NO PLAGIARISM DUE THURSDAY JANUARY 23, 2020. PLEASE USE ATTACHED ARTICLE

08CH_Applied_Harper.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >NO PLAGIARISM DUE THURSDAY JANUARY 23, 2020. PLEASE USE ATTACHED ARTICLE

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

ሁ Define industrial/organizational psychology. ሁ Understand the evolution of industrial/organizational psychology and the major theories that

have shaped it. ሁ Explain the importance of accurate and effective selection, assessment, and training. ሁ Discuss the importance of employee motivation and its relationship to organizational

performance. ሁ Apply ethics to the field of industrial/organizational psychology. ሁ Apply the skills developed within the domain of industrial/organizational psychology to one’s

own career goals.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Michelle Rosser-Majors, PhD—Ashford University

dima_sidelnikov/iStock/Thinkstock

Section 8.1Introduction to I/O Psychology

Sabrina Willis has just been promoted to lead a team of highly skilled, but poorly motivated pharmaceutical representatives. For over 10 months, this team has experienced many chal- lenges in meeting its quotas, and thus Sabrina has been asked by her new supervisor to develop a 6-month improvement plan to get the team meeting the target sales goals set by the company.

Specific areas associated with industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology that support Sabrina in her efforts include an understanding of performance assessment, strategies for improving individual and team performance, the importance of effective training, and strate- gies for motivating individuals and teams.

Sabrina considers the following questions to guide her in developing an improvement plan for her new team:

ሁ What are some of the organizational changes that have occurred over the past year? ሁ What events and resources could hinder or help the team’s strategy? ሁ What strengths do each of the team members have? ሁ What are the global trends in pharmaceutical sales in the past year? ሁ How long has each team member been a part of the company? This team? ሁ What personal goals does each team member have for being in pharmaceutical sales

as a career? ሁ What does the team believe has affected their difficult past 10 months?

Using her knowledge, and taking her team members’ feedback into account, she designs a 6-month plan that includes monthly one-on-one meetings with each team member to review goals and discuss challenges and an incentive program to keep team members motivated and focused.

Sabrina’s challenge reminds us of how I/O psychology can support us in our professional careers by developing skills associated with workplace issues facing individuals, teams, and organizations.

8.1 Introduction to I/O Psychology Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology is the study of human behavior associated with workplaces and organizations. I/O psychology is a combination of two areas of psychology: industrial and organizational. Industrial psychology studies the individual-level phenom- ena in the workplace, while organizational psychology studies group and organizational- level phenomena, which may occur in both work and non-work settings.

Areas that industrial psychology focus on include:

• Individuals’ assessments that measure ▶ personality ▶ attitudes ▶ emotions ▶ knowledge, skills, and abilities

Section 8.1Introduction to I/O Psychology

• Management of ▶ employee motivation ▶ working conditions (safety) ▶ reward systems ▶ work–life balance strategies

• Training and development

Areas that organizational psychology focus on include:

• Communications • Negotiations • Conflict resolution • Team processes • Facilitation of organizational goal achievement

When we put these two areas of psychology together, the result is a profession that looks at organizations/groups, individual stakeholders, and organizational goals in a more holistic manner. I/O psychology is unique, as it can support each phase of the employee life cycle (see Figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1 The employee life cycle ሁ I/O psychology addresses all stages of the employee lifecycle.

Source: Used by permission of SIOP

Section 8.1Introduction to I/O Psychology

Each area provides growth opportunities for both the individual and the organization. The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) suggests that psychologists in this field can support progress in diverse areas such as the following:

Strategy and measurement. I/O psychologists can support by facilitating com- munication, helping to identify organizational strategies and goals, identifying knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) that are advan- tageous to an organization, and developing assessment tools (SIOP, 2017d).

Staffing. I/O psychologists can support organizations by addressing assess- ment needs in the areas of performance, employment qualifications, and hir- ing outcomes. In addition, I/O professionals offer a unique and neutral per- spective that enables them to explain scientific or other principles relevant to the organization’s hiring practices in a court of law (SIOP, 2017c).

Employee and talent development. I/O psychologists can support organizations by working with leadership to create effective culturally intuitive messaging and training opportunities that support business goals. Types of opportuni- ties may include employee skill-gap support, leadership development, and executive coaching, which consists of development focused on specific skill sets, performance improvement issues, transition facilitation, as well as sup- porting overarching changes identified with individual and group leadership (SIOP, 2017b).

Performance management. I/O psychologists can support organizations by developing effective and appropriate appraisal procedures, increasing rater reliability, and lessening the chance of unintended bias (as well as providing suitable training that supports this area; SIOP, 2017e).

Lastly, it is important to remember that I/O psychology, like other areas of psychology, is empirical; it is studied through verifiable observation and experimentation. Thus, the strate- gies performed in association with organizations by I/O psychologists are rigorous.

To read more specific guidelines from SIOP visit: http://www.siop.org/tab_default/ professionals_default.aspx

Career Spotlight: Melinda C.

Name: Melinda C.

Primary job title: Industrial and Organizational Psychology Intern

Type of employer: National Security Agency (NSA)

How long have you been employed in your present position? 6 weeks

Describe your major job duties and responsibilities. Interns apply scientific and quan- titative methods to address a lot of different human capital issues. I’ve been working with

(continued on next page)

http://www.siop.org/tab_default/professionals_default.aspx

Section 8.1Introduction to I/O Psychology

Careers in this field have been growing over the past several years (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018d). The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reports that I/O psychology is one of the fastest growing occupations in the United States (2018d). I/O offers diverse career opportunities that include private consulting, human resources and training, military and government agen- cies, and educational institutions (SIOP, 2017a).

Career Spotlight: Melinda C. (continued)

a team of I/O psychologists and getting real job experience in the field. We do research and development work to support assessments that the NSA uses to pick job applicants. We study organizational design and development and also human capital systems design. We also get the opportunity to design organizational assessments and workforce surveys. Basically, we’re working to better understand people, organizations, and the impact of management practices.

What elements of your undergraduate training in psychology do you use in your work? Surprisingly, we actually use the scientific and quantitative methods I learned in statistics and research methods every day. Luckily, I remember most of it because I worked really hard in those classes. I also use a lot of what I learned in my I/O course, obviously. I’ve been doing a lot with developing assessments that support employee development and training. My I/O course really helped me better understand the problem-solving skills that are necessary to do these kinds of things well.

What do you like most about your job? I love that I am getting paid to learn. I work with some really successful organizational psychologists, and they encourage me every day to keep developing my skills. They remind me that it takes time to become an expert in any area.

What do you like least about your job? Probably that the internship is only 18 weeks. I really like working here. Luckily, once I complete my master’s degree in three months, I can apply for a full-time job with the NSA.

Beyond your bachelor’s degree, what additional education or specialized training have you received? I’m currently working on my master’s degree in I/O psychology.

Thinking back to your undergraduate career, can you think of outside class activities (e.g., psychology club, Tau Upsilon Alpha, etc.) that were key to success in your type of career? The Ashford online psychology club was a great way to learn how to market myself, especially in the online arena.

As an undergraduate, do you wish you had done anything differently? If so, what? If I changed one thing, it would have been to research the differing areas of the field of psy- chology to help determine what might be the best fit for me earlier in the program. With the many activities in all of the courses, I could have better applied my interests in I/O psy- chology, which would have helped me learn even more before I graduated.

What advice would you give to someone who was thinking about entering the field you are in? If you are interested in digging into how and what makes organizations suc- cessful, consider I/O psychology. So many students think that psychology is just counsel- ing, but there are so many other opportunities in this field.

Section 8.2A Brief History of I/O Psychology

8.2 A Brief History of I/O Psychology I/O psychology was given life in the late 19th century due to industry growth across the world. As companies grew larger, the awareness that safety and performance were important vari- ables in productivity and profitability grew as well. In 1913, Hugo Munsterberg (1863–1916) published the first book about industrial psychology: The Psychology of Industrial Efficiency. Munsterberg is considered the founder of I/O psychology. His work focused on employee selection, social influences within the workplace, and training development.

In 1915, Walter Van Dyke Bingham (1880– 1952) founded a learning organization focused on researching the effects of psy- chology in the workplace called the Bureau of Salesmanship Research. This research center was established at the Carnegie Institute of Technology and focused on the selection and development of salespeople.

This area of psychology became very useful to the United States and German (Koppes, 2014) militaries during World War I (1914–1918). I/O psychologists developed aptitude and leadership-poten- tial assessments to support placement of soldiers. These types of assessments have evolved over the past 100 years, but are still utilized to identify essential skills needed by organizations today.

As interest in the field grew, so did the amount of research taking place. The results of I/O psy- chologist Elton Mayo’s research in the 1920s and 1930s are still applied in today’s organiza- tions. In a series of experiments conducted at a plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, Mayo determined that the physical context (e.g., the lighting and established rest times) of the workers did not affect their productivity, but rather that the workers became increasingly productive the more attention they received from the researchers (Gillespie, 1991; Roethlisberger & Dick- son, 1939). In further studies at the electric plant, it was also noted that additional variables were affecting the increased productivity, such as the supervisor’s style and the team’s morale (Gillespie, 1991; Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939). These conclusions, which are known as the Hawthorne effect, are important to I/O psychology, as the idea that being observed increases productivity is a management strategy that is still used today.

In the 1940’s, Kurt Lewin, a German scholar and social psychologist, further advanced the field of I/O psychology. Lewin approached I/O through action research—finding practical applications to problems within the field of study. His focus on social psychology supported his research about group dynamics within organizations and about the change process. Lewin suggests that change is a three-fold process consisting of unfreezing, where the inertia of resisting change must be overcome and existing mind-sets challenged; actual change; and refreezing, where new mind-sets are established and the new status quo becomes the norm. Although his research has been built upon and elaborated over time, his models remain foun- dational in I/O psychology.

Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ The idea that workers become more productive

when given more attention from management is called the Hawthorne effect.

Section 8.2A Brief History of I/O Psychology

For the next eighty years, and still to this day, scholars add differing perspectives to the body of research in I/O psychology. Research has often been guided by societal changes. Some major advancements in the field are listed here. You should recognize many of these names and theories from your previous I/O psychology course.

• The 1950s ▶ Abraham Maslow’s and Carl Rogers’ theories on motivation supported the human

relations movement and the study of group dynamics in the workplace. ▶ Peter F. Drucker outlined his management by objectives (MBO) approach. ▶ John C. Flanigan outlined his critical incidents technique. ▶ Douglas McGregor released his Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about the

relations between employees and their organizations.

• The 1960s ▶ Numerous new theories were published, including Fred Fiedler’s contingency

model of leadership; Vroom’s valence, instrumentality, expectancy (VIE) theory of motivation; David McClelland’s need for achievement theory; Frederick Herz- berg’s two-factor theory of motivation; and Edwin Locke’s goal-setting theory.

▶ The Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed, making it unlawful to discriminate in any employment practice on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

▶ Katz and Kahn published a text that outlined theories and research about organi- zational behavior (1966).

• The 1970s ▶ B. F. Skinner suggested that classical conditioning and behavior modification

could be applied within organizations as a tool for increasing productivity (1971). ▶ Cognitive psychology began to influence I/O psychology (Carpintero, 2017). ▶ Increased civil rights laws and supreme court cases related to biases and preju-

dice lead to a surge in research on biases in organizations (Carpintero, 2017).

• The 1980s ▶ Suggested by some to be inspired by Mayo’s and Lewin’s research from the 1930s

and 40s (Cotton, Vollrath, Froggatt, Lengnick-Hall, & Jennings, 1988), participa- tory management strategies, which include a more active role of employees in the business, were being more widely explored (Kaufman, 2001).

▶ Stress in the workplace became a new topic for discussion and research in I/O psychology (Chandola, 2010).

▶ The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) was established, which is now also accessible on the internet: https://www.onetonline.org/.

• The 1990s to present ▶ The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) increased the importance of clearly

identified job functions/purposes and physical requirements. ▶ Increased attention and research has been given to harassment, work–life bal-

ance, workplace violence, and employee well-being in organizations.

Today, I/O psychology is a growing profession that offers individuals multifaceted opportu- nities to apply their skills. As previously mentioned, with a foundation in I/O, a person can consider diverse career opportunities that include private consulting, human resources and training, the military and government agencies, as well as educational institutions.

https://www.onetonline.org

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

8.3 Assessment, Selection, and Training Like other areas of psychology, I/O psychology studies human behavior. However, I/O psy- chology applies this learning to the dynamics that occur within a workplace and between an organization’s many stakeholders. Stakeholders can include customers, board members, loan officers, salespeople, line-workers, customer service representatives, CEOs, CFFs, and anyone else who has an interest in a company. How each of these individuals looks at the organiza- tion can differ. It is the responsibility of the I/O psychologist to understand these multifaceted viewpoints, bring them all together to create a common goal, and create strategies to achieve these goals.

Different tools that may be utilized by an I/O psychologist include employee assessments, hiring assessments, training opportunities, leadership development, communications, and mediation. The goals of an I/O psychologist often include reducing absenteeism, ensuring safety and wellness, reducing employee attrition, increasing employee motivation, and ensuring human rights and dignity within an organization (Harris, 2016).

Workplace assessments are used to identify the multifaceted needs of an orga- nization related to that organization’s goals. They have been a useful tool of the workplace for almost 100 years. Assess- ments are commonly assigned to two broad categories: competence and behav- ioral. Competence assessments evalu- ate potential or current employees’ skills, experiences, physical abilities, cognitive abilities, or knowledge base. Behavioral assessments evaluate behavior such as self-management, change adaptability, and teamwork. Assessments have evolved over time to cover multifaceted areas of organizations and employees. Effective assessments can help align a person’s skills to the best job for that person, reduce attrition, increase satisfaction, and increase loyalty. In addition, valid assessments help employers to measure three ele- ments that are crucial to job/performance success: competence, work ethic, and emotional intelligence (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015).

Research has found numerous characteristics that support job and organizational success. For example, the ability to learn, adaptability, interpersonal skills, level of positivity, and integrity are all important areas for organizations to consider when hiring employees (Rog- elberg, 2017). The assessments used by I/O psychologists offer employers real data and evi- dence regarding who would be the best fit for a certain position. This prevents the hiring of a person based solely on how well they may have interviewed, and (if used correctly) helps to avoid bias in the hiring process. Some of the assessments designed by I/O psychologists are expensive and time-consuming, so it is important for an organization to clearly identify the desired outcomes before beginning the assessment process. When effectively utilized, assess- ments can provide employers with additional knowledge about what a candidate brings to the table, as well as crucial knowledge about training needs and performance. The following sections will discuss the major areas for which employee assessments are utilized and the importance of training, development, and motivation.

Dutko/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Assessments help place people in positions that

are appropriate for their skill set.

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

Employee Selection Hiring the right person for the right job can be difficult. This process should be bidirectional, as the job must be a good fit for the candidate and the candidate must be a good fit for the job. Employers hire I/O psychologists to research and document the knowledge and skill sets needed for various positions. The job analysis is an important part of this process. A job analysis considers variables such as the specific tasks of a job, the requirements of the employee, and the contextual factors (e.g., location of work, days per week, full-time verses part-time). Purposeful identification of the KSAOs is crucial in determining what exactly will be needed to perform the job. Employers use this analysis to create a concise job description prior to posting or recruiting. For example, an ad for a public relations manager with a gas and electric company in the San Diego area might include the following requirements in their job description:

• Knowledge: ▶ Knowledge of local regulatory initiatives including policy, political, and commu-

nity trends ▶ Knowledge of non-profit, private sector, government agency, and other local

stakeholders

• Skills: ▶ Requires a minimum of five years of private or public-sector experience in public

relations ▶ Requires advanced and comprehensive writing skills, listening skills, verbal

communication skills, and the ability to articulate complex concepts to diverse stakeholders

• Abilities: ▶ Ability to lead others successfully ▶ Ability to work as a team member ▶ Ability to complete projects under demanding time constraints

• Other characteristics: ▶ Requires ownership of a personal vehicle ▶ Requires ability to travel with limited notification

Once the job description is posted and people begin to apply, the candidate selection process begins. Adding a new person to a team and to an organization is an important choice that can have far-reaching effects. Some of the data collected during the initial selection process may include:

• Biographical information • Educational experiences • Past work experiences • Goal statements • Available online information • Available social networking information

In addition, some candidates may be required to complete competence or behavioral assess- ments either before or after the interview stage. I/O psychologists assist with this process by designing, administering, and evaluating these assessments. Effective assessment in the

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

hiring process can be a vital component of whether an organization is successful. Assess- ments can help discover the actual, as opposed to the perceived, qualifications of the people who apply for a position.

After a person is chosen as a potential candidate, the next step is often an interview. This may be approached as an unstructured, semi-structured, or structured interview with a human resources (HR) professional or relevant employee. The key difference between these types of interviews is the method used (see Table 8.1). Each method has its merits and draw- backs. Structured interviews may help reduce bias, as every candidate answers the same set of questions, often in the same order. Meanwhile, semi-structured and unstructured interviews leave more room for an interview to go off topic or for an interviewer to make a subjective decision based on a candidate’s personality instead of aptitude and job-fit. However, the other side of this is that semi-structured and unstructured interviews allow the interviewer to test a candidate’s communication and conversation skills, which in some jobs is more important than aptitude or subject knowledge. Finally, it can be difficult to make assessments based on unstructured interview results. Structured interview results are easier to compare, as every candidate receives the same questions.

Table 8.1: Interview types

Basis for comparison Structured interview

Semi-structured interview Unstructured interview

Definition Uses a predetermined set of questions that are asked to the employee candidate. The questions are often presented to each candidate in the same order.

Uses a predetermined set of questions that are asked to the employee candidate. The ques- tions are formulated to be open-ended and allow the interviewer to investigate responses in more depth.

Does not use any pre- determined interview questions.

Type of questions Closed-ended questions. May include experience- based, situational, or job knowledge questions. May also have predeter- mined possible answers.

Open-ended questions. May include experience- based, situational, or job knowledge questions. Allows the interviewer to explore the responses from potential candidates more deeply.

Open-ended ques- tions that are not predetermined. Types of questions to be asked may vary. Enables the interviewee to manipulate the interview and bring in unexpected information.

Application To more accurately assess the candidates when the candidate pool is large.

To evaluate the potential of a candidate’s fit to a job. Data gathered from responses to open-ended questions make this evaluation more robust (compared to a struc- tured interview).

To evaluate characteris- tics and responses of the candidate to determine whether he or she is the right person for the job.

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

Once the employer decides on a candidate, it is important that the candidate accept the job offer in writing, as well-qualified candidates can receive multiple offers. When crafting an employment offer, companies should consider the factors that research has found have the greatest influence on offer acceptance: Nature of work (37.6%), location (37.6%), company culture (36.5%), and advancement opportunities (25.8%) (Boswell, Roehling, LePine, & Moynihan, 2003).

Person–Environment Fit Hiring the right person for a job is the end goal of the hiring process. Although the job descrip- tion, with its list of KSAOs, can help narrow down the search, it is also important to consider the way each candidate, as a person, would fit the open position and the organization as a whole (Boon & Biron, 2016). This is known as person–environment fit, and there are many variables to consider when evaluating this measure for a job candidate.

Boon and Biron suggest that “person–environment (PE) fit . . . is positively related to several desirable outcomes for employees and organizations, such as greater job satisfaction, stron- ger commitment, higher engagement in in-role and extra-role behaviors, and lower turnover” (2016, para. 1). All of these outcomes affect both the organization and the individual, so hiring people with good person–environment fit benefits all stakeholders.

As you may remember from your previous I/O psych class, two specific areas to consider when evaluating person–environment fit are person–organization (PO) fit and person– job (PJ) fit. Person–organization fit is a measurement of an organization’s ability to support an employees’ values and beliefs. Person–job fit considers how the characteristics of the employee match the specific job being assigned.

Outcomes that can be associated with poor person–environment fit:

• Frequent resignations (Schneider, Goldstein, & Smith, 1995): This is costly for an organization and can create financial concerns for employees.

• Increased stress (Deniza, Noyanb, & Ertosun, 2015): This can negatively affect satis- faction, well-being, and productivity.

• Decreased feelings of competence and autonomy: These variables are associated with motivation, as will be further explored later in the chapter.

• Decreased commitment to the company and its goals (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005): This can also affect turnover rates and employee performance.

Since person–environment fit is such an important consideration in the hiring process, I/O professionals should stay up-to-date with the evolving research on this topic, as it could impact their practices. For example, Shipp and Jansen (2011) suggest that person–environ- ment fit changes during one’s time with an organization. This suggests that when leadership notices that an employee’s behavior has changed (in an undesirable way), an intervention designed to support an employee by improving their perceived environmental fit could be helpful.

Other research suggests that person–environment fit is not immediate, but takes time to con- struct, and thus development and assessment become even more vital tools during the entire employee life cycle (Shipp & Jansen, 2011). As we discuss assessments and development in the next sections, consider how each of these could provide valuable support for solidifying person–environment fit in an organization.

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

Performance Assessments Performance appraisals are an effective way for I/O psychologists and human resources professionals to identify areas in need of development, both in an orga- nization and in individual employees. Goals of performance appraisal include discovering areas for future training, increasing employee well-being, and increasing or maintaining motivation. Organizations can use objective and sub- jective measures to evaluate employees. Objective performance measures include employment records that can be quantified and are less biased (given that they include no personal information). These are most commonly used to assess clear objectives, such as sales volume his- tory, recorded customer complaints, or attendance records. Subjective perfor- mance measures are often designed by I/O psychologists and rely on human judgement; therefore, they may include a level of subjectivity or bias. These are more commonly used in jobs that require a variety of skills. For example, evalua- tions for a nurse would include numerous variables, such as communication, accuracy of documentation, and efficiency. It is important to use objective and subjective measures together to effectively evaluate the performance and development potential of an employee. For example, a nurse’s evaluation might also include objective measures such as a record of the timeliness of the administration of patient medications. If the results of the objective assessment are distinguished, but results of the subjective test are poor, that knowledge could be used to create more effective development opportunities for the future success of that employee.

T E S T Y O U R K N O W L E D G E As you embark on your graduation and consider career changes, how can the area of I/O psychology support your goals? Try making a list of the numerous skills you have gained and the knowledge you have developed. Once your list is complete, consider how these can be successfully added to a résumé or within a conversational interview to support your career decisions.

For ideas about how to include skills on your résumé, see “What to Include in a Resume Skills Section” here: https://www.thebalance.com/what-to-include-in-a-resume-skills -section-2063321.

Szepy/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Objective performance measures rely on

quantifiable data, whereas subjective measures require human judgement.

https://www.thebalance.com/what-to-include-in-a-resume-skills-section-2063321

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

Areas that psychologists assess often include:

• Cognitive abilities: Often used to assess training outcomes. • Physical abilities: Often used to assess fitness for manual labor or physically

demanding tasks. Can also be used to assess the efficiency of a task. • Personality: Can help an organization identify variables that may need additional

development or a better job for an employee (e.g., extrovert- verses introvert-sup- porting positions).

• Honesty and integrity: Measures one’s tendency to be honest, dependable, and responsible. A lack of integrity has been associated with behaviors such as “theft, violence, sabotage, disciplinary problems, and absenteeism” (Cullen & Sackett, 2004, para. 1).

• Vocational interests: Can help to identify areas within an organization that may be more conducive to an employee’s interests, increasing motivation and performance.

• Positivity: Can identify an employee’s level of job satisfaction, organizational com- mitment, and overall well-being.

These assessments can be given in a multitude of formats:

• Computer-adaptive test: Tailors the test to each person’s individual ability. An example would be a scenario-based team-ability assessment that seeks to discover the role that an individual is most comfortable in within a team.

• Speed test: A limited-time, standardized content assessment. For example, a data- entry test.

• Power test: Designed to be difficult but without time limitations. Allows the test- taker to focus on accuracy rather than speed and is most concerned about the per- son’s depth of knowledge. For example, a difficult vocabulary test.

• Situational judgement test: Questions ask what the test-taker would do in a certain scenario. Like a structured interview, there are predetermined responses so that the test taker can identify what he or she believes to be the best response. An example would be to determine the potential for management promotions.

• Work-sample test: Often evaluates skills needed for the job the test taker has. For example, a teacher may deliver a sample lesson in an assessment of teaching skill level.

Other strategies to measure employee performance include the following:

• Rank ordering: Although not useful for determining training strategies, ranking employees can show a valuable differentiation between employees’ performances. This might be used in a management appraisal to show which managers are the most and least successful.

• Written narratives: These often include specific examples of an employee’s perfor- mance during an assessment time frame. A written narrative can offer the employee a better understanding of the areas in which they may need improvement or rein- force high markings that are given by the evaluator.

• Graphic rating scale: This includes predetermined dimensions and ratings. The employer/manager may rate the employee in numerous areas such as leadership ability, communication, and work quality (see Figure 8.2). This process can help to identify high and low performance areas.

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

• Forced distribution: Most often used when there are a large number of employees. The evaluator places 10% of the employees in a “superior” range, 20% in “above average,” 40% in the “average” category, 20% in “below average,” and 10% in “poor” (see Figure 8.2). This practice can decrease the time that it takes to evaluate large employee populations.

• Behavioral observation scale (BOS): Rates the frequency of predetermined behav- iors (see Figure 8.2). This method can reduce bias that may be associated with the evaluator noticing only the limited occasions of low performance.

• Behavioral anchored rating scale (BARS): Measures the quality of specific prede- termined behaviors. Rather than the number of times the employee performs a duty, this scale is more reflective of the quality of the work being accomplished. For example, in a manufacturing plant, one employee may have more output than all of the other employees, yet their product is of lesser quality, which can affect the bot- tom line of an organization negatively.

Figure 8.2: Examples of different methods for evaluating performance

ሁ Different evaluation methods should be considered based on the desired outcome.

Unsatisfactory

1 2 3 4 5

Needs improvement

Above expectations

Meets expectations

Exceeds expectations

A graphic rating scale Teamwork: Participates willingly, eagerly, and proactively to team projects.

Receptionist

Answers phones promptly.

Provides exceptionally professional and courteous service to all, at all times.

Provides exceptional service to all.

Provides exceptional service most of the time. Needs consistency.

Often struggles to provide customer service consistently. Needs management supervision.

Consistent customer service is not provided.

Does not provide professional, courteous, or quality service to any/all customers.

4X 3

Never AlwaysSometimes

1 2 3 4 5

A behavorial observation scale (BOS)

Customer service

A behavor anchored rating scale (BARS)

Consistently greets clients upon entry.

Accurately enters customer information into sales software.

Presents self to customers as a professional.

Provides customers, and potential customers, with the utmost in professional, courteous, and quality service.

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

Each of these types of performance assessments may be completed not only by the manager but also by peers and subordinates, increasing the amount of information available for the performance evaluation.

Effective Training and Development Research has shown that effective training and professional development can improve employee performance, and hence, organizational success, making the assessment of employee development essential to success (Bulut & Culha, 2010; Delery & Doty, 1996; Vinesh, 2014). Remember, training and development are separate and distinct. Training of an employee focuses on the knowledge needed to perform the job, whereas development offers the expansion of an employee’s skills and knowledge as applied to his or her profession. For example, training for teachers might involve a series of modules to help them develop how they provide students with feedback. This is directly related to their ability to teach students effectively. Development for teachers might include attendance at a conference that develops the area of the teacher’s field of expertise (e.g., math, English, psychology).

The success of training and development opportunities are a factor in a successful organiza- tion (Bulut & Culha, 2010; Delery & Doty, 1996; Vinesh, 2014). Formal training opportuni- ties have been shown to support identified training outcomes (Delery & Doty, 1996). Bulut and Culha (2010) found that effective organizational training also increased organizational commitment. Vinesh (2014) found that effective employee development can have a posi- tive impact on worker performance, consistency, and satisfaction. In addition, research has found that after employee development, the quality of an organization’s product or services increased while the need for employee supervision and the cost of the product can be reduced (Vinesh, 2014). Appropriate training and development should follow best practices that will assure successful knowledge acquisition by the employees, management, and leadership of an organization. Due to the importance of successful training and development opportuni- ties, companies often hire professionals with expertise in learning and educational training to design their training and development programs. Even without an advanced degree, having a background in I/O psychology will give you an advantage when looking for jobs in human resources or in talent development departments.

Leadership Development Although training and developing all employees is crucial, leadership can have a significant impact on employee performance, engagement, productivity, and satisfaction, as they over- see the choices and actions of their employees and the initiatives that drive development (Kraus & Wilson, 2014). Krauss and Wilson found that in 2014, more than 40 billion dollars was spent by organizations within the United States in attempts to develop effective leaders (2014). I/O psychologists and professionals can help leaders develop more positive cultures, as well as improve the financial bottom-lines, within organizations.

The KSAOs required to be an effective leader at an organization should reflect the overall values and goals of the organization (Kraus & Wilson, 2014). For example, while a job require- ment might be knowing how to perform oral presentations to large groups, the correspond- ing leadership skill might be the ability to work effectively as a team motivator. Although the framework differs, KSAOs are still applicable and a successful means to analyze an organiza- tion’s needs.

Section 8.3Assessment, Selection, and Training

Through an analysis, an I/O professional can also identify what types of leaders exist within an organization to better identify if those leadership styles meets the organization’s cultural needs. The following is a summary of some types of leadership, though not an exhaustive list:

• Transactional leadership: Associated with leaders who utilize rewards and punish- ment to develop and motivate employees.

▶ Example: Nina often rewards her employees with an extra hour of time off each week when they meet their goals.

• Transformational leadership: Associated with leaders who approach development and motivation as strategies to develop employees’ potential. These leaders utilize individually-based strategies that inspire, motivate, and intellectually stimulate employees.

▶ Example: Kade spends one-on-one time with each of his employees talking about their roles, asking what they need to succeed, and challenging them to exceed expectations.

• Charismatic leadership: These leaders tend to challenge existing beliefs and values. They project an empowering vision and gain followers through their excellent pow- ers of communication. In addition, this leader tends to be willing to take personal risks for the sake of success.

▶ Example: Steve Jobs has been cited as a charismatic leader by numerous resources due to his “his rhetorical impression-management skills such as exemplification, promotion and facework” (Sharma & Grant, 2011, pp. 11–12).

• Ethical leadership: These leaders are best known for their dedication to integrity and collective motivation practices. They lead by example, focus on teamwork, and are driven by values.

▶ Example: Some consider Melinda Gates to be an example of an ethical leader due to her dedication to giving away 95 percent of the Gates’ considerable wealth.

• Authentic leadership: Associated with individuals who are dedicated to self-aware- ness and growth. Authentic leaders use what they have learned to increase transpar- ency and engage in practices that encourage balance. They encourage innovative thinking and ideas, including those that succeed and those that may fail.

▶ Example: Hans, the manager of a supply manufacturing company, often encour- ages departments to engage with one another to increase transparency and develop horizontal and vertical understanding within the company.

• Supportive leadership: This leader displays concern for employees by focusing on individual needs and potential development that can improve employees as individuals.

▶ Example: Mrs. Franks, who teaches an 8th grade Algebra course, often guides her students individually through lessons, making sure they have a clear understand- ing prior to attempting the activity.

• Participative leadership: This kind of leader involves employees in decisions that affect their work.

▶ Example: When faced with a merger, the director of sales meets frequently with his team to address concerns, questions, and ideas about creating a positive transition.

Section 8.4Employee Motivation

As suggested by this list, successful leadership is dynamic and responds to the needs of employees and the organization. Often, successful leaders use numerous strategies based on the situation that embody many styles included on this list. If you become an I/O profes- sional or psychologist, this further emphasizes the importance of keeping up with research and trends. Perspectives on leadership and leadership development are always evolving. For example, Nick Petrie with the Center for Creative Leadership suggested in 2014 that leader- ship development should no longer be viewed as an individual framework but instead as a holistic one:

There is a transition occurring from the old paradigm in which leadership resided in a person or role, to a new one in which leadership is a collective pro- cess that is spread throughout networks of people. The question will change from, “Who are the leaders?” to “What conditions do we need for leadership to flourish in the network?” How do we spread leadership capacity throughout the organization and democratize leadership? (2014, p. 6)

While it was previously thought that leaders must be in positions of power, the perspective is shifting toward the idea that people in all levels of an organization can exhibit leadership skills daily and in many different ways. When exploring career options, consider how your knowledge has developed in this area and ways in which you have been a leader for those around you.

8.4 Employee Motivation Another essential area that I/O psychologists address is motivating employees. Motivation has positive effects on performance and engagement. Numerous theories and models drive I/O psychology in this area and each have a potential place in the workplace. For example, Harter’s motivation theory (1978, 1981) and Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory (2000, 2017) both suggest that competence is a factor in employee motivation. Harter’s compe- tence motivation theory states that achievement motivation is based on a person’s feelings of personal competence (Harter, 1978; 1981). Self-determination theory (SDT) postulates that three psychological needs support one’s self-motivation and are crucial to psychologi- cal health and well-being: competence, relatedness (belonging), and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000, 2017).

In addition, one’s perception of the job, task, or organization have also been found to affect one’s motivation. For example, Adam’s equity theory (1963; 1965) suggests that employees compare their own input and outcomes with others within the organization. If they perceive inequality, whether or not it exists, the employee’s motivation to achieve may decrease. Also, the organismic integration theory (OIT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) suggests that one’s motivation may be affected by the perception of why the task must be achieved or the value of the orga- nizational outcomes. If the task is perceived to be helpful to increasing the employee’s per- ceived level of competence, then this extrinsic motivation will support their positive motiva- tion to achieve that task.

The list of motivational theories that can be applied to an organization and the employees within it is exhaustive. In addition, numerous theories aligned with other areas of psychol- ogy can also be applied to differing circumstances (e.g., learning theory can be applied to

Section 8.4Employee Motivation

development and training). See Table 8.2 for a list of several motivational theories that can be applied to organizations and their people, along with examples of their uses in the workplace.

Table 8.2: Examples of motivational theories utilized in organizations

Theory Principles Practical application

Abram Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (original model developed in 1943)

Suggests that there are five areas of indi- vidual needs that must be met (sequen- tially) to encourage personal growth and increased motivation: physiological (bottom of the pyramid), safety, love/ belonging, esteem, and self-actualization (top of the pyramid).

Jane, who is a successful geriatric physi- cian, may find that her need to have good working relationships (the need for love/belonging) deteriorates if she is having long-term difficulty with sleeping (physiological need).

Frederick Herz- berg’s two-factor theory (1959)

Suggests that variables are either motivational factors (e.g., work achieve- ments, advancement opportunities) or hygiene factors (e.g., salary, coworker relationships) and that hygiene factors do not play a role in job satisfaction and motivation.

William, who works for a large energy firm, may have increased motivation when he is given the opportunity to be promoted.

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964)

Suggests that motivation increases when the person believes that the result of an action will be what they expect. Based on three variables: expectancy, instru- mentality, and valence.

If Deena expects that her hard work and dedication to the organization will result in increased autonomy and job stability, and yet continues to feel micromanaged, her motivation to continue at her current level of dedication may decline.

John Stacey Adams’ equity theory (1965)

Suggests that motivation will increase/ decrease based on the employee’s per- ception of how fair (or unfair) a situation is. An employee considers self-inputs (e.g., effort, experience) and outcomes (e.g., pay, recognition) in comparison to the inputs and outcomes of oth- ers within the workplace. If there is a perception of inequality, motivation may decrease.

When Frank learns that his fellow coworkers are doing less work than he is for the same pay, his motivation to perform is at risk.

Edwin Locke and Gary Latham’s goal-setting theory (1968)

Suggests that specific and difficult goals, rather than vague and easy goals, lead to increased performance and motiva- tion. Motivation is driven by goals that include clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and task complexity.

If manager Vince’s team is having dif- ficulty in maintaining effective perfor- mance, he should consider if he is com- municating with specificity and clarity to his colleagues.

Clayton Alder- fer’s existence, relatedness, and growth theory (ERG; 1969)

According to ERG, which builds off of Maslow’s and Herzberg’s theories, the fulfillment of three needs encourages increased motivation: existence (basic survival), relatedness (belonging, sup- port, recognition), and growth (esteem and self-actualization). The theory does not state that any order is required; therefore, the three areas may also be addressed simultaneously.

David’s boss appreciates his hard work and gives a lot of positive feedback. This purposeful engagement would be clas- sified as relatedness, according to this theory.

(continued on next page)

Section 8.5Ethics

Table 8.2: Examples of motivational theories utilized in organizations (continued)

Theory Principles Practical application

Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model (1976)

Identifies specific job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task signifi- cance, autonomy, and feedback) that can affect employees’ motivation, suggesting that employers should consider strate- gies including job crafting, consistent and increased feedback, and empower- ment to explore ideas without fear of rejection.

Zita, the CEO of a large company, encour- ages her management to be innovative by allowing the freedom to make mis- takes, but also by rewarding victories. Each month she reminds those who had success and stresses that what they do is important to the success of the organi- zation. Based on this theory, her team should be highly motivated to perform.

Susan Harter’s competence motivation theory (1978)

Suggests that one’s motivation to achieve is driven by perceived self-competence. As feelings of competence increase for a specific task, new tasks will be more readily welcomed.

Simon, a new manager, has found great success in improving the financial bottom line for his department. This success has inspired him to explore areas of management that he would like to develop, such as giving more effective performance reviews.

Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan’s self-deter- mination theory (SDT; 2000)

Suggests that feelings of relatedness (work relationships), competency (perceived performance), and autonomy (ability to perform independently) are necessary to increase motivation. This theory has numerous sub-theories.

Although Tina feels her autonomy is supported and she has healthy work relationships, she struggles with staying motivated. This could be related to the fact that she was recently promoted to a new position within the company and was not properly trained for her new duties; as such, Tina is feeling a lack of self-competence.

Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan’s organis- mic integration theory (OIT; 2000)

A sub-theory of SDT that identifies dif- fering levels of motivation based on the reasoning behind a person’s actions. The range of motivation is presented as least autonomous (no motivation or varying levels of extrinsic motivation) to most autonomous (intrinsic motivation). Moti- vation closer to the intrinsic side of the continuum is said to be more positive.

Although Louis makes less money in his new job helping teens break the cycle of drug use, he has a more positive level of motivation. This integrated level of extrinsic motivation is supported by his passion for helping others.

Based on this extensive, although not inclusive, list, it is clear that motivating employees can be complex; regardless, it is essential to organizational success (Doshi & McGregor, 2015; Mackey & Sisodia, 2014; Pink, 2009) and employee satisfaction (Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017). Organizations with highly motivated employees are more successful and perform better. It is important that I/O psychologists and all professionals in the workplace develop skills in all areas of employee motivation enhancement.

8.5 Ethics As you have read throughout this text, ethics are of great importance in any career choice. For I/O psychologists there are numerous perspectives to consider, as those in this field must not only abide by professional psychological ethics codes such as the American Psychological

Section 8.5Ethics

Association (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, but also by work- place laws. In alignment with the APA Ethics Code, the following is vital for the I/O psycholo- gist to consider (Knapp, 2003):

Standard 3.11 of the code is new and pertains specifically to those psycholo- gists delivering services “to or through organizations.” It requires, among other things, the psychologist to make clear who the client is (e.g., the employer and not employees who will be assessed), limits on confidentiality for any infor- mation collected, and how the information will be used.

If you see that your work is being misused, at least try to do something about it (Standard 1.01). I-O psychologists who develop systems (e.g., for applicant screening) that an employer can easily alter after they have left the scene are particularly prone to this problem. (p. 165)

As Knapp (2003) describes, the unique conditions in which I/O psychologists often work cre- ate opportunities for non-I/O professionals to use developed materials in ways they were not meant to be utilized. For example, if an organization hires an I/O psychologist to develop a performance assessment for managers and then uses it to assess production line employees, it is likely that the measurements of the production line employees would not be reliable. According to the APA, if an I/O psychologist sees this happening, he or she must attempt to address the issue. Being an ethical professional doesn’t only apply to the work you do; it can also apply to the work others are doing with materials you have provided.

It is also imperative that I/O psychologists and other I/O professionals (e.g., people in human resources and management) know and proactively enforce workplace laws. The laws are a driving force to reduce discriminatory and unethical practices within organizations, and any individuals who engage with organizations in regard to hiring, training, and assessments, must be acutely aware of the changing global workplace and the laws that guide it. For exam- ple, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in hiring based on reli- gion, sex, race, color, or national origin, and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1968 prohibits discrimination based on age. This means that interviews and assessments must be carefully crafted to avoid any potential bias that may be present in questions. It also limits the types of questions that an employer can ask in an interview, as gathering certain types of information may introduce bias into the decision-making process.

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) addresses the requirements associated with wages and hiring age requirements in specific industries. If a human resources professional at an orga- nization were to notice, for example, that some employees were illegally being paid below minimum wage, it would be that person’s responsibility to report this violation of the FLSA. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) guarantees certain employees 12 weeks of job-pro- tected leave from an organization. This means that a new mother (or father), or a person car- ing for a sick parent, can take 12 weeks off of work and be able to return to their job after those 12 weeks. This is just another example of the numerous laws that I/O professionals must be aware of in their professional lives. For additional guidelines, visit the United States Depart- ment of Labor website, which provides a summary of employment laws that are observed in our country’s organizations/workforce: https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/majorlaws.

https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/majorlaws

Section 8.6Career Applications in the Field of I/O Psychology

8.6 Career Applications in the Field of I/O Psychology I/O psychology offers vast opportunities for those seeking to apply their knowledge to the workplace. To become an actual “psychologist,” one must earn a terminal degree; however, students graduating with bachelor’s and master’s degrees can apply their knowledge to other domains, such as management. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018d), the median annual salary in the I/O psychology field is $102,530. In addition, the Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology predicts that this field will grow 26% through 2018 (SIOP, 2018).

As discussed, I/O psychologists specialize in a multitude of workplace arenas such as appli- cant and employee assessment, training and development, communications, employee well- being, workplace diversity, leadership, motivation, workplace safety, and work–life balance. There are also numerous careers that utilize the skills associated with these arenas, and the opportunities are always evolving in our ever-changing economic environment. Whether an advanced degree is required or not will vary based on the specific organization and position. Additional examples and elaboration of potential careers with and without a graduate degree are included in the following sections.

Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology An undergraduate degree in general psy- chology, with some knowledge of I/O psy- chology, prepares a person to apply knowledge about the workplace in their current and prospective careers. Specific to I/O psychology, as discussed, knowl- edge that supports effective training and development, assessments in the work- place, and hiring can be advantageous when considering career options that may require only a bachelor’s degree. Whether aligned to the hiring, training, assessment, or development processes, you can sup- port the success of an organization, as well as individual employees’ well-being, with what you have learned about I/O psychology. And with an awareness for the variables that can affect the financial bottom line of an organization, such as employee well- being and leadership styles, you can help to effectively address issues that may not be com- monly understood, given that the needs of organizations are multifaceted.

One career field associated with I/O psychology is human resources. The level of educa- tion required (bachelor’s versus a master’s) varies from one organization to another. A good entry-level career to help you advance to management might be human resources specialist. This career had a median pay of $60,350 per year ($29.01 per hour) in 2017 according to the BLS (2018d), with a predicted growth rate of 7% between 2016 and 2026. A specialist might

Tomertu/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ There can be multiple career paths for a person

who earns a bachelor’s degree in I/O psychology, such as a job in human resources.

Section 8.6Career Applications in the Field of I/O Psychology

handle recruitment, employment screening, candidate interviews, job placement, compensa- tion and benefits, and performance supportive training (BLS, 2018d). Once you have gained some experience, the most common amount asked for being five years (BLS, 2018d), you may be able to qualify for a human resources manager role. According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH; BLS, 2018d), the median pay for a human resources manager in 2016 was $106,910 per year ($51.40 per hour), and this occupation is projected to grow 9% from 2016 to 2026. Similar to a specialist, duties often include recruiting, interviewing, hiring, strategic planning, and organizational communication. The major difference from the specialist job would be, of course, that you are supervising other people as well as carrying out human resources duties. Knowledge of I/O theories and strategies can help you succeed in a human resources role, as it gives you a knowledge base for hiring the right candidates and motivating employees.

Other areas supported by this knowledge base include almost any area in which you have prior experience, especially at the management level, as I/O psychology teaches you how to communicate and help people succeed. For example, with experience in marketing, an I/O psychology skillset can further help you understand your customer and craft your messages to be as effective as possible. As a sales manager with I/O psychology knowledge, you can set specific, realistic goals and help your team members stay motivated to reach them. The skills associated with your degree (e.g., motivating employees, designing assessments) are often as important as obtaining the degree itself.

Graduate Degree in I/O Psychology With a graduate degree in I/O psychology, one may be able to establish a more advanced career in the discipline. The American Psychology Association (2017a) reports that the median annual salary for I/O psychologists is $80,000. The following are several career posi- tions that you might see when searching for jobs that require a master’s or doctorate degree in I/O psychology:

• Personnel analyst ▶ Analyzes hiring strategies, including location-based job hunts and on-boarding

• Research consultant ▶ Applies research strategies to organizations (e.g., administers surveys to measure

employee satisfaction, gives recommendations on research-based practices to improve results)

• Instructional designer ▶ Uses knowledge of I/O and learning psychology theories to design successful

employee training based on organizational goals and performance

• Talent developer ▶ Creates organizational initiatives that support employee self-development ▶ May include assessment and analysis of crucial employee training needs

• Industrial-organizational professor/academic ▶ Teaches and performs research in the field of I/O psychology

Licensing is also another consideration if a person intends to earn a doctorate and practice as an I/O psychologist. This requirement is diverse and is mandated on a state-by-state basis.

Summary

When working in some private sectors, licensing may not be useful, but for those exploring options aligned to I/O psychology, it should be considered. For those wanting to profession- ally consult, organizations such as SIOP provide useful tools to market one’s skills to organi- zations: http://my.siop.org/cls.

Most importantly, when approaching potential career options in the area of I/O psychology, one should clearly identify the skills they have obtained through the process of earning a degree. Clear representation of these skills to prospective employers is essential. In addition, identifying clear goals for yourself can increase the success of your job search and help you make decisions about attending graduate school.

Summary I/O psychology is utilized to assist organizations in more efficient selection, development, and training of employees, as well as in improving performance and productivity overall. The field of study is as vast and ever-changing as our workforce. In our competitive global mar- ket, this area of expertise is growing, as previously discussed, as companies and small busi- nesses strive to outlive and outperform the competition. Identifying what knowledge and talents are needed to be successful in job placement reduces retention costs and supports a positive work climate. An understanding of what motivates employees can help the organiza- tion develop methods to improve individual performance and workplace satisfaction. Well- designed leadership training can support a positive and supportive engagement between leadership and staff. Assessment of organizational needs can be developed into a productive protocol for actively promoting best practices in any industry. And lastly, with a solid foun- dation in ethics, I/O professionals can reduce the risk for organizational malfeasance. As a soon-to-be graduate, if you have a passion for business, marketing, manufacturing, or perfor- mance, I/O psychology may be the subfield that drives your next decisions about education and career choices.

Concept Check 1. Industrial/organizational psychology originated based on an increased concern for

__________ within the workplace. a. safety and productivity b. disability-assessing procedures c. civil and governmental legal battles instigated d. personality job alignments

2. Industrial/organizational psychology is the study of two specific overarching areas: a. leadership and management. b. individual-level based phenomena and organizational-level based phenomena. c. motivation and disability rates within the workplace. d. personality characteristics and abnormal behaviors.

3. To define organizational needs, an industrial/organizational psychologist, or some- one with specialty skills in I/O psychology, would utilize a a. top-tier approach. b. workplace assessment. c. personality assessment. d. bottom-up approach.

http://my.siop.org/cls

Summary

4. KSAOs ____________the requirements needed to perform a task. a. measure b. quantify c. identify d. enumerate

5. ___________ theories can be utilized to identify individual needs and increase work- place satisfaction. a. Motivation b. Development c. Assessment d. On-boarding

Answers

1. a. The answer can be found in Section 8.2 2. b. The answer can be found in Section 8.1 3. b. The answer can be found in Section 8.3. 4. c. The answer can be found in Section 8.3. 5. a. The answer can be found in Section 8.4.

Questions for Critical Thinking 1. Saga, LLC is a large recording studio. Over the past year, they have experienced

much employee turnover, which was not common in the company’s past. The human resources manager has discussed the situation with the CEO and they have decided that hiring a consultant to assess the organization would be ideal. If you were the consultant, what three strategies would you employ to determine potential causations for this change in company retention?

2. Cindy manages a team of highly qualified journalists. She is aware that recently there has been an escalation of negative feedback in the public about journalism practices and has witnessed her team’s deflation in levels of competency and attitude, which seems to be affecting their productivity. What motivation theory could best ex- plain the scenario and what are some motivational methods that Cindy could apply to increase motivation within her team, based on theory?

3. Kally Farms, LLC is in need of a new employee to address some of the crop produc- tion reductions that they have been experiencing over the past couple of years that have severely affected their financial bottom-line. Since this will be a new position, they are not certain what all of the tasks should be or what knowledge will be re- quired of the new employee. They have decided to hire a farm production consultant who also specializes in I/O organizational psychology, as they feel his knowledge in both production and workplace hiring practices will be of much benefit to their orga- nization. In terms of designing a job description, who would be some of the most important stakeholders to include in the information gathering phase to be ap- plied to the KSAO analysis? What other considerations should be addressed?

Key Terms action research Research that is focused on discovering practical and applicable solu- tions to improve productivity, organizational practices, training and development, and the like.

behavioral assessments Assessments that seek to evaluate behavior such as self-management, change adaptability, and teamwork.

Summary

competence assessments Evaluations that seek to identify employees’ skills, experi- ences, physical abilities, cognitive abilities, or knowledge base.

computer-adaptive test An assessment tailored to a person’s individual ability.

development The opportunity to expand one’s knowledge as applied to one’s profession.

executive coaching Development focused on specific skill sets, performance improve- ment issues, transition facilitation, as well as supporting overarching changes identified with individual and group leadership.

Harter’s competence motivation the- ory A theory positing that achievement motivation is based on a person’s feelings of personal competence.

Hawthorne effect Behavioral changes that may occur due to a person or persons being observed as they work.

industrial/organizational (I/O) psychol- ogy The study of human behavior associ- ated with workplaces and organizations.

industrial psychology The study of indi- vidual-level phenomena in the workplace.

job analysis A process to determine the specific duties of a job.

objective performance measures Impar- tial measures used to assess clear objectives such as sales volume history, recorded cus- tomer complaints, or attendance records.

organizational psychology The study of group and organizational-level phe- nomena that occur in both work and non-work settings.

participatory management A manage- ment style where employees play a more active role.

person–job (PJ) fit The level of compatibil- ity that a person has with the assigned job.

person–organization (PO) fit A measure- ment of an organization’s ability to support an employees’ values and beliefs.

power test An assessment designed to test accurate knowledge without the limitations of time.

semi-structured interview An interview that uses a predetermined set of questions that are asked to the employee candidate. The questions are formulated to be open- ended and allow the interviewer to investi- gate responses in more depth.

situational judgement tests An assess- ment with predetermined responses that asks the taker to determine the appropriate course of action in given scenarios.

speed test A standardized content assess- ment that gives the taker a limited amount of time to respond.

structured interview An interview that uses a predetermined set of questions that are asked to the employee candidate. The questions are often presented to each candi- date in the same order.

subjective performance measures Mea- sures that rely on human judgement and, therefore, may include a level of subjectivity or bias.

training The opportunity to gain the knowledge needed to perform the job.

unstructured interview An interview that does not have a predetermined set of ques- tions or answers.

Summary

workplace assessments Assess- ments used to identify the multifaceted needs of an organization related to that organization’s goals.

work-sample test A test that evaluates skills needed for the job the test taker has.

Professional Resources American Psychological Association (APA): Industrial/Organizational Psychology: http://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/industrial.aspx

Pursuing a Career in I/O Psychology: http://www.apa.org/action/science/organizational/ education-training.aspx

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS): Occupational Employment and Wages: https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes193032.htm

Society for Industrial and Organization Psychology (SIOP): Main webpage: https://www.siop.org/

Graduate Training Programs in Industrial-Organizational Psychology and Related Fields: http://www.siop.org/gtp/

Fun Facts Did you know that . . .

• I/O psychology is being utilized to prepare for NASA’s 2030 planned trip to Mars (Novotney, 2013).

• I/O psychologists will have to expand their research about effective productivity as more jobs are being offered remotely than ever before.

• Missouri University of Science and Technology researchers found that teamwork success may be able to be translated from gamers who have success playing World of Warcraft (WoW) during team raids (Katski, 2017).

http://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/industrial.aspx

http://www.apa.org/action/science/organizational/education-training.aspx

https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes193032.htm

https://www.siop.org

http://www.siop.org/gtp

_Hlk529186060
_Hlk529186017
_GoBack
_Hlk529186103
_Hlk529186121
_Hlk529186126
_Hlk529186136
_Hlk524529163
_Hlk529186207
_Hlk529186212
_Hlk524608143
_Hlk524607349
_Hlk524608125