basic problem-solving model:

1. Identify the problem. 2. Get specific. Define the following:

a. Nature of the problem—what exactly do we mean by “the problem”? b. Cause—why does the situation exist? Why is it occurring? c. Scope—how widespread is the problem? To what extent does it exist? Who and

what does it affect? Is it large or small? d. Severity—“How bad is it?” e. Is it a regular or an occasional event?

3. Diagnose the problem. (This is where the root cause is determined. Previous steps allow us to make an accurate diagnosis.)

4. Set objectives for solving the problem. 5. Identify potential constraints on problem solving. 6. Develop a plan for overcoming constraints and solving the problem. 7. Evaluate the plan. 8. Implement the plan. 9. Monitor and evaluate the plan after implementation.

These basic problem-solving steps can be followed by individuals or teams. They might be used in a medical practice to remove waste and inefficiencies, increase productivity, improve response time, or sustain safe and reliable operations. Table 8.8 shows an example of auto- mating patient reminders as a way of addressing inefficiency and boosting productivity.

Table 8.8: Problem-solving method example

Problem-solving step Description

1. Identify the problem. Patients are not showing up for scheduled appointments, and when they do, they are not following instructions such as fasting before bloodwork.

2. Get specific. Define the following: Nature: Patients prevent the office from running smoothly and serving the maximum number of patients when they are no-shows for appointments. Sometimes, even when they show up, they have been noncompliant with instructions (e.g., fasting 12 hours before bloodwork), causing further delays when procedures have to be rescheduled.

Cause: Poor communication mechanism to remind patients of appointments and procedures with the practice of calling patients manually

3. Diagnose the problem. Lack of reliable communication method to provide timely reminders that patients follow

4. Set objectives for solving the problem.

• Cost effective • Easy to administer • Patient satisfaction • Improved efficiency and productivity of clinic

(continued on next page)

Section 8.4Problem Solving and Decision Making

Table 8.8: Problem-solving method example (continued)

Problem-solving step Description

5. Identify potential constraints on problem solving.

• Time • Money • Ease of use

6. Develop a plan for overcoming constraints and solving the problem.

Several solutions were evaluated to automate patient reminders using the potential constraints identified in step 5 to assess them. An automated reminder system was selected that best met concerns for time, affordability, and user-friendliness.

7. Evaluate the plan. The plan was shared with the entire staff and approved with a plan for pilot- ing the system and then expanding it once any problems were resolved.

8. Implement the plan. An automated patient reminder system was implemented that would send voicemail and text messages to patients to remind them of upcom- ing appointments and any special instructions they should follow. Patients would receive a reminder 3 days before the appointment and then the day before.

9. Monitor and evaluate the plan after implementation.

Patient no-shows and noncompliance decreased, and therefore the plan was deemed a success. If that had not been the case, the clinic might have had to implement other strategies to address the problem or tweak the system and essentially go back through the problem-solving steps.

A formal and intensive method of engaging in team problem solving is a Work-Out. Also referred to as a town meeting or step-level meeting, a Work-Out involves considerable plan- ning. An organization might engage in this type of problem solving to significantly reduce the cost of supplies needed to run the business or to solve problems related to product or service quality. The following tasks need to be completed in advance:

• Identify the facilitator(s). • Select a problem for the group to work on. • Secure management support. • Identify potential participants. • Prepare participants for what to expect. • Select and prepare the site.

The event itself proceeds as follows:

1. A group of employees and other appropriate stakeholders convenes with a manager at an off-site location.

2. The manager charges the group with solving a problem or set of problems shared by the group that ultimately falls under the manager’s responsibility.

3. The manager leaves, and the group spends 2 or 3 days working on devising solutions to the problems under the guidance of skilled outside facilitators or consultants.

4. At the conclusion of the meeting, the manager returns, along with her or his boss, to learn the group’s recommendations.

5. The manager has a choice of three responses to each recommendation: a. “Yes.” b. “No.”

Summary and Resources

c. “I have to consider it more” (in which case, the manager clarifies what must be considered and how and when the decision will be made).

6. The process is strongly supported by management. Resistance to the process or out- come is not tolerated and is considered a career-limiting move.

See Who Invented That? Work-Out for background on the process.

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

• Using the inquiry-based discourse of dialogue (instead of discussion) promotes learning and understanding among team members.

• The team life cycle represents the various stages teams undergo as they form and develop procedures and working relationships. The stages are forming, storming, norming, and performing (and sometimes adjourning).

• Team start-up or transition helps acclimate teams to new members or new chal- lenges by establishing clear goals, providing training, creating support structures (e.g., facilitation guidelines, meeting structures, problem-solving procedures), and evaluating progress.

• Team building is the process of helping teams perform more effectively and effi- ciently via relationship-building and team-management procedures (e.g., clear roles and responsibilities).

• Team learning attempts to harness the team’s knowledge and use action learning to address challenges and problems.

• Virtual teams use technology to mediate their communication and work; they are increasingly common and important for organizations to compete and succeed in global markets.

Who Invented That? Work-Out Work-Out was developed at General Electric during the late 1980s as an intensive approach to team problem solving (Ashkenas & Jick, 1992; Cosco, 1994; Tichy & Charan, 1989). Work-Out played a key role in the company’s notable performance over the past decade and has been implemented in many other organizations. Dave Ulrich, Steve Kerr, and Ron Ashkenas cre- ated Work-Out. You can read more about the process in their book, The GE Work-Out: How to Implement GE’s Revolutionary Method for Busting Bureaucracy and Attacking Organizational Problems—Fast! (2002, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill).

Work-Out is a useful intervention because it reinforces an existing or desired culture of fast problem solving, broad employee involvement, employee empowerment, dialogue across orga- nization levels, accountability for solutions and results, and continuous improvement. Doing a Work-Out is not cheap, given that it requires external facilitation and a group of employees to go off-site for a few days. However, it signals to the organization that there is a commitment to invest resources in seeking employee input and solving problems in a timely fashion.

For more information on the program, visit the following link: http://www.huffingtonpost .com/ray-gagnon/ge-workout_b_4071796.html.

Summary and Resources

• Building cultural awareness increases organization members’ consciousness of and appreciation for cultural differences. Developing cultural awareness promotes more effective group and team processes.

• Cross-cultural development provides participants with the education and experi- ence to effectively navigate multicultural groups and teams and to travel abroad for business.

• Third-party intervention or mediation features an objective, neutral party that hears both sides of the conflict and makes nonbinding recommendations to the feuding parties.

• Appreciative inquiry can be used to resolve conflict by shifting group members away from negatives, problems, and deficiencies and toward opportunity, positive attri- butes, and possibilities.

• Total quality management (TQM) uses a process of continuous improvement to solve problems, make decisions, and function in ways that yield high-performing teams, products, and processes.

• Six Sigma uses data and metrics to improve processes, lower defects, and speed up the process.

• Quality of work life (QWL) programs seek to involve and empower teams to make decisions and problem solve in ways that enhance the workplace and its productivity.

• Problem-solving models provide steps for groups and teams to follow as they attack challenges such as mistakes, errors, defects, or interpersonal conflict.

Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning

1. Reflect on a team you belong to and see if you can pinpoint Tuckman’s (1965) stages of group development (forming, storming, norming, and performing).

2. Think of a group (versus a team) to which you belong. See how many of the charac- teristics of groups versus teams fit your experience.

3. Reflect on your own cultural identity and awareness and think about how it affects the groups and teams to which you belong.

4. Think of a conflict you are currently experiencing and characterize it based on the information presented in the chapter.

Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life

1. Practice dialogue in your conversations for 1 day and jot down your experiences. What did you notice? What did you learn? What was challenging?

2. Pick five tips from the virtual teams section and apply them the next time you have a virtual meeting. What was the impact of changing your behavior?

3. Take the cultural intelligence quotient assessment. What are your strengths? What are your opportunities to learn?

4. Take the Twenty Statements Test with a family member or friend and follow the debriefing questions listed in the chapter.

5. Identify the problem-solving and decision-making tools you have used. 6. Practice appreciative inquiry on a problem you are experiencing. 7. Identify a problem you want to resolve and follow the problem-solving steps pre-

sented in this chapter.

Summary and Resources

Additional Resources Media

• Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_HZd5rAF6g

• Conflict Resolution https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KY5TWVz5ZDU

• Problem-Solving Strategies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4U04TbCR28g

Web Links Group or Team Process and Development

• Infed, which provides a space for people to explore education, learning, and social action:

https://infed.org/mobi/bruce-w-tuckman-forming-storming-norming-and -performing-in-groups/

• Research Center for Group Dynamics, whose mission is to advance the understand- ing of human behavior in social contexts:

http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

• EDUCAUSE, which provides links to diversity, equity, and inclusion resources: https://www.educause.edu/about/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/resources

Conflict Management

• U.S. Institute of Peace Conflict Styles Assessment, provided by the independent, nonpartisan conflict-management center created by Congress in 1984 to prevent, mitigate, and resolve international conflict without resorting to violence:

http://www.buildingpeace.org/act-build-peace/learn/conf lict-styles

• Appreciative Inquiry Commons, a worldwide portal devoted to sharing academic resources and practical tools on appreciative inquiry:

http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu

Problem Solving and Decision Making

• American Society for Quality, which provides training, professional certifications, and knowledge to a vast network of members of the global quality community:

http://www.asq.org

• American Productivity and Quality Center, a member-based nonprofit and a leading proponent of business benchmarking, best practices, and knowledge management research:

http://www.apqc.org

Summary and Resources

• International Society of Six Sigma Professionals, which exclusively promotes the interests of Six Sigma professionals:

http://www.isssp.com

• Memory Jogger resources from Goal/QPC (http://www.goalqpc.com) such as these:

Brassard, M. (1989). The Memory Jogger Plus+™: Featuring the seven management and planning tools. Methuen, MA: Goal/QPC.

Brassard, M., & Ritter, D. (1994). The Memory Jogger™ II: A pocket guide of tools for continuous improvement and effective planning. Salem, NH: Goal/QPC.

Key Terms arbitration When a third party hears a conflict and makes a binding resolution.

conflict When two or more people have a difference of opinions, methods, goals, styles, or values.

confrontation meeting A gathering that aims to identify problems, set priorities and targets, and begin working on identified problems.

cross-cultural development Education aimed at helping individuals and teams engage with increasingly diverse cross- cultural groups and build capacity for inclusion.

cultural awareness Competence in dealing with diversity and inclusion in organizations.

diversity The increasingly multicultural and varied composition of the work force.

diversity intelligence (DQ) A measure of employees’ ability to reflect on actions and behaviors toward diverse individuals in an organization by embracing difference as a strength and helping them interact more effectively with the changing demographics of workplaces and the global economy.

group Three or more people bound by common perceptions, motivations, goals, or organization membership.

group or team life cycle Stages of devel- opment that groups pass through to become high performing: forming, storming, norm- ing, and performing.

mediation When a third party hears a con- flict and makes a nonbinding resolution.

problem solving Defined steps to work in the process of addressing issues, from prob- lem identification to resolution.

team Three or more individuals working together toward a common goal.

team learning A process that builds a team’s capacity to create and share new knowledge in a way that benefits the organization.

third-party intervention When individu- als or groups cannot resolve problems on their own and involve a mediator or arbitra- tor to provide neutral assistance.

virtual teams Teams that function through computer-mediated communication across different geographical and time zones.

Work-Out Also known as town meeting or step-level meeting. An intensive approach to team problem solving.