DISCUSSION 1

If you wish to persuade me, you must think my thoughts,

feel my feelings, and speak my words.

—Cicero

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Determine the purpose of persuasive writing.

2. Compare persuasive and argumentative writing methods.

3. Interpret different types of persuasive writ- ing assignments, including position papers, proposals, replies to readings, and argu- mentative essays.

4. Apply common persuasive writing patterns to your persuasive writing assignments, including the use of Aristotelian persuasion methods, proper tone and language, and other conventions.

5. Execute common argumentative writing patterns, such as point of view, essay struc- ture, and argument conventions.

7Persuasion and Argument

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Understanding Persuasion and Argument

We have been exposed to and have practiced persuasion all our lives. As infants, we learned that crying could be a successful means of getting our needs met. As we pro­ gressed into adulthood, our needs and desires became increasingly complex, and so did the strategies we employed to persuade others to meet them. When we turn on the radio or television, read newspapers or magazines, or log on to the Internet, we are exposed to advertising messages designed to sell us goods or services. We are engaged in persuasion at work and school when we discuss issues with others and attempt to convince them to share our opinions on those issues. We cannot escape persuasion at home either. Attempts at persuasion take place when we talk with friends and family and try to influence one another’s decisions or when telemarketers request contributions to a charitable cause, to convince us to vote a certain way, or to sell us goods or services. Whenever people have a personal point of view on a subject and attempt to influence others to share that point of view, they are engaged in persuasion. You will often be assigned to write persuasive and argument papers in your college courses; such papers are designed to help you improve your critical thinking ability, to increase your awareness of the persuasion and argument in your everyday life, and to help you master the techniques for effectively sharing your views with others.

7.1 Understanding Persuasion and Argument

When you hear the word argument, you may think of a disagreement or a quarrel. However, the word has a different meaning when it is used in connection with college writing. Persuasion and argument both seek to influence others to adopt a certain belief or point of view or to convince them to take some action. These two forms of writing differ in that persuasive writing seeks to convince readers or an audience to act or think a certain way, it generally uses rhetoric, and it may include the use of pathos, which is an appeal to the reader’s emotions. Argument is a specific type of persuasive writing that uses a structured method of persuading others, primarily through logical reasoning, and generally does not use pathos. When you are assigned an argument paper, you are being asked to construct a paper in which you use critical thinking and logical rea­ soning to determine the relative truth of something or to convince someone of the validity of a point of view. Critical thinking is the mental process of conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to arrive at a conclusion.

As discussed in earlier chapters, persuasion is the attempt to influence others to adopt a certain belief or point of view or to convince them to take some action. Whenever we attempt to change the way someone thinks or feels about an issue, to encourage others to accept our opinion on a subject, or take an action we advocate, we are engaged in per­ suasion. Persuasion is neither good nor bad; it can be used for both moral and immoral purposes. Our motives for attempting to persuade others and the methods we use deter­ mine whether our persuasive attempts are ethical.

The History of Persuasion The study of persuasion has a long history. The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a classic document on the subject, titled Rhetoric, during the fourth century BCE. In it, he describes the three types of persuasion (logos, ethos, and pathos) we discussed in Chapter 1. The Roman philosopher, statesman, and orator Cicero, who lived in the first century BCE, also

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Understanding Persuasion and Argument

wrote extensively on the subject. A more modern classic on how to deal with people, How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie, was published more than 70 years ago and remains one of the most popular international bestselling books of all time (Carnegie, 2009). Several chapters of the book are devoted to the subjects of how to change people’s

minds and how to get them to do what you want them to do.

Books on the subject of persuasion would fill an entire bookcase because, as Carnegie stated, “Dealing with people is probably the biggest problem you face, especially if you are in busi­ ness” (Carnegie, 2009, p. xvi). Carnegie Institute of Technology revealed that even in technical occupations, such as engineering, about 15% of a person’s financial success is based on technical knowledge and about 85% is based on skill in dealing with and leading people (2009). As Car­ negie discovered, often the highest paid person­ nel in a company are not those who have the most technical knowledge, but those who have that technical knowledge plus the ability to express ideas and to influence others.

The study of persuasion is so extensive that we can barely scratch the surface of this subject in a single chapter of this text. However, some of your writing assignments will likely require persua­

sive writing, and the basic principles of this type of writing can be learned. Understand­ ing these principles will help you not only successfully complete these assignments but also deal with other situations throughout your life.

Differences Between Persuasion and Argument The terms persuasion and argument are often used interchangeably; however, they are not exactly synonymous. Persuasion and argument are similar in that they both seek to influ­ ence others. As we discussed above, while persuasion is the more general of the two terms and refers to the act of influencing other people, argument is a specific type of persuasive writing that relies on logic and evidence. The more general category of persuasion can use logic, emotions, or even the speaker’s credibility, as methods with which to convince an audience. Argument is the specific category of persuasion that uses structured, reasoned methods. Therefore, all argument is persuasion, but not all persuasion is argument.

Persuasive papers attempt to change the minds of readers or convince them to accept the writer’s opinion on a subject. Persuasive writing is often personal. While it may seem as though a writer is simply arguing a point, the “argument” is fairly one­sided because it is written from a personal viewpoint, and the writer considers his or her opinion to be the correct one on an issue. Persuasive writers should not ignore other viewpoints; how­ ever, the focus is on the writer’s opinion. Persuasive writing also usually uses appeals to emotion to sway readers, and it often relies on the audience’s emotions to strengthen the persuasive impact.

Digital Vision/Thinkstock Many of the highest paid personnel in the business world have achieved their status due in part to superior persuasive skills.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Persuasive and Argumentative Writing Assignments

On the other hand, the argument paper uses logical reasoning to arrive at a reasonable interpretation of a problem or text. When writers construct arguments, they recognize that other reasonable views exist on the subject. The writer ought to take the opposing views into account and counter or overcome them through reason and logic (Campsall, 2010). Argument requires following a specific set of steps to lead readers from a set of premises, or foundational claims—which form the basis of the argument—to a logical conclusion. Writers might make several claims that all logically lead to one conclusion before proceed­ ing to the next part of the argument, which would consist of another set of claims. We cover the elements of both persuasion and argument in more detail later in this chapter.

7.2 Persuasive and Argumentative Writing Assignments

You will often encounter persua­sive and argumentative writ­ing assignments in your college courses; Writing in Action: Example of Persuasion and Argument Writing Assignments shows some examples of these types of assignments. These assignments often require taking a position on an issue and defending it, proposing a solution to a problem or recommending a course of action, evaluating the evidence a writer pres­ ents to support his or her point of view, recognizing errors in logic, or arguing a point of view.

Stockbyte/Thinkstock Writing an argument paper is similar to what attorneys do in the courtroom. You must examine evidence and apply logic in order to prove your position.

Writing in Action: Examples of Persuasion and Argument Writing Assignments

Key words and action verbs are underlined in the following examples.

• Write an eight-page paper in which you examine the practical, ethical/social obligations; the need for appropriate actions; and the optimal ethical, decision-making processes existing in one of the four following topic areas: The Role of Government, The Role of Corporations, Environmental Issues, or Ethical Integrity. [Expository] You must use at least five (5) scholarly outside sources [Research] in constructing your argument. [Argument]

• Write a persuasive paper in which you state what you believe to be the most pressing economic problem facing our country today and what you believe should be done to solve this problem. [Persuasion]

• Write an eight-page paper about a real contemporary problem where you see the status quo as lined up against something that is just or in favor of something that is unjust. Make a case for what you think would be just and argue for measures that should be taken to

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Persuasive and Argumentative Writing Assignments

Writing in Action: Examples of Persuasion and Argument Writing Assignments (continued)

counteract that injustice. Justify the measures you propose. If you can make this assignment about your own experience or community, then all the better—but you must support your arguments and use at least 8 to 10 outside sources in your argument. [Argument]

• Write an argumentative paper on one of the following topics. Choose a topic where you can see at least two points of view and present both points. If you feel so strongly about a topic that you cannot see another point of view, avoid writing about it. [Argument]

Suggested Topics

￮ Should homosexual individuals be allowed the same rights that heterosexuals have, such as marriage?

￮ Should abortions be legal? ￮ Are affirmative action laws fair? ￮ Should America have stronger gun control laws? ￮ Should assisted suicide be legal? ￮ Are charter schools/vouchers detrimental to the American educational system? ￮ Should the death penalty be abolished? ￮ Should animals be used in medical research? ￮ Is global warming a genuine threat to the planet? ￮ Should human cloning be legal? ￮ Should embryonic stem cell research be federally funded?

• Write a final research paper that focuses on a legal issue or situation related to a business environment or activity that you have experienced or about which you have knowledge. Include a detailed description of the topic; an analytical discussion of the legal issues involved, including examining the issue from different viewpoints; and a discussion of ethical considerations. Write a well-defined and logically stated argument to support your position on the issue or situation. Include five research sources in addition to your text. [Argument]

• Write a six- to eight-page paper in which you tackle a current, controversial issue and use persuasion to convince your audience that your position on the issue is correct. Your paper should incorporate several methods of persuasion in the hope of “proving your point” to your instructor. Find a topic you feel passionate about. The list below can help you with ideas that may be appropriate for your paper. Some topics to consider could be the following: [Persuasion]

￮ Abortion ￮ Capital punishment ￮ Socialism ￮ Gun control ￮ Smoking/secondhand smoke ￮ Stem cell research ￮ Lowering the alcohol drinking age ￮ Reinstituting the military draft ￮ Home schooling ￮ Corporal punishment in schools

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Persuasive and Argumentative Writing Assignments

Position Papers A position paper is an essay in which you take a stand, or state your opinion, on a con­ troversial issue. Your purpose is to convince your readers that your position on the issue is the best or the correct one. You might use either a persuasive writing pattern or an argumentative writing pattern to accomplish your goal. Writing in Action: Example of a Position Paper Assignment That Requires an Argument provides an example of a position paper assignment from a college course that requires an argument. Writing in Action: Example of a Position Paper Assignment That Is a Case Study illustrates a position paper assignment that is also a case study. The assignment asks you to study marketing prob­ lems and opportunities, to investigate alternative solutions (recall that investigating a problem or topic is a form of exposition), and then to propose a solution (which is an element of persuasive writing). Remember that assignments sometimes call for different types of writing in one essay.

Writing in Action: Example of a Position Paper Assignment That Requires an Argument

Example: Some argue that the United States is falling behind the major producers of computer equip- ment in world trading markets. Do you agree or disagree? Assume that the data examined in your readings is sufficient evidence to support or not support your argument. Use an Export/Imports Excel spreadsheet workbook to support your analysis.

Writing in Action: Example of a Position Paper Assignment That Is a Case Study

Example: Choose a case study from one of these four cases:

• Case 6-1: Microsoft Corp. • Case 6-4: Slendertone • Case 6-18: Amazon.com, Inc. • Case 6-23: Telus Mobility

Assume the role of a management consultant reporting to the CEO and board of directors in the chosen organization. Research the salient information and background in the case, present a clear definition of marketing problems and opportunities in the company, and make astute strategic rec- ommendations to management on how to deal with these issues.

Proposals Proposals are persuasive reports that identify a problem and recommend a solution to that problem. Proposal paper assignments may come from your writing classes, commu­ nication classes, or perhaps business classes. They are a frequently used style of writing in the workforce. They are most commonly used in organizational communications, where they may be written to investigate and solve internal organizational issues or as sales

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

Writing in Action: Example of an Evaluation Assignment That Requires Expository and Persuasive Writing

Example: Identify and evaluate an ecosystem of interest within your local area. As part of your evaluation, you are to integrate the principles and key learning you have acquired as they relate to the identifiable organisms, soil content and possible contaminants, energy flow, habitats, and niches that exist within this particular ecosystem. Also discuss the biodiversity or lack of diversity within your ecosystem and possible reasons for the lack of diversity such as atmospheric pollution, weather catastrophe, climate changes or man-made influences. Discuss what measures are being taken locally to preserve biodiversity, remediate, and protect these areas. What considerations do you think should or need to be taken into account with respect to the ecosystem and biodiversity?

documents to propose providing goods or services to another organization. Sales propos­ als may be solicited proposals, where the request for the proposal is made by an organiza­ tion, or unsolicited proposals that you initiate and present to management.

The persuasive section of a proposal assignment is an example of a solicited proposal, in which you are being requested to propose solutions. For some solicited proposals, a company might issue a formal Request for Proposal (RFP). The RFP will generally specify how the proposal should be written and the information that must be included. Both informal solicited proposals and unsolicited proposals you write to bring an issue to man­ agement’s attention should be written using the persuasive writing pattern. Business and professional writing courses or technical writing courses may also ask you to create writ­ ing proposals.

Response Papers In your college courses, you may be asked to write a response paper, where you are required to respond to material you have read and to make a judgment about it. In assign­ ments such as these, you must often use expository writing to identify and discuss an issue and then write a persuasive section of the paper in which you state an opinion on an issue and defend it. As a student, your ability to argue well and to persuade the reader will aid your overall analysis of reading materials. Writing in Action: Example of an Evaluation Assignment That Requires Expository and Persuasive Writing illustrates an evalu­ ation assignment from an environmental studies course that requires this combination of expository and persuasive writing.

7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

In this section of the chapter, we discuss the general persuasive writing pattern, includ­ing the conventions of persuasive writing. We will conduct a more in­depth examina­tion of the three persuasive strategies or appeals to readers and provide examples. And we will look at how tone, point of view, and structure are employed effectively in persuasive writing.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

One way to incorporate emotional appeals in persuasive writing is through the use of rhe- torical devices, which are special uses of language used for a particular effect. Rhetorical devices can help persuasive writing capture and hold the reader’s attention and improve the impact of statements. For instance, they can be useful in creating visual images. Be careful, though, not to overdo their use. The following sentence illustrates this fact:

I am excited about the new product! It is great news for the industry! In fact, it is terrific! When I saw it, I thought, it is about time! Congratulations! I wish you the best of luck!

This writer has overused the exclamation point, so that by the end, it seems almost comical rather than genuinely excited. Take care not to overuse any tone or writing technique because doing so can make the writing lose seriousness or credibility. That said, below are some examples of common rhetorical devices that can be helpful to per­ suasive writing when they are used sparingly.

• Emotive language Example: How can we expect a broken, penniless, and desperate man to find a job?

• Exaggeration Example: Everything is always completely wrong.

• Metaphor (an implied comparison between two things) Example: Her smile was sunshine in my dreary world.

• Simile (a comparison between two things that uses the words “like” or “as”) Example: Her smile was like a ray of sunshine in my dreary world.

• Irony (a figure of speech that illustrates a contrast between reality and appearance) Example: It was hard to believe, but he was absent on the day he was to receive his award for perfect attendance.

• Alliteration (repetition of initial consonants in words in a series) Example: Careful and cost­efficient collaboration can ensure company success.

• Antithesis (placing two opposing ideas together in a sentence) Example: The closing words from American patriot Patrick Henry’s speech at St. John’s Church in Richmond, Virginia, in 1775, just prior to the American Revolutionary War: “Give me liberty or give me death” (Wirt, 1836). This statement suggests that without liberty or freedom, death is the next best option. The claim is tying together two opposing ideas that are not necessar­ ily in direct contrast with one another.

Three Means of Persuasion In Rhetoric, Aristotle identified three different methods or means of persuasion, one of which is the character of the speaker or writer (as cited in Rapp, 2010). In other words, Aristotle suggested that we can attempt to persuade on the basis of the character of the person making the persuasive appeal, through emotional appeals, or through logic. Let us look at each of these means of persuasion separately.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

Ethos: Character of the Speaker or Writer Aristotle’s word ethos refers to the nature, character, or credibility of a person. We can per­ suade, Aristotle stated, if the audience thinks we are credible or believable (Rapp, 2010). The primary reason advertisers hire famous sports figures or other celebrities to endorse their products is because of this credibility. If basketball superstar Michael Jordan can fly through the air and average 28 points a game wearing Nike shoes, they must be excellent shoes, right (Rovell, 2008)?

Jordan was a credible spokesperson for athletic shoes because he was a great athlete, because audiences believed he was knowledgeable about athletic shoes, and because audiences trusted him to tell them the truth. Trust is an important component of credibility, and loss of trust is one reason why celebrities who are embroiled in scan­ dals often lose lucrative product endorsement contracts. Once trust and credibility are lost, they are difficult to regain, and the effectiveness of the persuasive message is diminished.

To have credibility in writing a persuasive paper, your reader must perceive you as knowledgeable, believable, trustworthy, and qualified to write about a subject. If you write about something you have experienced personally or about which you have knowledge, be sure to state this in your paper; it can establish your credibility. However, you do not have to have personal knowledge or be an expert in a subject in order to write about it. You can support your statements by conduct­ ing research and using evidence to back up what you say. Evidence consists of personal examples,

facts, statistics, or the words of credible outside authorities or other believable sources. (We discuss the subject of evidence in more detail later in this chapter when we discuss logical appeals.) Opinions, on the other hand, are not legitimate pieces of evidence. Any­ one can state an opinion, but if a person supports an idea with careful evidence, then it is no longer “opinion”; rather, it is thoughtful interpretation. However, when you state your personal opinion in a persuasive paper and are not an expert on the subject, make certain you supply evidence to support what you say. Also make sure to give credit to any sources by including in­text citations and a properly completed reference list prepared in your col­ lege’s required documentation style.

Pathos: Appeal to the Reader’s Emotions Often, to be persuasive we must touch people’s hearts as well as their minds. Or, as 17th­century philosopher George Campbell wrote in his book, The Philosophy of Rheto- ric, “When persuasion is the end, passion also must be engaged” (as cited in Lucas, 1998, p. 425). Emotional appeals, what Aristotle referred to as pathos, can help move people to action and influence their judgments, and this can be used for ethical purposes. We do

AP Photo/Kirthmon Dozier Credibility is an important aspect of persuasion. Because Michael Jordan was one of the greatest basketball players of all time, fans trusted his endorsement of Nike basketball shoes.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

not always make rational decisions. Often, our feelings or emotions influence our actions. Advertisers are aware of that fact when they attempt to persuade us to buy their products, use their services, or contribute to their organizations. Television commercial producers who attempt to persuade us to help the homeless, abused animals, or victims of natural disasters know that strong photographs or videos depicting the horror of these terrible situations will touch peoples’ hearts and make it more likely that they will be persuaded to help. However, a strong persuasive paper does not rely solely on emotional appeals to convince readers; you must also give people logical reasons to accept your point of view on an issue.

Some common emotional appeals are listed below. As you read this list, think of advertise­ ments you have read, heard, or watched on television that use these appeals.

• Fear. Fear of loss of our home, family, and belongings due to theft and natu­ ral disaster; serious illness or injury; being assaulted; being injured in traffic accidents; being rejected or not liked by others; economic hardship or loss of a job—all are commonly used appeals to fear.

• Compassion. Appeals for contributions to help earthquake victims, victims of domestic violence, abused or neglected animals, starving children around the world, and other such causes use the human capacity for compassion as a powerful persuasive tool.

• Pride. A sense of pride in one’s country, family, community, ethnic heritage, or personal accomplishments can be a motivation for many people to take action. This appeal is often coupled with the appeal to self­gratification such as “You deserve it!” or “You have earned it!”

• Anger. Anger can often move people to action. That anger can be directed against anyone—for example, suspected terrorists, government officials, business executives who receive large bonuses when their companies are in trouble, large companies in general, or thieves and other criminals.

• Shame. When we are ashamed of ourselves for not helping people less fortu­ nate than ourselves, for having material possessions while others do not, for not doing our best, for not living up to what others expect of us, or for not conforming to the ideals set for us by our families or our religious teachings, we can often be motivated to change our behavior.

• Admiration or love of others. Many persuasive appeals are aimed at a basic human need to be liked, to be admired, to find love, and to belong. We humans are social creatures, and the opinion others have of us is a powerful motivator that influences how we live (Lucas, 1998).

People have many emotions and needs, and the list above is not all­inclusive. Keep in mind that people are more often persuaded to act in ways they think are in their best interest and that meet their own needs as well as yours. Appealing to the emotions of your readers can engage them in the issue you are presenting, and showing them how their actions will ben­ efit them personally can be a powerful method of obtaining support for ideas you propose.

Logos: Logical Appeals You can be a credible writer, and you may include strong emotional appeals in your writ­ ing; however, if what you say does not make sense or is not reasonable, you will not win over your readers. Appeals to logic and reason are important components in persuasive

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

writing. Use of logic involves reasoning and analyzing issues in an attempt to under­ stand and explain them. Remember that if you have personal experience on an issue, your experience may give you some credibility; however, to be persuasive, you must also back up your viewpoints and statements with evidence and a well­reasoned position. You may also have a reasonable conclusion, but if the steps you take to get there are not well­thought­out, you will lose credibility and will not be persuasive. Before readers will be convinced to change their way of thinking, they must believe that what you say makes sense, is factual, and is reasonable.

For example, let us suppose you want to persuade people to exercise for good health. Here are types of evidence you might choose to use to support your point of view on this issue and to convince others to share your opinion. Remember, if you use material from outside sources, you must document those sources in the proper documentation style in the text of your paper and in a reference list at the end.

• Examples from your own experiences are only suitable evidence for a per­ sonal essay. Example: By exercising 30 minutes each day, I have lowered my blood pressure to a point where I no longer have to take daily blood pressure medication. A real­life example such as this takes the subject of health and exercise from the objective realm of science and makes it personal. The statement enhances your credibility and the possibility that readers will accept your opinion on this subject. If, on the other hand, you offer a claim with no evidence such as saying: “If I eat right, I will absolutely lose 2 pounds a week,” your statement has no credibility because you have no real evidence. This is merely a hypo­ thetical and therefore is not proof.

• Use facts, statements that are not in dispute or that can be proven to be true by reasoning, experiment, or personal experience. You obtain facts through observation, reading, research, or your own experiences. Example: Exercise is beneficial for your physical and mental health. In this example, the writer is stating a fact that is not in dispute and has been verified by research. Because it is common knowledge and is not in dispute, you do not need to provide a source for this statement.

• Statistics, data that can be represented numerically, provide excellent support for your statements because they are specific and concrete. For example, you might make the following statement:“Childhood obesity is on the rise in the United States.” To support that statement, you might include the following statistics: “Between 1976 and 1980, approximately 5% of youth 2 to 19 years of age were obese. In 2006, the rate had increased to 16.3%” (Dietz, 2009, para. 5).

• Include statements from authorities or experts in their fields. These state­ ments may be direct quotations or paraphrased (put in your own words). In either case, however, you must cite the source of these statements in the text of the paper and in the reference list. For example, in your paper on exercise and health, you might write, “In early 2010, First Lady Michelle Obama, U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary Kathleen Sebelius, and Surgeon General Dr. Regina Benjamin announced plans to help Americans live health­ ier lives through better nutrition and regular exercise” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Persuasive Writing Pattern

Tone and Language As we have discussed previously, persuasive writing uses logic and reasoning, but it often attempts to engage the hearts, as well as the minds, of readers through emotional appeals. Language usage is particularly important for persuasive writing, so be sure to consider the effects of the language you choose. First, remember to use connotative language that has a strong emotional appeal. Second, be ethical in your use of emotion. Do not use emo­ tion to make personal attacks on those who hold viewpoints different from your own. You may point out what is wrong with other viewpoints, but again do not engage in personal attacks or use emotional appeals to characterize the opinions of others. Finally, do not use emotion in place of facts or simply for dramatic effect. Emotional appeals should have a purpose, be honest and not attempt to mislead, and not be used just for effect or for gra­ tuitous reasons.

Point of View When you seek to persuade, you try to establish common ground between yourself and your readers. One way to do this is to find some initial points on which you can agree and then to work from those points to forge a bond on other points as well. A speaker or writer should consider whether the audience shares a similar viewpoint or whether the audience will require extra techniques of persuasion. The audience’s political views, social views, economic background, and even their age should inform one’s writing. If a person were giving a speech, it would be appropriate to talk directly to the audience using a second­person point of view (you or your) or a first­person plural point of view that illustrates a bond (we, our). Third person is often used in speeches to form a connec­ tion between the speaker and audience in terms of purpose. If your instructor asks you to write a persuasive paper or speech, you should ask whether or not the use of first person would be effective.

Structure and Supporting Ideas Like other effective college papers, persuasive papers have a clear and well­structured introduction, body, and conclusion, and a clear thesis. Follow the guidelines in Chapter 5 for structuring your paper and make sure that your persuasive paper includes the follow­ ing additional information:

• Introduction. In the introduction, you must introduce the controversial issue. Then, you might want to present the two sides of the issues. For example, you might state, “Some people believe we should . . . . However, others believe we should not . . . .” Then state your opinion on the issue in the form of your thesis statement. Give at least two or three reasons why you believe the way you do.

• Body. In separate paragraphs of the body of your persuasive paper, take each of the reasons why you believe the way you do and explain why. Use exam­ ples, statistics, or the words of experts to support your statements and aid in your explanations.

• Conclusion. Make sure to reinforce or restate your thesis statement, point out a solution to the issue, or propose that your readers take some action. Then create a sense of closure by creating a strong ending to your paper.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Writing Sample: Persuasive Soccer Essay

Soccer is just a hobby. It’s not something that you can build your life around. Young athletes might hear sayings like these often, but they are not necessarily true. If you think that physical sports such as soccer are simply about burning calories, this paper should help you to reconsider the ways that playing soccer can impact your life. Competitive soccer can not only help you work out your stress and stay in shape, but can teach you key values such as teamwork and time management, and can influence your character and values for the better.

Playing soccer can provide the essential benefits of reducing your stress and keeping you in great physical condition. Everyone requires an outlet for stress, and soccer is one way that you can help stress disappear. Playing outside in the sun, breathing fresh air, and getting your heart rate up can all serve to clear your mind of stress and worries. Playing a team sport like soccer also promotes the habit of exercising on a regular basis, paving the way for healthy workout habits later in life. By chal- lenging yourself physically at each practice and giving your all during games, you can get in shape, stay in shape, and make physical activity a constant and natural presence in your life.

. . .

Now that I have shared the various ways that playing competitive soccer can enrich your life experi- ences and impact your character, I hope that you look at the value of team sports with new eyes. Before you dismiss team sports as no more than a simple “hobby,” consider the ways in which a sport like soccer can influence your stress levels, physical fitness, teamwork values, and time management skills. Then you can choose to sign up for a fun-filled activity that will make you focused, fit, and dedi- cated, and maybe rack up some great wins along the way.

Putting It All Together: Sample Persuasive Essay The writing sample below contains the first paragraphs and the conclusion from a persua­ sive student essay about soccer. As you read this article, see if you can identify the thesis statement and the ways in which the writer supports her viewpoint. Also try to locate rhetorical devices or strategies that are used by the author and be prepared to discuss these in class.

7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Earlier, we stated that in a persuasive writing pattern your paper is generally one­sided because you are writing from a personal viewpoint and attempting to con­vince readers that your opinion is the correct one or the best one. We also stated that emotional appeals are often an integral part of the persuasion.

In an argument, you are also trying to persuade readers by using evidence and reason or a logical structure of claims/premises, evidence, and conclusions. However, the point you are making is not the one you like the most or the one you feel most strongly about emotionally. It is the one that you can prove to your readers makes the most sense, based on logical reasoning. You may use emotion in your presentation as well, but the pri­ mary method of convincing readers to accept your point of view in an argument paper is through logic.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Another major difference between a persuasive paper and an argument is what is used to support your pro­ posed solution. A persuasive paper relies on personal experience, exam­ ples, rhetorical devices, and other such strategies to stir your readers into changing their minds or taking some action. Argument, on the other hand, uses facts, statistics, and the words of others you gather through research to accomplish the persua­ sion. You might think of argument as teaching your readers the facts about an issue. Once the audience sees the facts, you reason, they will then have no choice but to accept your perspec­ tive on the issue as the best option. Thus, an argument paper does not attempt to gain support for your personal opinion. Rather, it builds a case, much like constructing a building brick by brick, until the reader must agree to see the issue as you do.

Argument Conventions When writing an argument essay, select of method of reasoning to utilize—either induc­ tive or deductive. These methods follow different structures for argumentation. In addi­ tion to considering how a writer will structure his argument, in order to produce an essay that is logically sound, a writer must avoid logical fallacies which weaken claims, key points, and conclusions the writer is trying to make.

Two Methods of Reasoning: Inductive and Deductive When you argue, you can use one of two different methods of structuring your argument: deductive or inductive reasoning. With deductive reasoning, you begin your argument by making a general statement and then apply that generalization to a specific situation. This may mean starting off with an argument and then supporting it later.

Example: Rashes are caused by allergic reactions. I get a rash every time I eat strawberries. I must be allergic to strawberries.

Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deduction. With inductive reasoning, you argue from the specific to the general. Using this type of reasoning, you observe a specific situ­ ation, analyze it, and make a generalization from the facts you observe. Inductive rea­ soning is often used in the physical and social sciences. After a generalization is made, researchers then confirm it through additional observation or testing. With inductive rea­ soning, you gradually lead to your conclusion after carefully analyzing details and evi­ dence. Inductive reasoning, for instance, is the process of the scientific method, but it also may be used to carefully develop a conclusion only at the end of the paper.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock In argumentative writing, your goal is to convince the reader of your point of view through patterns of logic, reason, and evidence.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Example: I ate strawberries last week and broke out in a rash. Every time I have eaten strawberries, I have had a rash. I will get a rash if I eat these strawberries today.

Avoid Logical Fallacies When we argue, it is possible to fall into the trap of using faulty logic. Faulty logic is a mistake in reasoning that is referred to as a fallacy. Many of these fallacies were identi­ fied in ancient documents regarding the study of rhetoric (the art of using language in order to persuade), so many of them have Latin names. Some mistakes, or fallacies, to avoid include:

• Ad hominem (“attacking the person”): With this fallacy, the writer attacks or makes an irrelevant comment about the character or the motive of the person making a statement instead of arguing the statement itself. Example: The legislator opposing this tax plan is a liberal, so he does not understand tax issues.

• Ad populum (“to the crowd”): This fallacy occurs when widespread accep­ tance of something is assumed to make it true or right. Example: Another state adopted a similar plan, so it must be a good idea.

• Appeals to authority: An appeal to authority occurs when a person claims he or she is correct by claiming that an authority figure or expert supports the idea, so therefore it must be correct (rather than proving the argument to be true through careful premises and conclusions). To try to prove an argument, a writer may say that his or her point is correct because a famous scientist once said something similar. This is different from actually proving one’s point with claims, evidence, and conclusions that logically result from these claims and pieces of evidence. Example: The current president agrees with my position, so clearly it is correct.

• Begging the question: With this fallacy, the writer assumes as true the very thing that he or she is trying to prove. This fallacy is actually a circular argument: The claim essentially says the same thing as the conclusion. Sometimes, as in the case of the example below, the circularity is disguised by using a synonym (unfair) for the original term or phrase (not assessed on everyone equitably). Example: Taxes are not assessed on everyone equitably, so they are unfair.

• Either/or or false dilemma: This fallacy gives readers only two choices, at oppo­ site extremes from each other. Remember that other choices are also possible, and perhaps neither choice is appropriate. Example: Would you rather keep paying higher taxes or support the gover­ nor’s plan?

• Equivocation: the misuse of multiple meanings of the same term. Equivocation is often used to make a case by intentionally overstating what one is actually trying to prove. Example: “You’re born from nothing. You go back to nothing. What do you lose? Nothing! So always look on the bright side of life. . . .”—Monty Python. Obviously, you lose “something” when you die, even if you believe you are born from nothing. What you lose is your life.

• False analogy: the comparison of two things that are not analogous in terms of the thing that is compared in the discussion. The two items may be compara­ ble in other respects, but not in terms of what the person is trying to compare.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Example: Braeburn apples are far more delicious than navel oranges. It is apparent that apples are better than oranges.

• Faulty emotional appeal: As we discussed previously, although argument is based primarily on logic, you may make legitimate emotional appeals as part of your argument. However, if the emotional appeal is irrelevant to the argu­ ment or draws attention away from the issues being argued, it may fall into the category of a faulty emotional appeal. Example: If you do not support this tax plan after all the hours of labor that have gone into preparing it, legislators of both parties will be angry.

• Hasty generalization: This fallacy draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence. In the example that follows, we do not know how many businesses fail, on average, each year. Therefore, the number 200 is not sufficient evidence to support the argument. Also note that sometimes two fallacies can occur at the same time. This example could also be seen as an example of post hoc ergo propter hoc, discussed below. Example: The 200 businesses that failed in our state this year happened because a new tax plan was not implemented.

• Intentional fallacy: This fallacy is identified as occurring when an interpreta­ tion is based on what someone claims the individual “intended.” The truth is we never really know what a writer intended, even if we have read an entire novel, and even if we have done some research about it. And even if you were to read an author’s personal journals, you still would not really know what the author “intended” in a particular novel. Example: Maxine Hong Kingston believes that it is impossible to retain your Chinese identity if you become an American, as you can see from China Men.

• Non sequitur (“it does not follow”): This fallacy occurs when the writer makes a statement that does not logically follow from the statement that preceded it. Example: If you like the governor, you will want to vote for this tax plan.

• Post hoc ergo propter hoc (“after this, therefore because of this”): The post hoc fallacy happens when the writer assumes that the occurrence of one incident is the cause of the second incident because the first incident happened before the second. Simply because two things occur near each other in time does not mean that one caused the other. There may be many factors, not simply one, that contribute to a particular incident. Example: The last time we passed a tax plan, our economy went into a recession.

• Slippery slope: When you assert that taking a specific step will lead to addi­ tional steps, you must provide evidence of this fact. Otherwise, you are guilty of a slippery slope fallacy. Example: If we do not pass this tax plan, we will not pass a budget or any other laws, and government will shut down completely.

• Straw man: This fallacy occurs when someone attacks an argument by attack­ ing an unrelated position in order to make it easy to refute. The attack often centers on an idea that is only tangentially related to the topic discussed. Example: If you are in favor of universal healthcare, you are a socialist, so you are not very American anyhow.

Read the following two arguments and see if you can identify the elements of effective argument that we have discussed in this chapter. The first article is an example of a per­ suasive article arguing in support of issuing national ID cards to U.S. citizens from the New York Times:

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Writing Sample

October 13, 2001 Why Fear National ID Cards? By Alan M. Dershowitz

CAMBRIDGE, Mass.—At many bridges and tunnels across the country, drivers avoid long delays at the toll booths with an unobtrusive device that fits on a car’s dashboard. Instead of fumbling for change, they drive right through; the device sends a radio signal that records their passage. They are billed later. It’s a tradeoff between privacy and convenience: the toll-takers know more about you – when you entered and left Manhattan, for instance – but you save time and money.

An optional national identity card could be used in a similar way, offering a similar kind of trad- eoff: a little less anonymity for a lot more security. Anyone who had the card could be allowed to pass through airports or building security more expeditiously, and anyone who opted out could be examined much more closely.

As a civil libertarian, I am instinctively skeptical of such tradeoffs. But I support a national identity card with a chip that can match the holder’s fingerprint. It could be an effective tool for preventing terrorism, reducing the need for other law-enforcement mechanisms – especially racial and ethnic profiling – that pose even greater dangers to civil liberties.

I can hear the objections: What about the specter of Big Brother? What about fears of identity cards leading to more intrusive measures? (The National Rifle Association, for example, worries that a government that registered people might also decide to register guns.) What about fears that such cards would lead to increased deportation of illegal immigrants?

First, we already require photo ID’s for many activities, including flying, driving, drinking and check-cashing. And fingerprints differ from photographs only in that they are harder to fake. The vast majority of Americans routinely carry photo ID’s in their wallets and pocketbooks. These ID’s are issued by state motor vehicle bureaus and other public and private entities. A national card would be uniform and difficult to forge or alter. It would reduce the likelihood that someone could, intentionally or not, get lost in the cracks of multiple bureaucracies.

The fear of an intrusive government can be addressed by setting criteria for any official who demands to see the card. Even without a national card, people are always being asked to show identification. The existence of a national card need not change the rules about when ID can prop- erly be demanded. It is true that the card would facilitate the deportation of illegal immigrants. But President Bush has proposed giving legal status to many of the illegal immigrants now in this country. And legal immigrants would actually benefit from a national ID card that could demon- strate their status to government officials.

Finally, there is the question of the right to anonymity. I don’t believe we can afford to recognize such a right in this age of terrorism. No such right is hinted at in the Constitution. And though the Supreme Court has identified a right to privacy, privacy and anonymity are not the same. American taxpayers, voters and drivers long ago gave up any right of anonymity without loss of our right to engage in lawful conduct within zones of privacy. Rights are a function of experi- ence, and our recent experiences teach that it is far too easy to be anonymous – even to create a false identity – in this large and decentralized country. A national ID card would not prevent all threats of terrorism, but it would make it more difficult for potential terrorists to hide in open view, as many of the Sept. 11 hijackers apparently managed to do.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Writing Sample (continued)

A national ID card could actually enhance civil liberties by reducing the need for racial and eth- nic stereotyping. There would be no excuse for hassling someone merely because he belongs to a particular racial or ethnic group if he presented a card that matched his print and that permit- ted his name to be checked instantly against the kind of computerized criminal-history retrieval systems that are already in use. (If there is too much personal information in the system, or if the information is being used improperly, that is a separate issue. The only information the card need contain is name, address, photo and print.)

From a civil liberties perspective, I prefer a system that takes a little bit of freedom from all to one that takes a great deal of freedom and dignity from the few – especially since those few are usu- ally from a racially or ethnically disfavored group. A national ID card would be much more effec- tive in preventing terrorism than profiling millions of men simply because of their appearance.

Source: Alan M. Dershowitz, Why Fear National ID Cards?, New York Times, October 13, 2001. Copyright © 2001 New York Times. Reprinted by permission.

The second article opposes the issue and was published 2 months later in the same newspaper:

Writing Sample

December 24, 2001 Threat of National ID By William Safire

WASHINGTON—A device is now available to help pet owners find lost animals. It’s a little chip implanted under the skin in the back of the neck; any animal shelter can quickly scan lost dogs or cats and pick up the address of the worried owner. That’s a good side of identification technol- ogy. There’s a bad side: fear of terrorism has placed Americans in danger of trading our “right to be left alone” for the false sense of security of a national identification card.

All of us are willing to give up some of our personal privacy in return for greater safety. That’s why we gladly suffer the pat-down and “wanding” at airports, and show a local photo ID before boarding. Such precautions contribute to our peace of mind.

However, the fear of terror attack is being exploited by law enforcement sweeping for suspects as well as by commercial marketers seeking prospects. It has emboldened the zealots of intrusion to press for the holy grail of snoopery – a mandatory national ID.

Police unconcerned with the sanctity of an individual’s home have already developed heat sensors to let them look inside people’s houses. The federal “Carnivore” surveillance system feeds on your meatiest e-mail. Think you can encrypt your way to privacy? The Justice Department is proud of its new “Magic Lantern”: all attempts by computer owners to encode their messages can now be overwhelmed by an electronic bug the F.B.I. can plant on your keyboard to read every stroke.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Toulmin’s Model of Argument One of the most common methods for structuring an argument was developed by 20th­ century rhetorician and University of California professor Stephen E. Toulmin. His model for practical reasoning is widely used and consists of the following six elements the argu­ ment must address.

Writing Sample (continued)

But in the dreams of Big Brother and his cousin, Big Marketing, nothing can compare to forc- ing every person in the United States – under penalty of law – to carry what the totalitarians used to call “papers.”

The plastic card would not merely show a photograph, signature and address, as driver’s licenses do. That’s only the beginning. In time, and with exquisite refinements, the card would contain not only a fingerprint, description of DNA and the details of your eye’s iris, but a host of other information about you.

Hospitals would say: How about a chip providing a complete medical history in case of emergen- cies? Merchants would add a chip for credit rating, bank accounts and product preferences, while divorced spouses would lobby for a rundown of net assets and yearly expenditures. Politicians would like to know voting records and political affiliation. Cops, of course, would insist on a record of arrests, speeding tickets, E-Z pass auto movements and links to suspicious Web sites and associates.

All this information and more is being collected already. With a national ID system, however, it can all be centered in a single dossier, even pressed on a single card – with a copy of that card in a national databank, supposedly confidential but available to any imaginative hacker.

What about us libertarian misfits who take the trouble to try to “opt out”? We will not be able to travel, or buy on credit, or participate in tomorrow’s normal life. Soon enough, police as well as employers will consider those who resist full disclosure of their financial, academic, medical, religious, social and political affiliations to be suspect.

The universal use and likely abuse of the national ID – a discredit card – will trigger questions like: When did you begin subscribing to these publications and why were you visiting that spicy or seditious Web site? Why are you afraid to show us your papers on demand? Why are you paying cash? What do you have to hide? Today’s diatribe will be scorned as alarmist by the same security-mongers who shrugged off our attorney general’s attempt to abolish habeas cor- pus (which libertarian protests and the Bush administration’s sober second thoughts seem to be aborting). But the lust to take advantage of the public’s fear of terrorist penetration by penetrat- ing everyone’s private lives – this time including the lives of U.S. citizens protected by the Fourth Amendment – is gaining popularity.

Beware: It is not just an efficient little card to speed you though lines faster or to buy you sure- fire protection from suicide bombers. A national ID card would be a ticket to the loss of much of your personal freedom. Its size could then be reduced for implantation under the skin in the back of your neck.

Source: William Safire, “Threat of National ID,” New York Times, December 24, 2001. Copyright © 2001 New York Times. Reprinted by permission.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

The Claim The first element in Toulmin’s model, the claim, is the point the writer is trying to make or the statement the writer wants others to accept. It often appears as the thesis statement in an argument. Toulmin suggests that claims can be divided into three types:

1. Statements of fact are claims that focus on statements that can be scientifically verified or that, in time, could be proven to be true.

2. Statements of value are claims that involve opinion, attitudes, judgments, or subjective evaluations of issues.

3. Statements of policy are claims that contain the words should or ought to and advocate a course of action to be taken.

The topic itself does not determine whether a statement is one of fact, value, or policy; the way the claim is phrased determines the type of claim. For example, you could structure an argument on taxes where your claim/thesis might be, “The income tax in this state will be higher (or lower) under the governor’s new tax proposal.” This would be a statement of fact because you could review the tax proposal and find evidence to support your state­ ment and could back up your claim with statistics, comparisons, and/or examples.

Your claim would be a statement of value if you phrased it this way: “Taxes are unfair.” Now you are stating a personal opinion. You would have to define what you think is fair and then attempt to convince readers to agree with you.

As an alternative, you might frame your claim as a statement of policy by phrasing your claim this way: “State income tax should be abolished.” In this case, you might argue that taxes are not assessed on all people in the state equally. Therefore, they are unfair, and the state income tax should be abolished.

The Grounds The grounds, the second element in the Toulmin model, refers to the proof or the evidence the writer provides to support the claim. The grounds are the basis of the argument and the proof of the claim. Grounds can include verifiable facts, statistics, the words of cred­ ible others (quoted or paraphrased), research findings, physical evidence, and analysis and reasoning. For instance, one could say, “A flat federal tax is the best form of taxation because there will be less tax evasion as a result of a flat tax.”

The Warrant The warrant, the third element in Toulmin’s model, is the connection, or bridge, between the claim and the grounds. The warrant may be stated; however, many times it is unstated and is based on underlying reasoning. For example, if your claim is “Taxes are not assessed on all citizens equally,” the warrant would be the inference/assumption that taxes should be assessed on everyone equally. Warrants can be based on ethos (character or source credibility), pathos (emotional appeals), logos (reasoning) or, as in this case, shared values such as fairness or free speech. In pursuing the idea of a flat federal tax, one could say, “There will be less tax evasion because a flat tax will be considered more fair by the public.”

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

The Backing The fourth element of the model, the backing, consists of additional support for the war­ rant. The backing helps develop the argument by providing evidence and reasons in the paper that explain or bolster the warrant. A writer could argue, “A flat tax will lead to more tax collection because people will be less inclined toward evading their taxes.” The backing might consist of further evidence for this claim such as, perhaps, a poll of indi­ viduals who did not pay their taxes that showed that many of them claimed they would be more likely to pay their taxes if the country implemented a flat tax.

The Qualifier The qualifier is the fifth element of Toulmin’s model, and it refers to the degree of force or probability to be attached to the claim. Words such as most, usually, always, or sometimes are qualifiers and may limit the extent to which the claim applies. For instance, one could say, “People are generally less inclined towards breaking the law when they perceive it as fair.”

The Reservation The reservation is the final element in the Toulmin model and consists of the statements the writer makes that acknowledge exceptions or limitations to the argument or condi­ tions under which the argument would not apply (Jolliff, 1998). For example, one could say, “The flat federal tax is sure to increase the nation’s overall economic health, except during years of extreme recession when unemployment is unusually high.”

Tone and Language Remember that argument primarily uses appeals to logic and reasoning. Although you are taking a personal position on an issue, your argument should be made based on objective and factual evidence. You should craft your interpretation of the evidence by attending to the evidence carefully; by reading to understand its deeper implications; and by spending a great deal of time thinking through your argument in order to make sure that you have a logically cohesive reading or interpretation. Avoid emotional language and choose words that have neutral denotative meanings. Argue in the spirit of analyzing the evidence care­ fully, not simply defending what you might “feel” like arguing. Your argument should not follow your “gut reaction” but should follow the details and the complexity of the issue you are discussing.

Point of View Argument papers require that you look at an issue objectively. Thus, when you write an argument, you should generally use a third­person point of view (“Authorities believe . . . ,” “They state . . . ,” “The research shows . . . “). It is permissible to use first person (I, me, my) when you state your position on the issue, but make sure to support your position primarily with factual information, not personal experiences.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Structure and Supporting Ideas When preparing an argument paper, first select your topic. (Review Chapter 4 for guid­ ance on how to choose and narrow a topic.) Then do some preliminary research on the topic. You may already have an opinion and an idea about the position you want to take on the issue; however, you must make sure that you can find sufficient research informa­ tion to support your position. Also consider your audience. Where do you believe your readers will stand on this issue? What evidence do you think you will need to convince them to agree with your position? Then develop your paper, following the structure out­ lined in Chapter 4 and the writing process outlined in Chapter 5, and make sure to include the following additional information in your paper:

• Introduction. In the introduction of your paper, introduce the topic and pro­ vide some background so that readers understand the issue and the founda­ tion for your argument. Assert your claim/thesis, tell readers why you have chosen this position, and provide reasons for your viewpoint. In the introduc­ tion, you may also include counterarguments and refute them briefly. You will argue them more completely in the body of the paper.

• Body. In the body of your paper, assert each main point in your claim and provide evidence and reasoning to support your points. Also present counter­ arguments you think readers might make and give the reasoning behind the counterarguments as well. Make sure that you have researched these oppos­ ing views and understand them. Explain why the counterarguments are not valid and why your position is better. A writer can also add to someone else’s argument by extending the discussion as a valid form of counterargument. At other times, one may agree with parts of someone else’s argument and disagree with other parts. If that is the case, then the writer should simply explain which parts of the argument he or she agrees with and which he or she disagrees with. These strategies should also be used in the event that you have to write a research paper or integrate some scholarly criticism into your paper.

• Conclusion. Finally, in the conclusion of your paper, restate your claim and reiterate why the issue is important. Summarize the main points of your argument. Provide strong closure to your argument, using the strategies for an effective conclusion discussed in Chapter 5.

When you write an argument paper, remember what you have learned about the impor­ tance of organizing ideas logically and using transitions to move between the introduc­ tion, body, and conclusion. Remember that in an argument you must persuade readers by using logical reasoning, and good transitions will help ensure that readers can follow your argument.

Putting It All Together: Sample Argument Paper The following is a sample student argument paper on whether flag burning should be legal. Notice how the paper is structured and how the writer makes use of logical claims and evidence to support her position.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Argument Writing Pattern

Writing Sample: Student Argument Paper

To Burn or Not to Burn: Should Flag Burning Be Legal? Freedom of speech and expression is a right given to all Americans in the First Amendment of the Constitution. However, it is a difficult concept to embrace when individuals are faced with ideas they oppose. In this kind of situation, the protection guaranteed to American citizens becomes even more important. The First Amendment was designed not only to protect the freedom to express ideas and sentiments with which one agrees but also the ideas and sentiments with which one disagrees. It is precisely for this reason that the government should maintain the right of individuals to express their dissatisfaction with the policies of the government through the act of flag burning and not amend the Constitution to make such an act illegal.

The first reason why the government should not ban flag burning is that it is a form of expression that is covered by the right to free speech. The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states that “Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances” (Legal Information Institute, 1992a). This amendment guarantees American citizens the right to express their dissatisfaction with the policies of the government without fear of consequences, including arrest, so long as the demonstration does not violate laws. The act of flag burning is a means to express this kind of dissatisfaction. To make a law that prohibits this means of expression would not only inhibit free speech but take away a means of petitioning the government to address grievances.

Furthermore, the counterargument that flag burning somehow constitutes treason is groundless, so flag burning should be allowed. Some may argue that flag burning should not be protected speech because such an offense should be considered treasonous. They believe that the American flag is a symbol of this country that should be maintained and protected. It is true that the flag is a symbol of this nation; it is because of its status as a national symbol that the burning of the flag holds so much power in representing dissatisfaction with the nation’s policies. However, should such an act be considered treason? According to Article Three, Section Three of the Constitution, treason is defined as consisting “only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid or comfort” (Legal Information Institute, 1992b). By applying this definition of treason to the act of flag burning, flag burning would not qualify as a treasonous act unless an amendment were added to the Constitution to redefine treason. Therefore, it should remain a legal means of expressing dissatisfac- tion with the government.

A final reason why flag burning should not be banned is that it is an act that allows marginalized or minority groups a means of expression, and the right for even those in the minority to be heard is a fundamental American principle. Freedom of speech is an important right guaranteed to all Americans. The difficulty in protecting freedom of speech is not in protecting the speech with which one agrees but protecting the speech with which one does not. This is why it is vital that freedom of speech is protected for all speech. The dissident voice can help maintain the balance of power by expressing the sentiments of the minority. Critics claim that expressing sentiments in this way is somehow unpatriotic. This is an unfair statement. It has been argued by some, including those in Congress, that protecting the right of Americans to burn the flag is in fact an act of patriotism (Paul, 2003). Patriotism is defined as the love of or devotion to one’s country. What is more patriotic than protecting the rights of all American citizens to express their own point of view on the direction of the nation’s policies in any peaceful means necessary? It is clear that protecting all forms of speech is an act of expressing one’s patriotism, no matter how difficult this may be.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Chapter Summary

Writing Sample: Student Argument Paper (continued)

In conclusion, the right of Americans to express dissent with the government through the act of flag burning should be protected. It is a fundamental right guaranteed by the First Amendment of the Constitution. Any arguments that such an act is somehow treasonous or unpatriotic are not only unfair but not sound. It is for this reason that Congress should not add an amendment to the Consti- tution to outlaw flag burning.

References Legal Information Institute. (1992a). Bill of Rights. Retrieved from http://topics.law.cornell.edu

/constitution/billofrights

Legal Information Institute. (1992b). United States Constitution Article III. Retrieved from http://topics.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleiii

Paul, R. (2003). The Flag Burning Amendment. Retrieved from http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul /paul99.html

Writing Sample: Building an Argument

Click on the following link and read “How Detroit’s Automakers Went From Kings of the Road to Roadkill” written by Joseph B. White (2009), senior editor at the Wall Street Journal. The article illus- trates the use of logical reasoning effectively to build an argument: http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/ imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=2009&month=02

Chapter Summary Persuasive and argumentative writing assignments are common in college courses and are designed to improve your critical thinking ability and to increase your awareness of the elements of effective persuasion and argument that you encounter daily. Although the terms persuasion and argument are often used interchangeably, they have different mean­ ings. Persuasion refers to influencing other people through the character or credibility of the writer (ethos), through emotional appeals (pathos), or through logical appeals (logos). Writers should also consider tone, language use, and point of view when writing a per­ suasive paper, as these contribute to the overall persuasiveness of the final piece of writ­ ing. Argument, on the other hand, is a structured method of persuasion that seeks to influence others primarily through logical reasoning, but it can follow either deductive or inductive patterns of analysis. Avoiding logical fallacies is crucial in constructing a solid

For an additional example of how to create a strong argument and support your ideas, read the article in Writing Sample: Building an Argument.

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CHAPTER 7Key Terms

argument. Toulmin’s model of argumentation provides a standard for how writers should best to construct an argument­based paragraph or essay. Tone, language, and point of view are equally important to consider with argument­based essays as they are for per­ suasive essays. Also consider the structural guidelines that are here for each type of essay.

Because we may often need to persuade others either in writing or in person, mastering the techniques of persuasion and argument can be some of the most powerful and useful tools we can acquire through our college writing.

Key Terms alliteration Repetition of initial conso­ nants in words in a series.

antithesis The rhetorical strategy of placing two opposing ideas together in a sentence for contrasting effect.

backing The fourth element of Toulmin’s model, which consists of additional sup­ port for the warrant.

critical thinking The mental process of conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to arrive at a conclusion.

deductive reasoning A form or reasoning wherein you begin by making a general statement and then apply that generaliza­ tion to a specific situation.

evidence Consists of personal examples, facts, statistics, or the words of credible outside authorities or other believable sources. Opinions, on the other hand, are not legitimate pieces of evidence.

facts Statements that are not in dispute or that can be proven to be true by reasoning, experiment, or personal experience.

fallacy Faulty logic or a pattern of mis­ taken reasoning.

grounds The second element in the Toul­ min model, which consists of the proof or the evidence the writer provides to sup­ port his or her claim.

inductive reasoning Method of reasoning often used in the sciences, wherein you argue from the specific to the general by observing a specific situation, analyzing it, and making a generalization from the facts you observe.

irony A figure of speech that illustrates a contrast between reality and appearance.

metaphor An implied comparison between two unlike things (without using “like” or “as”).

position paper An essay in which you take a stand, or state your opinion, on a controversial issue. Your purpose is to con­ vince your readers that your position on the issue is the best or the correct one.

premises Foundational claims that form the basis of the argument and that lead to a logical conclusion.

proposals Persuasive reports that identify a problem and recommend a solution to that problem.

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CHAPTER 7Key Terms

qualifier The fifth element of Toulmin’s model, which consists of the degree of force or probability to be attached to the claim.

reservation The final element in the Toul­ min model, which consists of the state­ ments the writer makes that acknowledge exceptions or limitations to the argument or conditions under which the argument would not apply.

rhetorical devices The use of language, style, or even visual techniques intended to produce a particular effect on the audience.

simile A comparison between two things using the words “like” or “as.”

statistics Data that can be represented numerically.

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