CATs

C h a p t e r O u t l i n e

The Internationalization of Business

How Intercountry Differences Affect HRM

Improving International Assignments Through Selection

Training and Maintaining International Employees

International Labour Relations

Safety Abroad

Repatriation: Problems and Solutions

Managing Human Resources in an International Business

C h a p t e r 13

L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Explain how to improve international assignments through employee selection.

Answer the question, “What sort of special training do overseas candidates need?”

Discuss the major considerations in formulating a compensation plan for overseas employees.

Describe the main considerations in repatriating employees from abroad.

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 2

The Internationalization of Business More and more Canadian-based companies are conducting their business in other countries. Huge global companies like Noranda, Labatt’s, and Molson’s have long had extensive overseas operations. Global changes such as the rapid development of demand in the Pacific Rim and other areas of the world means that business success depends on the ability to market and manage overseas. Of course, to foreign companies like Toyota, Canada is “overseas,” and thou- sands of foreign firms already have thriving operations in Canada. Increasingly, companies must be managed globally, which confronts managers with several challenges.

First, the number of their employees abroad has increased. With more employees abroad, HR departments have had to tackle new global challenges. Three broad global HR challenges that have emerged are as follows:1

• Deployment. Getting the right skills to where they are needed in the organ- ization regardless of geographical location.

• Knowledge and innovation dissemination. Spreading state-of-the art knowledge and practices throughout the organization regardless of where they originate.

• Identifying and developing talent on a global basis. Identifying who has the ability to function effectively in a global organization and developing these abilities.2

Dealing with such challenges means that most employers have had to devel- op HR policies and procedures just for handling global assignments. From a practical point of view, one has to address issues such as:3

1. Candidate identification, assessment, and selection. In addition to the required technical and business skills, key traits to consider for global assignments include, for instance: cultural sensitivity, interpersonal skills, and flexibility.

2. Cost projections. The average cost of sending an employee and family on an overseas assignment is reportedly between three and five times the employee’s pre-departure salary; as a result, quantifying total costs for a global assignment and deciding whether to use an expatriate or a local employee are essential in the budgeting process.

3. Assignment letters. The assignee’s specific job requirements and associated pay will have to be documented and formally communicated in an assign- ment letter.

4. Compensation, benefits, and tax programs. There are many ways in which to compensate employees who are transferred abroad, given the vast differ- ences in living expenses around the world.

5. Relocation assistance. The assignee will probably have to be assisted with such matters as maintenance of the person’s home and automobiles, ship- ment and storage of household goods, and so forth.

6. Family support. Cultural orientation, educational assistance, and emer- gency provisions are just some of the matters to be addressed before the family is sent abroad.4

Among the many changes taking place in the interna- tional business arena is the introduction of the euro, a single currency used by the European Union since 1999.

International HRM Association www.ihrim.org

That is just the tip of the iceberg. Cross-cultural, technical, and language training programs will probably be required. The complex and differentiated tapestry of labour laws and rules from country to country and provisions for re- assimilating the expatriate when he or she returns home are some of the other issues that must be addressed.

It is increasingly common for technology to be used to assist with global relocation. A WorldatWork survey found that 92 percent of expatriates say that the Internet is critical to their lives, and 96 percent say they use it daily. In future, it is expected that “relocation stores” will appear on the Internet, set up by relocation companies for corporations and consumers to access for help with career services, cross-cultural training, stress management, and more.5 And over 80 percent of the Global 500 corporations (the 500 largest corporations in the workd) use their Web site for global recruiting.6

Second, sending employees abroad and managing HR globally is complicat- ed by the nature of the countries into which many firms are expanding. Employers today are not just transferring employees into the relatively familiar surroundings of industrialized nations. For example, Figure 13.1 identifies 7 of the 15 countries chosen most often by 192 HR managers “as among the three countries they see emerging as assignment locations for their organizations.”7

Notice the range of HR-related challenges that an employer can expect when assigning employees in some of these countries. In China, for instance, special insurance should cover emergency evacuations for serious health problems; tele- phone communication can be a “severe handicap” in Russia; and the compen- sation plan for employees in Mexico may have to deal with an inflation rate that approaches 52 percent per year.8

How Intercountry Differences Affect HRM To a large extent, companies operating only within Canada’s borders have the luxury of dealing with a relatively limited set of economic, cultural, and legal variables, as Canada is basically a capitalist competitive society. A company that is operating multiple businesses abroad is generally not blessed with such rela- tive homogeneity. For example, minimum legally mandated holidays may range from none in the United Kingdom to five weeks per year in Luxembourg. Another troubling issue is the need for tight security and terrorism awareness training for employees sent to countries such as Colombia, where kidnapping of

foreign executives is commonplace.9 The management of the HR function in multinational companies is complicated enormously by the need to adapt HR policies and procedures to the differences among countries in which each subsidiary is based. The following are some intercountry differences that demand such adaptation.10

Cultural Factors: Wide-ranging cultural differences from coun- try to country demand corresponding differences in HR practices among a company’s foreign subsidiaries. The cultural norms of the Far East and the importance there of the patriarchal system affect the typical Japanese worker’s view of his or her relationship to an employer as well as influence how that person works. Japanese workers have often come to expect lifetime employment in return for their loyalty, for instance. As well, incentive plans in Japan

Chapter 133

HR Links www.shrm.org/hrlinks/intl.htm

Expatriate Information About Living Abroad http://idt.net/~sefco/expat.htm

Mobility Services International www.msimobility.com

Expat Forum www.expatforum.com

Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong www.cancham.org/home/home.html

While vacationers like these in Luxembourg are legally entitled to five weeks’ holi- day, standards vary widely even within Europe.

tend to focus on the work group, while in the West the more usual prescription is still to focus on individual worker incentives.

A well-known study by Professor Geert Hofstede underscores other interna- tional cultural differences. Hofstede says that societies differ first in power dis- tance; in other words, they differ in the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions accept and expect that power will be distributed unequally.11 Individualism versus collectivism refers to the degree to which ties between individuals are normally loose rather than close. In more individualis- tic countries, “all members are expected to look after themselves and their immediate families.”12 Individualistic countries include Canada and the United States. Collectivist countries include Indonesia and Pakistan. Masculinity versus femininity refers, said Hofstede, to the extent to which society values assertive- ness (“masculinity”) versus caring (what he called “femininity”). Japan and Austria ranked high in masculinity; Denmark and Chile ranked low.

Such intercountry cultural differences have several HR implications. First, they suggest the need for adapting HR practices such as selection testing and pay plans to local cultural norms. They also suggest that HR staff members in a for- eign subsidiary are best drawn from host-country citizens. A high degree of sen- sitivity and empathy for the cultural and attitudinal demands of coworkers is always important when selecting employees to staff overseas operations. As one expert puts it, “An HR staff member who shares the employee’s cultural back- ground is more likely to be sensitive to the employee’s needs and expectations in the workplace—and is thus more likely to manage the company successfully.”13

Economic Factors: Differences in economic systems among countries also translate into intercountry differences in HR practices. In free enterprise sys- tems, for instance, the need for efficiency tends to favour HR policies that value productivity, efficient workers, and staff cutting where market forces dictate. Moving along the scale toward more socialist systems, HR practices tend to shift toward preventing unemployment, even at the expense of sacrificing efficiency.

Labour Cost Factors: Differences in labour costs may also produce differ- ences in HR practices. High labour costs can require a focus on efficiency, for instance, and on HR practices (like pay-for-performance) aimed at improving employee performance. Intercountry differences in labour costs are substantial. For example, hourly compensation costs in U.S. dollars for production workers in manufacturing recently ranged from a high of $25.56 in Germany to a low of $2.65 in Mexico.14 Wide gaps also exist in hours worked. For example, work- ers in Portugal average about 1980 hours of work annually, while workers in Germany average 1648 hours. Employees in Europe generally receive four weeks of vacation as compared with two or three weeks in Canada.

Industrial Relations Factors: Industrial relations, and specifically the rela- tionship between the worker, the union, and the employer, vary dramatically from country to country and have an enormous impact on HRM practices. In Germany, for instance, codetermination is the rule. Here, employees have the legal right to a voice in setting company policies.15 On the other hand, in many other countries, the state interferes little in the relations between employers and unions.

Summary: Intercountry variations in culture, economic systems, labour costs, and industrial relations systems complicate the task of selecting, training, and managing employees abroad. These variations result in corresponding differ- ences in management styles and practices from country to country, and such dif-

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 4

Chapter 135

F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 E m e r g i n g D e s t i n a t i o n s f o r F o r e i g n A s s i g n m e n t s

People’s Republic of China (PRC) Communist $2,900 10.1% Standard Chinese Range: Mon. through Fri., Rules for hiring Chinese (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) state or Mandarin, Yue $119– 08:00–noon and nationals depend on the

(Cantonese), Wu, 226 13:00 (or 14:00)– type of establishment: wholly–owned, joint venture or representative office.

Minbei, Minnan, 17:00 Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages.

Republic of India Federal $1,500 9% English is Range: A passport and Most offices: Less than 2% of the total republic important for $186– a visa are Mon. through Fri., workforce is unionized.

national, political 306 required. Also: Some offices: Worker days lost to and commercial evidence of Mon. through Sat. strikes and lockouts communication. yellow fever have declined since Hindi is the immunization if the 1991. primary tongue of traveler is arriving 30% of the people. from an infected

area.

Federative Republic of Brazil Federal $6,100 23% Official language: Range: Travelers must Mon. through Fri., Labour unions, especially (Rebublica Federativa do Brasil) republic Portuguese. Also $56– have a 08:30 or 09:00– in the most skilled sectors,

Spanish, English 252 temporary 17:30 or 18:00 tend to be well-organized and French. business visa with a one- to and aggressive in

(valid for 90 two-hour lunch. defending wages and days) if they plan Some factories: conditions. to transact half-days on Sat. business.

Russian Federation Federation $5,300 7% Primary language: Range: Canadian citizens must

40 hours per week. Local labour mobility (Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) Russian. $191– have a within Russia is limited

319 passport and visa. by housing shortages Visas are issued and difficulties in based on support obtaining government- from a sponsor: required residence a Russian permits. individual or organization.

United Mexican States Federal $7,700 52% Spanish and Range: Canadian citizens can

48 hours For overtime, workers (Estados Unidos Mexicanos) republic various Mayan $61– apply for a including one must be paid twice

operating dialects. 255 business visa for paid day of rest. their normal rate—and under a up to 30 days on three times their hourly centralized arrival in Mexico. rate when more than government Longer stays nine hours per week

require an FM-3 of overtime. visa.

Republic of Singapore Republic $22,900 1.7% National language: $211 Passports are 44 hours: The government places within a Malay. Other required. Visas Mon. through Fri., a ceiling on the % of common- languages: aren’t necessary 08:30–17:30 and foreign workers various wealth Chinese, Tamil for Canadian-

based Sat., 08:30–13:00. industries may employ

and English. travelers. and a monthly levy for each foreign worker.

Hong Kong Territory of $27,500 8.4% Chinese $344 Visas allowing Mon. through Fri., Minimal labour relations China as of (Cantonese) and residence and 09:00–17:00. Sat. difficulties. The average July 1997 English. local employment was traditionally a number of days lost due

for expats are half-day, but many to industrial conflicts is granted on the companies now one of the lowest in basis of simple advertise 5-day the world. procedures. workweeks.

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Managing Human Resources in an International Business 6

Source: Adapted from Global Workforce, January 1998, pp. 18-21.

583.6 5.2% 81.5% Domestic and Co. insurance 9 schools 15–25% Foreign Embassy of the PRC million (1995) (1995) international should cover in 6 cities investment 515 Patrick Street (1991) services are emergency including Ottawa, Ontario K1N 5H3

increasingly evacuations. (U.S.): $38 Tel: 613-789-3434 available for Serious cases billion in private use. are often 1995. Unevenly handled in distributed system. Hong Kong.

314.751 Info not 52% Probably the Adequate 6 schools 10–20% U.S. High Commission of India million available. (1995) least adequate care is in 6 cities investment: 10 Springfield Road (1990) system of the available in $192 Ottawa, Ontario K1M 1C9

industrializing population million in Tel: 613-744-3751 E-mail: [email protected] URL: www.docuweb.ca/India

countries. centres. 1995. Slows Doctors and industrial and hospitals often commericial expect payment growth. in cash.

57 5% 83.3% Good working Information not 12 schools 0–10% U.S. Embassy of Brazil million (1995) (1995) system. available. in 10 cities Investment: 450 Wilbrod Street (1989) $23.6 billion Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6M8

by end of Tel: 613-237-1090 1995. E-mail: [email protected]

85 8.2% 98% Enlisting Far below 3 schools 10–25% Foreign Embassy of the Russian million (1995) (1995) foreign help to Western in 3 cities. investment Federation (1993) speed up standards with (including 2650 Charlotte Street

modernization. severe U.S.): $2.1 Ottawa, Ontario K1N 8L5 A severe shortages of billion in Tel: 613-235-4341 handicap to basic supplies. 1996. E-mail: [email protected]

URL: www.magma.ca/~rusembthe economy.

33.6 10% 89.6% Adequate domestic Dependable 15 schools 0–5% Information Embassy of Mexico million (1995) (1995) service for in the principal in 10 cities not available. 45 O'Connor Street, Suite 1500 (1994) business and cities. Most Ottawa, Ontario K1P 1A4

gov’t, but the private doctors Tel: 613-233-8988 E-mail: [email protected] URL: www.embamexcan.com

public is poorly have North served. American

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1.649 2.6% 91.1% Good domestic Information not 7 schools 0% Foreign Consulate-General of the million (1995) (1995) facilities and available. in a small investment Republic of Singapore (1994) international country (including 40 King Street West, Suite 3005

service. U.S.) in Toronto, Ontario M5H 1H1 manufacturing: Tel: 416-866-6134 $4.1 billion in 1996

2.915 3.5% 92.2% Modern facilities Information not 11 schools 0% U.S. Embassy of the PRC million (1995) (Age 15+ provide excellent available. in a small Investment: 515 Patrick Street (1994) had domestic and region $13.8 billion Ottawa, Ontario K1N 5H3

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ferences “… may strain relations between headquarters and subsidiary person- nel or make a manager less effective when working abroad than at home.”16

International assignments thus run a relatively high risk of failing unless special steps are taken in selecting, training, and compensating international assignees.

Improving International Assignments Through Selection

Canadian companies have reported low failure rates for employees on foreign assignments relative to other countries, particularly the United States.17 Failure is defined as the premature return of employees to their home country or the inability of expatriates to achieve their business goals. One survey concluded that three-quarters of U.S. multinational companies experience expatriate assignment failure rates of 10 percent or more.18 European and Japanese multi- nationals reported lower failure rates, with only about one-sixth of Japanese multinationals and three percent of European multinationals reporting more than a 10-percent expatriate recall rate. For American multinationals, the rea- sons for expatriate failure (in descending order of importance) were inability of spouse to adjust, managers’ inability to adjust, other family problems, man- agers’ personal or emotional immaturity, and inability to cope with larger over- seas responsibility. Managers of European firms emphasized only the inability of the manager’s spouse to adjust as an explanation for the expatriate’s failed assignment. Japanese firms emphasized (in descending order) inability to cope with larger overseas responsibility, difficulties with new assignment, personal or emotional problems, lack of technical competence, and finally, inability of the spouse to adjust.19 Thus it is usually not inadequate technical competence but family and personal problems that undermine the international assignee.

The Canadian experience is unique.20 Factors identified by Canadian firms as important to expatriate success include flexibility, language ability, and fam- ily adjustment. However, these factors were not identified by Canadian compa- nies as having been part of the selection and training process for expatriates. There are three potential explanations for this result. First, Canadians may be more culturally adaptable than their foreign counterparts because they are already familiar with bilingualism and multiculturalism. Second, Canadian expatriates are so few in number that they can be dealt with on an individual basis. Thus their firms may be doing more to prepare and support them than they report, because their systems are not formalized. Third, Canadian expatri- ate assignments have tended to be in culturally similar situations, which makes successful adaptation more likely.

These problems have resulted in relocation policies becoming more flexi- ble.21 Some organizations have moved away from full-scale relocation of an employee and his or her family to alternatives such as: frequent extended busi- ness trips with corresponding time spent back at home; short-term assignments of from three to twelve months with frequent home leave; and the dual house- hold arrangement where the employee’s family remains at home and the employee sets up a small household for him or herself in the foreign country. Cost is another significant factor behind the growing number of short-term assignments, as they are generally seen as less costly than traditional expatriate assignments.22

Chapter 137

Canadian Employee Relocation Council www.cerc.ca

Windham International www.ExpatSpouse.com

A recent survey of 520 multinational companies worldwide, including 50 Canadian companies, with a total of more than 30 000 employees on short-term assignment, found that overall program coordination is the biggest challenge— often finding out who is on short-term assignment can be a major problem in large multinationals. Unfortunately, relocation support services provided to employees on short-term assignment is often inconsistent and frequently inade- quate. More than half the time, orientation, security briefings, cross-cultural training, and language training are provide on a case-by-case basis. Thus man- aging short-term assignments effectively is a significant challenge for both HR managers and business unit managers.23

International Staffing: Sources of Managers There are several ways in which to classify international managers. Locals are citizens of the countries where they are working. Expatriates are non-citizens of the countries in which they are working.24 Home-country nationals are the cit- izens of the country in which the multinational company’s headquarters is based.25 Third-country nationals are citizens of a country other than the parent or the host country—for example, a British executive working in a Tokyo sub- sidiary of a Canadian multinational bank.26

Expatriates represent a minority of managers. Thus, “most managerial posi- tions are filled by locals rather than expatriates in both headquarters or foreign subsidiary operations.”27 There are several reasons to rely on local, host-country management talent for filling the foreign subsidiary’s management ranks. Many people simply prefer not to work in a foreign country, and in general the cost of using expatriates is far greater than the cost of using local management talent.28

The multinational corporation may be viewed locally as a “better citizen” if it uses local management talent, and indeed some governments actually press for the “nativization” of local management.29 There may also be a fear that expa- triates, knowing that they are posted to the foreign subsidiary for only a few years, may overemphasize short-term projects rather than focus on perhaps more necessary long-term tasks.30

There are also several reasons for using expatriates—either home-country or third-country nationals—for staffing subsidiaries. The major reason is reported- ly technical competence: in other words, employers cannot find local candidates with the required technical qualifications.31 Multinationals also increasingly view a successful stint abroad as a required step in developing top managers. Control is another important reason. Multinationals sometimes assign home-country nationals from their headquarters staff abroad on the assumption that these managers are more steeped in the firm’s policies and culture and more likely to unquestioningly implement headquarters’ instructions.

International Staffing Policy Multinational firms’ top executives are often classified as either ethnocentric, polycentric, or geocentric.32 In an ethnocentric corporation, “… the prevailing attitude is that home country attitudes, management style, knowledge, evalua- tion criteria, and managers are superior to anything the host country might have to offer.”33 In the polycentric corporation, “there is a conscious belief that only host-country managers can ever really understand the culture and behaviour of

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 8

the host-country market; therefore, the foreign subsidiary should be managed by local people.”34 The geocentric approach, which is becoming more common, assumes that management candidates must be searched for on a global basis, on the assumption that the best manager for any specific position anywhere on the globe may be found in any of the countries in which the firm operates.

These three multinational attitudes translate into three international staffing policies. An ethnocentric staffing policy is one in which all key management positions are filled by parent-country nationals.35 At Royal Dutch Shell, for instance, virtually all financial controllers around the world are Dutch nation- als. Reasons given for ethnocentric staffing policies include lack of qualified host-country senior management talent, a desire to maintain a unified corporate culture and tighter control, and the desire to transfer the parent firm’s core com- petencies (for instance, a specialized manufacturing skill) to a foreign subsidiary more expeditiously.36

A polycentric-oriented firm would staff foreign subsidiaries with host-country nationals and its home-office headquarters with parent-country nationals. This may reduce the local cultural misunderstandings that expatriate managers may exhibit. It will also almost undoubtedly be less expensive. One expert estimates that an expatriate executive can cost a firm up to three times as much as a domestic executive because of transfer expenses and other expenses such as schooling for children, annual home leave, and the need to pay income taxes in two countries.37

A geocentric staffing policy “seeks the best people for key jobs throughout the organization, regardless of nationality.”38 This may allow the global firm to use its human resources more efficiently by transferring the best person to the open job, wherever he or she may be. It can also help to build a stronger and more consistent culture and set of values among the entire global management team. Team members here are continually interacting and networking with each other as they move from assignment to assignment around the globe and par- ticipate in global development activities.

Selecting International Managers There are common traits which managers to be assigned domestically and over- seas will obviously share. Wherever a person is to be posted, he or she will need the technical knowledge and skills to do the job and the intelligence and people skills to be a successful manager, for instance.39

However, as discussed earlier in this chapter, foreign assignments make demands on expatriate assignees that are different from what the manager would face if simply assigned to a management post in his or her home country. There is the need to cope with a work force and management colleagues whose cultural inclinations may be drastically different from one’s own, and the con- siderable stress that being alone in a foreign land can bring to bear on the sin- gle manager. Of course, if spouse and children will share the assignment, there are also the complexities and pressures that the family will have to confront, from learning a new language to shopping in strange surroundings, to finding new friends and attending new schools.

As summarized in Figure 13.2, personal characteristics successfully distin- guished the managers identified by their companies as “high potential.” Consistent with results such as those mentioned previously, the characteristics—

Chapter 139

such as sensitive to cultural differences, business knowledge, brings out the best in people, takes risks, and is open to criticism—reflect a blend of technical expertise, openness, and flexibility in dealing with people and getting things done.

A d a p t a b i l i t y S c r e e n i n g

Adaptability screening is generally recommended as an integral part of the expa- triate selection process. Generally conducted by a professional psychologist or psychiatrist, adaptability screening aims to assess the family’s probable success in handling the foreign transfer and to alert the couple to personal issues (such as the impact on children) that the foreign move may involve.40

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 10

SCALE SAMPLE ITEM

Sensitive to Cultural Differences When working with people from other cultures, works hard to understand their perspectives.

Business Knowledge Has a solid understanding of our products and services.

Courage to Take a Stand Is willing to take a stand on issues.

Brings Out the Best in People Has a special talent for dealing with people.

Acts with Integrity Can be depended on to tell the truth regardless of circumstances.

Is Insightful Is good at identifying the most important part of a complex problem or issue.

Is Committed to Success Clearly demonstrates commitment to seeing the organization succeed.

Takes Risks Takes personal as well as business risks.

Uses Feedback Has changed as a result of feedback.

Is Culturally Adventurous Enjoys the challenge of working in countries other than his/her own.

Seeks Opportunities to Learn Takes advantage of opportunities to do new things.

Is Open to Criticism Appears brittle–as if criticism might cause him/her to break.*

Seeks Feedback Pursues feedback even when others are reluctant to give in.

Is Flexible

*Reverse scored

Doesn’t get so invested in things that she/he cannot change when something doesn’t work.

F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 Tr a i t s D i s t i n g u i s h i n g S u c c e s s f u l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x e c u t i v e s

Source: G. Spreitzer, M. McCall Jr. & J. Mahoney, “Early Identification of International Executives”, Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (1), 1997, pp. 6–29.

Past experience is often the best predictor of future success. Companies like Colgate-Palmolive, therefore, look for overseas candidates whose work and non-work experience, education, and language skills already demonstrate a commitment to and facility in living and working with different cultures.41 Even several summers spent successfully travelling overseas or participating in foreign student programs would seem to provide some concrete basis for believing that the potential transferee can accomplish the required adaptation when he or she arrives overseas.

Realistic job previews at this point are also crucial. Again, both the potential assignee and his or her family require all of the information that can be provid- ed on the problems to expect in the new job (such as mandatory private school- ing for the children) as well as any information obtainable about the cultural benefits, problems, and idiosyncrasies of the country in question. A pre-assignment visit to the new location by the employee and his or her family can provide an opportunity to make an informed decision about a potential relocation assign- ment.42 International HR managers speak about avoiding culture shock in much the same way as we discussed using realistic job previews to avoid reality shock among new employees. In any case, the rule here is to spell it out ahead of time, as firms like Ciba-Geigy do for their international transferees.43

There are also paper-and-pencil tests that can be used to more effectively select employees for overseas assignments. The Overseas Assignment Inventory is one such assessment tool. Based on 12 years of research with more than 7000 candidates, the test’s publisher contends that it is useful in identifying charac- teristics and attitudes that such candidates should have.44

Training and Maintaining International Employees Painstaking screening is just the first step in ensuring that the foreign assignee is successful. The employee may then require special training and, additionally, international HR policies must be formulated for compensating the firm’s over- seas managers and maintaining healthy labour relations.

Orienting and Training Employees for International Assignments When it comes to providing the orientation and training required for success overseas, most North American firms provide little or no sys- tematic selection and training. While company presidents and chair- persons say that international business is growing in importance and requires employees to be firmly grounded in the economics and prac- tices of foreign countries, few of their companies actually provide such overseas-oriented training to their employees.45

What sort of special training do overseas candidates need? One firm specializing in such programs prescribes a four-step approach.46

Level One training focuses on the impact of cultural differences, and on raising trainees’ awareness of such differences and their impact on business outcomes. Level Two training focuses on attitudes, and aims at getting participants to understand how attitudes (both negative and positive) are formed and how they influence behaviour. (For

Chapter 1311

Transition Dynamics www.transition-dynamics.com

The Expatriate Group www.expat.ca

Orientation and training for international assignments can help employees (and their families) to avoid “cul- ture shock” and better adjust to their new sur- roundings.

example, unfavourable stereotypes may subconsciously influence how a new manager responds to and treats his or her new foreign employees.) Finally, Level Three training provides factual knowledge about the target country, while Level Four provides skill building in areas like language and adjustment and adapta- tion skills. The depth of training is of the utmost importance. If firms are going to provide cross-cultural training, it needs to be in-depth and done with care.47

For example, language training must include non-verbal communication aware- ness, as it varies so widely across the world.48

Many organizations offer spousal assistance in the form of reimbursement for continuing education, job search assistance, résumé preparation, or recerti- fication.49 Figure 13.3 provides the results of a survey by Runzheimer consult- ants of 43 relocation professionals on the types of spousal re-employment assistance offered in formal relocation programs.

Beyond these special training practices, there is also the need for more tradi- tional training and development of overseas employees. IBM and other major firms have established management development centres around the world for their executives. Beyond that, classroom programs (such as those at the London Business School, or at INSEAD in Fontainebleu, France) provide overseas exec- utives with the opportunities that they need to build their functional skills.

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 12

1996

1998

Reimburse employees for outside service to prepare résumé and provide career counselling

Use services available through third party

Try to locate employment within company

Exchange résumés of employee’s spouse with other companies in area

Retain employment agency/ executive search firm

Reimburse employee for spouse’ s lost income

Company employees assist in résumé preparation/career counselling

Belong to spouse résumé exchange consortium

Reimburse employee for special employment-search trip(s) to new location

Use services available through homefinding company/real-estate brokerage

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 E x p a t r i a t e S p o u s a l R e - e m p l o y m e n t A s s i s t a n c e

Source: Runzheimer Reports on Relocation, Canadian HR Reporter (June 5, 2000), p. 11. © Carswell, Thomson Professional Publishing. Reproduced by permission of Canadian HR Reporter, Carswell, One Corporate Plaza, 2075 Kennedy Road, Scarborough, ON M1T 3V4.

In addition, international management development often aims to improve control of global operations by building a unified corporate culture by bringing together managers from far-flung subsidiaries and immersing them for a week or two in the firm’s cherished values and current strategy and policies. The man- agers should then be more likely to adhere consistently to these values, policies, and aims once they return to their assignments abroad.

International Compensation The whole area of international compensation management presents some tricky problems. On the one hand, there is a certain logic in maintaining company- wide pay scales and policies so that, for instance, divisional marketing directors throughout the world are all paid within the same narrow range. This reduces the risk of perceived inequities and dramatically simplifies the job of keeping track of disparate country-by-country wage rates.

Yet, the practice of not adapting pay scales to local markets can present an HR manager with more problems than it solves. The fact is that it can be enor- mously more expensive to live in some countries (like Japan) than others (like Greece); if these cost-of-living differences are not considered, it may be almost impossible to get managers to take “high-cost” assignments.

However, the answer is usually not just to pay, say, marketing directors more in one country than in another. For one thing, the firm could thereby elicit resist- ance when telling a marketing director in Tokyo who is earning $3000 per week to move to a division in Spain, where his or her pay for the same job (cost of living notwithstanding) will drop by half. One way to handle the problem is to pay a similar base salary company-wide and then add on various allowances according to individual market conditions.50

Determining equitable wage rates in many countries is no simple matter, as compensation survey data is hard to come by overseas. Some multinational companies deal with this problem for local managers by conducting their own annual compensation surveys. For example, Kraft conducts an annual study of total compensation in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom.

T h e B a l a n c e S h e e t A p p r o a c h

The most common approach to formulating expatriate pay is to equalize pur- chasing power across countries, a technique known as the balance sheet approach.51 The basic idea is that each expatriate should enjoy the same stan- dard of living that he or she would have had at home. With the balance sheet approach, four main home-country groups of expenses—income taxes, housing, goods and services, and reserve—are the focus of attention. The employer esti- mates what each of these four expenses is for the expatriate’s home country, and also what each is expected to be in the expatriate’s host country. Any differ- ences—such as additional income taxes or housing expenses—are then paid by the employer.

In practice, this usually boils down to building the expatriate’s total com- pensation around five or six separate components. For example, base salary will normally be in the same range as the manager’s home-country salary. In addi- tion, however, there might be an overseas or foreign service premium. This is paid as a percentage of the executive’s base salary, in part to compensate the manager for the cultural and physical adjustments that he or she will have to

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Ernst & Young Electronic Publishing Services Inc. www.DoingBusinessIn.com

Interlink Consulting Services www.interlinkconsulting.com

make.52 There may also be several allowances, including a housing allowance and an education allowance for the expatriate’s children. Income taxes represent another area of concern. In many cases, a Canadian manager posted abroad may have to pay not only Canadian taxes, but also income taxes to the country to which he or she is posted as well.

I n c e n t i v e s

One international compensation trend is the use of long-term incentive pay for overseas managers. Multinationals are formulating new long-term incentives specifically for overseas executives, using performance-based long-term incen- tive plans that are tied more closely to performance at the subsidiary level. These can help to build a sense of ownership among key local managers while provid- ing the financial incentives needed to attract and keep the people required for overseas operations.

A recent study by consulting firm William M. Mercer Ltd. found that in order to discourage employees from leaving while on foreign assignment, “mobility premiums” are increasingly being used. These premiums average about 15 percent of base salary, but can go up to 30 or 40 percent for difficult locations like Algeria, China, and Columbia. The survey also found that 20 per- cent of companies now pay part of the mobility premium at the beginning of an assignment, with the remainder paid on return to the home country at the com- pletion of the assignment.53

International EAPs EAPs are going global, helping expatriates to take care of their mental health, which is often affected by the stressful relocation process.54 The approach is to proactively contact employees before departure to explain the program’s servic- es, then about three months after arrival families are contacted again. By this time, they have usually run into some challenges from culture shock and will welcome some assistance. The expatriates and their families have then estab- lished a connection with the EAP to use for ongoing support.

Problems such as homesickness, boredom, withdrawal, depression, compul- sive eating and drinking, irritability, marital stress, family tension and conflict are all common reactions to culture shock. Treatment for psychiatric illnesses varies widely around the world, as do the conditions in government-run mental health institutions. Thus consultation with an EAP professional having extensive cross-cultural training may be critical in ensuring that appropriate medical treat- ment is obtained.55

Performance Appraisal of International Managers Several issues complicate the task of appraising an expatriate’s performance.56

For one thing, the question of who actually appraises the expatriate is crucial. Obviously, local management must have some input into the appraisal, but the appraisal may then be distorted by cultural differences. Thus, an expatriate manager in India may be evaluated somewhat negatively by his host-country bosses, who find his use of participative decision making inappropriate in their culture. On the other hand, home-office managers may be so geographically dis-

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 14

tanced from the expatriate that they cannot provide valid appraisals because they are not fully aware of the situation that the manager actually faces. This can be problematic: the expatriate may be measured by objective criteria such as profits and market share, but local events such as political instability may undermine the manager’s performance while remaining “invisible” to home-office staff.57

Two experts make five suggestions for improving the expatriate appraisal process.

1. Stipulate the assignment’s difficulty level. For example, being an expatriate manager in China is generally considered to be more difficult than working in England, and the appraisal should take such difficulty-level differences into account.

2. Weight the evaluation more toward the on-site manager’s appraisal than toward the home-site manager’s distant perceptions of the employee’s performance.

3. If the home-site manager does the actual written appraisal, a former expa- triate from the same overseas location should be used to provide back- ground advice during the appraisal process. This can help to ensure that unique local issues are considered during the appraisal process.

4. Modify the normal performance criteria used for that particular position to fit the overseas position and characteristics of that particular locale. For exam- ple, “maintaining positive labour relations” might be more important in Chile, where labour instability is more common, than it would be in Canada.

5. Attempt to give the expatriate manager credit for relevant insights into the functioning of the operation and specifically the interdependencies of the domestic and foreign operations, such as, do not just appraise the expatri- ate manager in terms of quantifiable criteria like profits or market share. For example, his or her recommendations regarding how home office/for- eign subsidiary communication might be enhanced should also affect the appraisal.

International Labour Relations Firms opening subsidiaries abroad will find substantial differences in labour relations practices among the world’s countries and regions. The following syn- opsis illustrates some of these differences by focusing on Europe. However, keep in mind that similarly significant differences would exist in South and Central America and Asia. Some important differences between labour relations prac- tices in Europe and North America include:58

1. Centralization. In general, collective bargaining in Western Europe is likely to be industry-wide or regionally oriented, whereas North American collec- tive bargaining generally occurs at the enterprise or plant level. Thus local unions in Europe tend to have much less autonomy and decision-making power than in North America. Also, the employer’s collective bargaining role tends to be performed primarily by employer associations in Europe, rather than individual employers (as in North America).

2. Content and scope of bargaining. North American labour–management agreements tend to focus on wages, hours, and working conditions. European agreements, on the other hand, tend to be brief and simple and

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International Labour Organization www.ilo.org

to specify minimum wages and employment conditions, with employers being free to institute more generous terms.

3. Grievance handling and strikes. In Western Europe, grievances occur much less frequently than in North America, when raised, they are usually han- dled by a legislated machinery outside the union’s formal control. Generally speaking, strikes occur less frequently in Europe, due to industry-wide bar- gaining, which generally elicits less management resistance than in North America.59

4. Government’s role. In Europe, governments generally do not regulate the bargaining process but are much more interested in directly setting the actual terms of employment than is the case in North America.

5. Worker participation. Worker participation has a long and relatively exten- sive history in Western Europe, where it tends to go far beyond such mat- ters as pay and working conditions. The aim is to create a system by which workers can participate in a meaningful way in the direct management of the enterprise. Determining wages, hours, and working conditions is not enough; employees should participate in formulating all management deci- sions. In many countries in Western Europe, works councils are required. A works council is a committee in which plant workers consult with manage- ment about certain issues or share in the governance of the workplace.60

Codetermination is a second form of worker participation in Europe. Codetermination means that there is mandatory worker representation on an enterprise’s board of directors. It is especially prevalent in Germany.

Safety Abroad Making provisions to ensure employee safety does not stop at a country’s bor- ders. While Canada has often taken the lead with respect to matters such as occupational safety, other countries are also quickly adopting such laws.

Having employees abroad does raise some unique safety issues, however. For example, “kidnapping has become a way of life” in some countries in Central and South America, and in many places—“Brazil, Nigeria, the Philippines, Russia, and New Guinea, to name a few—street crime is epidemic, although tourists and business people are rarely kidnapped or assassinated.”61 As one security executive at an oil company put it, “It’s crucial for a company to under- stand the local environment, local conditions and what threat exists.”62 Keeping business travellers out of crime’s way is a specialty all its own but suggestions here include:63

• provide expatriates with general training about travelling and living abroad, and specific information about the place that they are going to, so they are better oriented when they get there

• have travellers arrive at airports as close to departure time as possible and wait in areas away from the main flow of traffic where they are not as easi- ly observed

• equip the expatriates’ car and home with adequate security systems

• tell employees to vary their departure and arrival times and take different routes to and from work

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 16

The Emerald Group (security) www.emeraldgrp.com

• keep employees current on crime and other problems by regularly checking travel advisory service and consular information sheets; these provide up-to- date information on possible threats in almost every country of the world

• advise employees to remain confident at all times: body language can attract perpetrators, and those who look like victims often become victimized.64

Repatriation: Problems and Solutions Repatriation is often a bittersweet experience for the returning expatriate. Repatriation, the process of moving back to the parent company and country from the foreign assignment, means returning one’s family to familiar sur- roundings and old friends.65 The returning employee all too often discovers, however, that in many respects his or her employer has ignored the manager’s career and personal needs.

Several repatriation problems are very common. One is the expatriate’s fear that he or she has been “out of sight, out of mind” during an extended foreign stay and has thus lost touch with the parent firm’s culture, top executives, and those responsible for the firm’s management selection processes. Such fears can be well founded, as many repatriates are temporarily placed in mediocre or makeshift jobs.66 Ironically, the company often undervalues the cross-cultural skills acquired abroad, and the international posting becomes a career-limiting, rather than career-enhancing, move.67 Perhaps more exasperating is the discov- ery that some of the expatriate’s former colleagues have been more rapidly pro- moted while he or she was overseas. Even the expatriate’s family may undergo a sort of reverse culture shock, as spouse and children face the often daunting task of picking up old friendships and habits or starting schools anew upon their return. Expatriates who experience problems fitting back into the organization often leave, and the firm loses a valuable resource.68

Progressive multinationals anticipate and avoid these problems by taking a number of sensible steps. These can be summarized as follows:69

1. Write repatriation agreements. Many firms use repatriation agreements, which guarantee in writing that the international assignee will not be kept abroad longer than some period (such as five years), and that on return he or she will be given a mutually acceptable job.

2. Assign a sponsor. The employee should be assigned a sponsor, such as a senior manager at the parent firm’s home office. This person’s role is to keep the employee apprised of significant company events and changes back home, to monitor his or her career interests, and to nominate the person to be considered for key openings when the expatriate is ready to come home.

3. Provide career counselling. Provide formal career counselling sessions to ensure that the repatriate’s job assignments upon return will meet his or her needs.70

4. Keep communication open. Keep the expatriate “plugged in” to home-office business affairs through management meetings around the world, frequent home leave combined with stays at headquarters to work on specific problems, and regularly scheduled meetings at headquarters.71

5. Offer financial support. Many firms pay real estate and legal fees and help the expatriate to rent or in some other way to maintain his or her residence, so that the repatriate and his or her family can actually return “home.”

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International SOS www.internationalsos.com

6. Develop reorientation programs. Finally, provide the repatriate and his or her family with a reorientation program to facilitate the adjustment back into the home culture.

7. Build in return trips. One study concluded that, particularly when they come from a more homogeneous culture (in this case Finland) and are sent to a more “novel” culture, expatriates can benefit from more frequent trips to the home country “to ensure that expatriates stay in touch with home- country norms and changes during their international assignment.”72

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 18

C h a p t e r R e v i e w

1. Companies must increasingly be managed glob- ally, which confronts managers with many new challenges. As a result, companies today have pressing international HRM needs regarding selecting, training, compensating, and repatriat- ing global employees.

2. Intercountry differences have an impact on a company’s HRM processes. Cultural factors, economic factors, labour cost factors, and industrial relations norms influence the nature of a company’s specific HR policies from coun- try to country.

3. A large percentage of expatriate assignments fail, but the results can be improved through careful international assignee selection. Locals rather

than expatriates fill most managerial positions. This is not always the case, however. In the eth- nocentric corporation, the prevailing attitude is that home-country managers are superior; in polycentric firms, host-country managers pre- dominate; and in geocentric firms, the best man- ager for any specific position is chosen from among the firm’s global work force.

4. Selecting managers for expatriate assignments means screening them for traits that predict suc- cess in adapting to dramatically new environ- ments. Such expatriate traits include adaptability and flexibility, cultural toughness, self-orientation, job knowledge and motivation, relational skills, extracultural openness, and family situation.

…Eastern cultures have societies and systems that are very different from those in the [W]est… In Japan [for example], the word for “individualism” has negative connotations. Groups tend to value cooperation more [in the East] than in the [W]est…[G]roup rather than individual achievement and an approach [that] tends to be more holistic in thinking—looking for the collective good rather than the individual good—[is valued]. Individuals tend often to do better on projects that have a social conte[x]t, where there own output can be perceived as part of the bigger picture. This is very different

from the [W]est, where being “best” or “top of the class” has been the traditional underlying theme that affects both education and training. It is this attitude that has caused many organizations such problems and stress in attempting to develop new forms of organization based upon teams and team- work. This has traditionally been alien to the Western workforce despite the lip service paid to it….

Source: HR Works/Training and Development Guide/Commentary/Special Training Needs/[67,070] Cross-Cultural Training/[67,075] Cultural Differences. Reproduced with permission from the Training and Development Guide, ¶67,075, published by and copyright CCH Canadian Limited, North York, Ontario.

“In North America the Squeaky Wheel Gets the Grease. In Korea the Nail That Stands Out Gets Pounded In.”

Adaptability screening that focuses on the family’s probable success in handling the foreign transfer can be an especially important step in the expa- triate selection process.

5. Prior to assignment, training for overseas man- agers typically focuses on cultural differences, on how attitudes influence behaviour, and on factual knowledge about the target country. The most common approach to formulating expatri- ate pay is to equalize purchasing power across countries, a technique known as the balance sheet approach. International EAPs have become more common, and help expatriates deal with the stressful relocation process.

6. The expatriate appraisal process can be compli- cated by the need to have both local and home-office supervisors provide input into the expatriate’s performance review. Suggestions for improving the expatriate appraisal process include stipulating assignment difficulty level, weighing the on-site manager’s appraisal more heavily, and having the home-site manager get background advice from managers familiar with the location abroad before completing the expa- triate’s appraisal.

7. Firms opening subsidiaries abroad find substan- tial variation in labour relations practices among the world’s countries and regions. For example, even within Europe, differences exist with respect to centralization of collective bar- gaining, local union autonomy, use of employer associations, procedures for gaining union recognition, and grievance handling.

8. Repatriation problems are very common but can be minimized. They include the often well-founded fear that the expatriate is “out of sight, out of mind,” and difficulties in reassimi- lating the expatriate’s family back into home-country culture. Suggestions for avoiding these problems include using repatriation agree- ments, assigning a sponsor, offering career coun- selling, keeping the expatriate plugged in to home-office business, building in return trips, providing financial support to maintain the expatriate’s home-country residence, and offer- ing reorientation programs to the expatriate and his or her family.

Chapter 1319

RUNNING CASE: LearnInMotion.com

Going Abroad According to its business plan, and in practice, LearnInMotion.com “acquires content globally but delivers it locally.” In other words, the courses and other material that it lists on its site come from con- tent providers all over the world. However, the “hard copy” (book and CD-ROM) courses are delivered, with the help of independent contracting delivery firms, locally, in three Canadian cities. Now the com- pany is considering an expansion. While the most log- ical strategic expansion would probably entail adding cities in Canada, one of its major content providers— a big training company in England—believes there is a significant market for LearnInMotion services in England, and particularly in London, Oxford, and Manchester (all of which are bustling business cen-

tres, and all of which have well-known universities). The training company has offered to finance and co- own a branch of LearnInMotion.com, in London. They want it housed in the training firm’s new offices in Mayfair, near Shepherds Market. This is an easily accessible (if somewhat expensive) area, within easy walking distance of Hyde Park and Hyde Park corner, and not far from the London Underground Piccadilly line, which runs directly through the city to Heathrow airport. Everyone concerned wants to make sure the new operation can “hit the ground running.” This means either Jennifer or Pierre will have to move to London almost at once, and take one salesperson and one of the content management people along. Once there, this small team could hire additional employees locally, and then, once the new operation is running successfully, return to Kanata, probably within three or four months.

A p p l i c a t i o n E x e r c i s e s

Jennifer and Pierre have decided to go ahead and open the London office, but this is not a decision they’ve taken lightly, since there are many drawbacks to doing so. The original, Kanata-based site is not generating anywhere near the sales revenue it was supposed to at this point, and being short three key employees is not going to help. Neither the board of directors nor the rep- resentatives of the venture capital fund were enthusias- tic about the idea of expanding abroad, either. However, they went along with it; and the deciding factor was probably the cash infusion that the London-based train- ing firm was willing to make. It basically provided enough cash to run not just the London operation but the Kanata one for an additional six months.

Having made the decision to set up operations abroad, Jennifer and Pierre now need to turn to the multitude of matters involved in the expansion— obtaining the necessary licences to open the business in England, and arranging for phone lines, for instance (all carried out with the assistance of the London- based training firm). However, it’s also obvious to Jennifer and Pierre that there are considerable human resource management implications involved in moving

LearnInMotion employees abroad, and in staffing the operation once they’re there. Now, they want you, their management consultants, to help them actually do it. Here’s what they want you to do for them.

Questions and Assignments 1. What do you see as the main HR-related impli-

cations and challenges as a result of opening the operation in London?

2. How should they go about choosing the person who will be the permanent manager for the new operation? Should they hire someone locally, or use one of the people from the existing opera- tion? Why?

3. Based upon any sources available, including the Internet, explain what they need to know about the comparative cost of living of London and Kanata, including housing and transportation, as well as comparative salaries.

4. Create a checklist of necessary HR-related activ- ities in regard to sending three people abroad.

Managing Human Resources in an International Business 20

Video Case International Dining With the ever-increasing pace of globalization, more and more business people are ‘doing lunch’ in far-away places. Mealtime etiquette is important in every culture, and this video provides some examples of how easy it is for acceptable table manners in one country to be considered offensive in others. For example, it is not considered appropriate for women to drink alcoholic beverages at busi- ness dinners in Asia. Also, when eating soup, the spoon should be tilted toward you in France, but away from you in the U.K.

Questions

1 What are the potential problems associated with not being familiar with and not following acceptable dining etiquette when doing business in other countries?

2 How might a company find out about dining etiquette in other countries? Search the Web or a library for information and bring it to a class discus- sion of this video.

Source: Based on “International Dining,” CBC Venture 764 (November 14, 2000).

6

Notes

Chapter 13 1. K. Roberts, E. Kossek, & C. Ozeki, “Managing the Global Workforce:

Challenges and Strategies,” Academy of Management Executive 12(4), 1998, pp. 93–106.

2. Roberts, Kossek & Ozeki, “Managing the Global Workforce: Challenges and Strategies,” p. 94.

3. This is based on J. Fadel & M. Petti, “International HR Policy Basics,” Global Workforce (April 1997), pp. 93–106.

4. Paraphrased or quoted from Fadel & Petti, “International HR Policy Basics,” pp. 29–30.

5. M. Schell, “Global Relocation of the Future,” Canadian HR Reporter (September 24, 2001), pp. 7, 12; L. O’Grady, “Using Technology to De- Stress on International Assignment,” Canadian HR Reporter (September 24, 2001), pp. 8, 12.

6. S. Jones, “Going Global: How International Firms are Using the Internet to Recruit,” Canadian HR Reporter (December 3, 2001), p. 21.

7. “Fifteen Top Emerging Markets,” Global Workforce (January 1998), pp. 18-21.

8. “Fifteen Top Emerging Markets.” 9. L. Grobovsky, “Protecting Your Workers Abroad With a Global Diversity

Strategy,” Canadian HR Reporter (November 1, 1999), pp. 15–16. 10. These are based on E. Gaugler, “HR Management: An International

Comparison,” Personnel (August 1988), pp. 24–30. See also Y. Kuwahara, “New Developments in Human Resource Management in Japan,” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 31, no. 2 (1993), pp. 3–11; and C. M. Solomon, “How Does Your Global Talent Measure Up,” Personnel Journal (October 1994), pp. 96–108.

11. G. Hofstede, “Cultural Dimensions in People Management,” in V. Pucik, N. Tishy, & C. Barnett (Eds.), Globalizing Management (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992), p. 143.

12. Hofstede, “Cultural Dimensions.” 13. Gaugler, “HR Management,” p. 27. See also S. Ronen & O. Shenkar,

“Using Employee Attitudes to Establish MNC Regional Divisions,” Personnel (August 1988), pp. 32–39.

14. “Labor Costs in Manufacturing by Nation,” BNA Bulletin to Management (August 4, 1994), pp. 244–245.

15. This is discussed in Gaugler, “HR Management,” p. 28. 16. J. Daniels & L. Radebaugh, International Business (Reading, MA:

Addison-Wesley, 1994), p. 764. 17. Based on B.J. Punnett, “International Human Resources Management,”

in A.M. Rugman (Ed.), International Business in Canada: Strategies for Management (Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice Hall Canada, 1989), pp. 330–346.

18. R.L. Tung, “Selection and Training Procedures of U.S., European, and Japanese Multinationals,” California Management Review 25 (1982), pp. 51–71.

19. Discussed in C. Hill, International Business (Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin, 1994), pp. 511–515.

20. Punnett, “International Human Resources Management,” pp. 334–335. 21. L. Young, “Let’s Make a Deal—When to Offer Relocation Alternatives,”

Canadian HR Reporter (June 14, 1999), pp. 18, 19. See also L. Young, “Family Relocations on the Decline,” Canadian HR Reporter (June 14, 1999), pp. 1, 19.

22. A. M. Yeargan & R. Herod, “Managing Short-Term International Assignments,” WorldatWork Canadian News 10(3), 2002, pp. 1-3, 8, 17.

23. Yeargan & Herod, “Managing Short-Term International Assignments.” 24. Daniels & Radebaugh, International Business, p. 767.

25. A. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, (Boston: PWS-Kent, 1989), pp. 106–107.

26. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 106. 27. Daniels & Radebaugh, International Business, p. 767. 28. Daniels & Radebaugh, International Business, p. 768; Phatak,

International Dimensions of Management, p. 106. 29. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 108. 30. Daniels & Radebaugh, International Business, p. 769. 31. Daniels & Radebaugh, International Business, p. 769; Phatak,

International Dimensions of Management, p. 106. 32. H. Perlmutter, “The Torturous Evolution of the Multinational Corporation,”

Columbia Journal of World Business 3 (January–February 1969), pp. 11–14, discussed in Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 129.

33. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 129. 34. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management. 35. Hill, International Business, p. 507. 36. Hill, International Business, pp. 507–510. 37. Hill, International Business, p. 509. 38. Hill, International Business. 39. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 113; and C. M.

Solomon, “Staff Selection Impacts Global Success,” Personnel Journal (January 1994), pp. 88–101. For another view, see A. Harzing, “The Persistent Myth of High Expatriate Failure Rates,” International Journal of Human Resource Management 6 (May 1995), pp. 457–474.

40. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 119. 41. See, for example, Blocklyn, “Developing the International Executive,”

p. 45. 42. L. Laroche, “Removing the Unexpected With Pre-Assignment Visits,”

Canadian HR Reporter (May 8, 2000), pp. 17, 20. 43. Blocklyn, “Developing the International Executive,” p. 45. 44. Discussed in M. Callahan, “Preparing the New Global Manager,” Training

and Development Journal (March 1989), p. 30. The publisher of the inventory is the New York consulting firm Moran, Stahl & Boyer; see also J. Laabs, “The Global Talent Search,” Personnel Journal (August 1991), pp. 38–44 for a discussion of how firms such as Coca-Cola recruit and develop international managers, and T.S. Chan, “Developing International Managers: A Partnership Approach,” Journal of Management Development 13(3), 1994, pp. 38–46.

45. Callahan, “Preparing the New Global Manager,” pp. 29–30. See also C. M. Solomon, “Global Operations Demand that HR Rethink Diversity,” Personnel Journal (July 1994), pp. 40–50.

46. This is based on Callahan, “Preparing the New Global Manager,” p. 30. See also D. Feldman, “Repatriate Moves as Career Transitions,” Human Resource Management Review 1 (Fall 1991), pp. 163–178; and J. Yanouzas & S. Boukis, “Transporting Management Training into Poland: Some Surprises and Disappointments,” Journal of Management Development 12(1), 1993, pp. 64–71. See also J. Laabs, “How Gillette Grooms Global Talent,” Personnel Journal (August 1993), pp. 64–76, and C. M. Solomon, “Transplanting Corporate Cultures Globally,” Personnel Journal (October 1993), pp. 78–88.

47. A. Bross, A. Churchill & J. Zifkin, “Cross-Cultural Training: Issues to Consider During Implementation,” Canadian HR Reporter (June 5, 2000), pp. 10, 12.

48. C. Shick, “It Wasn’t What You Said, It Was How You Said It,” Canadian HR Reporter (February 28, 2000), p. 18.

49. G. Reinhart, “Going Global,” Canadian HR Reporter (September 25, 2000), pp. 19, 23.

50. J. Stoner & R. E. Freeman, Management, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989), p. 783. See also J. Cartland, “Reward Policies in a Global Corporation,” Business Quarterly, (Autumn 1993), pp. 93–96; and L. Mazur, “Europay,” Across-the-Board (January 1995), pp. 40–43.

51. Hill, International Business, pp. 519–520. 52. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 134. 53. “Pay Hikes For Expats,” Canadian HR Reporter (September 24, 2001), p. 11. 54. V. Frazee, “Keeping Your Expats Healthy,” Global Workforce (November

1998), pp. 18-23. See also B. Barker & D. Schulde, “Special EAP Helps Expatriates Face International ‘Culture Shock’,” Canadian HR Reporter (November 29, 1999), p. 20.

55. A. Bross & G. Wise, “Sustaining the Relocated Employee With an International EAP,” Canadian HR Reporter (November 29, 1999), pp. 18, 19, 21.

56. Except as noted, this is based on G. Addou & M. Mendenhall, “Expatriate Performance Appraisal: Problems and Solutions,” in M. Mendenhall & G. Addou, International Human Resource Management, (Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Co., 1991), pp. 364–374.

57. Addou & Mendenhall, “Expatriate Performance Appraisal,” p. 366. See also M. Janssens, “Evaluating International Managers’ Performance: Parent Company Standards as Control Mechanism,” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 5 (December 1994), pp. 853–873.

58. R. Sauer & K. Voelker, Labor Relations: Structure and Process (New York: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 510–525.

59. Sauer & Voelker, Labour Relations, p. 516. See also M. Regini, “Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations in European Companies,” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 4 (September 1993), pp. 555–568.

60. Quoted from Sauer & Voelker, Labour Relations, p. 519. 61. S. Greengard, “Mission Possible: Protecting Employees Abroad,” Workforce

(August 1997), pp. 30-32. 62. S. Greengard, “Mission Possible: Protecting Employees Abroad,” p. 32. 63. These are based on or quoted from S. Greengard, “Mission Possible:

Protecting Employees Abroad,” p. 32 64. S. Greengard, “Mission Possible: Protecting Employees Abroad,” p. 32. 65. Definition based on D. Briscoe, International Human Resource

Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995), p. 65. See also L. Stroh, “Predicting Turnover Among Repatriates: Can Organizations Affect Retention Rates?” International Journal of Human Resource Management 6 (May 1995), pp. 443–456.

66. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 124. See also R. Swaak, “Today’s Expatriate Families: Dual Careers and Other Obstacles,” Compensation and Benefits Review 27 (May 1995), pp. 21–26.

67. D. Brown, “Companies Undervaluing Skills Learned During Relocation,” Canadian HR Reporter (February 28, 2000), pp. 15, 21.

68. G. Reinhart, “Going Global.” See also J. Hobel, “The Expatriate Employee Homecoming,” Canadian HR Reporter (June 1, 1998), pp. G5, G11.

69. These are based on Briscoe, International Human Resource Management, p. 66; Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 124; and Daniels & Radebaugh, International Business, p. 772.

70. Briscoe, International Human Resource Management, p. 66. 71. Phatak, International Dimensions of Management, p. 126. 72. H. Gregersen & L. Stroh, “Coming Home to the Arctic Cold: Antecedents to

Finnish Expatriate and Spouse Repatriation Adjustment,” Personnel Psychology 50 (1997), p. 651.

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