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7 Communication

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define the communication process and describe basic techniques and ways to communicate effectively.

2. Describe digital tools and ways to effectively communicate digitally.

3. Explain four communication styles related to personality.

4. Identify four types of communication patterns in organizations, and describe strategies for effective communication within organizations.

5. Identify leadership skills in persuasion.

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There are many views on the relationship between leadership and communication. “Com- munication is the real work of leadership” writes Nitin Nohria, business school professor at Harvard. Badaracco, an expert on leadership, states that knowing your audience and being an excellent listener is key: “With the fluidity of information in business today, leaders need to be masterful listeners; they need to be able to receive as well as send.” David Thomas, another Harvard professor, adds that leaders need “multimodality” skills in communication. He claims, “What you say is only the beginning. Your behavior, your actions, and your deci- sions are also ways of communicating, and leaders have to learn how to create a consistent message through all of these.” Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon, noted an ability to tell the hard truths is another requirement of leadership communication (Blagg & Young, 2001).

Although the precise essence of leadership communication is elusive, the importance of effec- tive communication in leadership is not. Communication, the process of conveying informa- tion and meaning between a sender and receiver, is one of the most important competencies of leaders (Brass, Galaskiewicz, & Tsai, 2004) because it affects every aspect of leading: influ- encing, motivating, visioning, creating culture, developing strategy, mobilizing change, and managing stakeholders locally, face-to-face, and globally through digital information technol- ogies. All of these require that ideas and values be communicated and executed clearly and accurately.

It should be no surprise that studies have shown that communication is seen as a necessary skill for being an effec- tive leader (Kalargyrou, Pescosolido, & Kalargiros, 2012). In fact, among “The 10 Skills Employers Most Want In 2020 Graduates” two of the most important were cognitive flexibility (“the ability to adapt how you communicate based on who you are talking to”) and judg- ment (“the ability to analyze data and use it to make intelligent decisions”), according to a survey of 350 employers by the World Economic Forum (Cur- tin, 2018). In a survey of 1,000 senior executives across a range of indus- tries, 49% of respondents—asked to rank the three most important skills a leader needs—placed communication

ahead of strategic thinking, decision-making, motivating others, and emotional intelligence (Borderless, 2016).

The importance of communication is not limited to leaders—but note that when a leader miscommunicates, doesn’t listen effectively, or is inconsistent in his or her communications, the results are amplified and consequently potentially more harmful. Communication occurs between any number and combination of people, and everyone in the organization must com- municate effectively in and between teams and with key stakeholders in order to achieve organizational goals.

Randy Faris/Fuse/Thinkstock Effective communication is stating clearly what you want and expect of others; clearly expressing your thoughts and ideas; and maintaining a constant and precise flow of information.

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Sender communications

intended meaning

Receiver decodes and interprets

meaning

Encodes

EncodesTransmitsResponds

Perceptual Screens

Transmits Messages

Section 7.1 The Communication Process Defined

We begin by defining the communication process before presenting methods and styles of effective leader—and follower—communication. We then take a closer look at communica- tion within the organizational context. In the final section we take it a step further, looking at methods of communication that can best lead to persuasion (Conger, 1998). As you read through this section, think of leaders for whom you have worked. Evaluate their communica- tion effectiveness based on the content here.

7.1 The Communication Process Defined If communication is the process of conveying information and meaning, then effective com- munication is being able to do this successfully, so that both the sender and the receiver of the information are on the same page. We can state this more clearly by saying that effective com- munication is stating clearly what you want and expect from others, clearly expressing your thoughts and ideas, and maintaining a precise and constant flow of information. Being able to do this well comes from understanding and strategically managing the communication process, or the flow of information.

Regardless of the form or number of individuals communicating, the classic communication process depicted in Figure 7.1 is the same, whether the communicators use Facebook, Insta- gram, Twitter, WhatsApp, or other instant-messaging software. A sender has a purpose that she or he develops into a message before sending it to a receiver, who decodes the meaning (Berlo, 1960). The speed and form of technology, whether video with webcams or two-way or one-way instant messaging, allows individual communicators to share some form of meaning that is intended to be understood by someone else. It is important to break down this process in more detail in order to understand how to avoid miscommunication and noise that garbles the intended message or meaning.

A sender, as shown in Figure 7.1, initiates a message by encoding an idea or thought into a physical product or audible or legible form—words, film, photos, video, or typing. The mes- sage can also consist of nonverbal symbols or gestures—facial, hand, or body movements. The sender decides what form, or channel, to use to send the message. Channels can be digital

Figure 7.1: Communication process

Sender communications

intended meaning

Receiver decodes and interprets

meaning

Encodes

EncodesTransmitsResponds

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or face-to-face, formal or informal, and more. We discuss this topic in more detail later in the chapter. The receiver to whom the message is directed must decode (i.e., translate and inter- pret) the symbols in order to understand the meaning. In addition, noise represents distor- tions, problems, and issues that alter the intended meaning in the message. Noise can be perception biases or misunderstandings, information overload, confusion, misinterpreted word meaning, inferences, or just cultural differences). Getting feedback is the last part of the loop in the communication process, in which the receiver or sender inquires to see if the intended and received meaning of the message were the same.

Effective communication between employees is vital to a fully functioning organization. Build- ing a positive and productive workplace culture is everyone’s responsibility. Employers are responsible for welcoming and sharing open communication and setting a tone at the top, role modeling effective communication. This precludes hiding strategic information from employ- ees and favoring select individuals and in-groups. It means having the company’s best inter- est in mind and communicating clearly and concisely what is expected of employees and their roles in the organization, which is more likely to create respect and trust among everyone in the company. Effective communication for leaders and followers also involves being aware of and concerned with how the messages they send—orally, written, and nonverbally—will be received. How a message is perceived can be as important as the message itself. Marshall McLuhan, a media expert, once said, “The medium is the message” (Levinson, 1999). This is especially important with regard to leaders, managers, and supervisors who must interpret the vision, mission, strategy, assignments, performance reviews, and tasks to followers and stakeholders.

Delivering messages effectively and efficiently first involves having a plan for the message: the what, who, why, when, and where. Articulating the goal, intent, timing, medium, and place(s) for delivering a message can minimize mistakes and miscues. Then, because communication involves people, establishing rapport counts. Overly mechanical or whimsical communication is generally ineffective. Putting people at ease while attracting their attention is important. Gaining an understanding of the receivers’ reception of the message is likewise necessary. Checking if the message was understood and clear is also part of effective communication. Finally, receiving assurance that the receiver can and will follow-up with required action is important (Bolton, 1979; Harvard Business Review, 2011).

Sources of Miscommunication Understanding and preventing barriers to effective communication between sender and receiver is also part of the communication process. A list of common types of miscommunica- tion between individuals and between individuals and teams is shown in Figure 7.2.

Nonverbal, paraverbal, and perceptual cues, for example, are common in sending unintended miscommunication messages. Individuals are often not conscious of such cues they convey. Facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, hand gestures, eye contact, and paraverbal communication (i.e., how people say and emphasize words) can be misinterpreted and dis- rupt effective communication. Observing yourself on video and audio devices can provide objective feedback. Also asking for feedback from trusted colleagues and friends can increase your awareness of how others perceive your communication.

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1) Nonverbal and perceptual cues

2) Cultural differences

3) Assumptions

4) Selective perception

5) Information overload

6) Filtering, manipulating, and lying

7) Vertical communication (boss and employee)

Sources of Miscommunication

Section 7.1 The Communication Process Defined

Communication apprehension refers to an individual’s “fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey, 2001). This apprehen- sion is a barrier to effective com- munication. A large percentage of Americans suffer from symptoms of communication apprehension and are therefore not able to com- municate effectively, both nonver- bally and verbally. Related in some ways to severe shyness and intro- version, there are methods and tactics to help individuals manage this apprehension. The first tactic is to be aware of this apprehen- sion, not hide from it, but deal with it. Relaxation and deep breathing

techniques are recommended, as are the following methods: Remember that this condition can be controlled and even overcome; focus on the person or someone in a group when you are speaking; list specific fears and tactics to manage each; be prepared ahead of time for pre- sentations and speaking with others; get support from people and friends around you; build confidence from small “wins.”

Being aware of cultural differences while planning a message can increase understand- ing and acceptance of messages. Cultural barriers consist of issues related to language, semantics, and word connotations that have different meanings in different cultures. The tone of the message is also very important, that is, formality versus informality, blunt ver- sus gracious (Munster, 1993; Hall, 1976). Although not every individual is conditioned or influenced in the same way by a country of origin culture, generalizations about coun- try cultures in general can be informative with regard to how she or he communicates. People in “high-context” cultures (Hall, 1976) such as China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam tend to place importance on relationship, informal communication that builds trust. Ver- bal agreements are commonplace. “Low-context” cultures such as Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, and North America emphasize precision, being legalistic, and being more for- mal in relationships. So, culture matters in the way we communicate, even though one’s background, experiences, exposure to other cultures, and generational differences also influence the process.

Consider the following guidelines to prevent miscommunication: (1) Be aware of your own cultural influences, habits, and biases; (2) Consider the other person’s cultural context, val- ues, and background; (3) Listen before talking, and stay with the facts to avoid your own biases and opinions; (4) Learn about the other person’s perspective first; (5) Create an atmosphere and environment of trust, respect, and fairness that is inclusive; and (6) Also, help create a common-ground “third culture” that includes all parties’ goals, accommodates differences, and adapts to intercultural communication differences (Hopson, Hart, & Bell 2012).

1) Nonverbal and perceptual cues

2) Cultural differences

3) Assumptions

4) Selective perception

5) Information overload

6) Filtering, manipulating, and lying

7) Vertical communication (boss and employee)

Sources of Miscommunication

Figure 7.2: Sources of miscommunication

Sources: Byron, K. (2008). Carrying too heavy a load? The Communication and Miscommunication of Emotion by email. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 309–327; CAI. (2010). Five Common Causes of Miscommunication in the Workplace and How to Avoid Them. http://blog.capital.org/five-common-causes- of-miscommunication-in-the-workplace-and-how-to-avoid-them/; Robbins and Judge, 2015.

1) Nonverbal and perceptual cues

2) Cultural differences

3) Assumptions

4) Selective perception

5) Information overload

6) Filtering, manipulating, and lying

7) Vertical communication (boss and employee)

Sources of Miscommunication

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Section 7.1 The Communication Process Defined

Related to cultural differences, one’s assumptions and selective perceptions can also influ- ence and interfere with effective communication. Selective perception is a cognitive bias that involves a person perceiving only what she or he is able, desires, or ignores (Pronin, 2007). As with assumptions, selective perception can exclude objective information, including others’ viewpoints, and thus negatively influence effective communication. Everyone makes assump- tions. However, when communicating strategic and tactical information to others who depend on accuracy and objectivity to implement assignments erroneous or biased assumptions serve as communication barriers to receivers and might result in poor performance for all involved.

Manipulating and filtering information, and lying when communicating involve intentional deception; “deception occurs in business meetings, phone conversations, electronic mes- sages, office memoranda, and other everyday organizational media” (Carlson, Kacma, Carlson, 2005). Moreover, although many of these lies may be casual “white lies,” some are used with clear intentionality to further an employee’s goals within the organization. Nevertheless, there has been little consideration of whether or not such deception is “effective” (Carlson, 2012). Manipulating information and lying in the workplace can be addressed by organiza- tional codes of conduct, policies, and discipline procedures. Creating an open and transparent organizational culture based on honesty, trust, and individual and team accountability is rec- ommended. At the individual level of communication, each leader and employee can revisit his or her own personal ethics and code of conduct. (See Chapter 1.)

Information overload is another barrier to communication that has been influenced by Inter- net communication technologies and social media sites delivered on mobile devices (Twit- ter, Instagram, and Facebook, to name a few). In addition and combined with the 365x24x7 work schedule that many companies expect, many leaders, managers, and employees experi- ence information overload. The pressures that result can affect communication effectiveness. Personal, as well as professional, quality of life may also be negatively affected (Boswell & Olson-Buchanan, 2007). A problem affecting communication from this barrier is not being able to focus or plan for meaningful exchanges, thus committing errors. Information overload is a problem for organizations and individuals (HBR, 2009; Lavenda, 2012). Tips to deal with information overload range from using organizing technologies to developing a mind-set of closing out unnecessary responses to the influx of information. Organizational leaders and managers can consider assigning tasks that can be completed in realistic time frames.

Lack of taking ownership and accountability of one’s communication effectiveness is a major barrier.

All organizational members have roles and responsibilities to fulfill. “With- out accountability, employees subconsciously become comfortable dumping duties and shifting their weight onto another’s plate, opening the door for future problems to transpire. The system of the company, as anticipated, will ultimately fail unless employees recognize that their role is not only impor- tant, but it is critical to the overall success of the organization. (CAI, 2010)

Communication in a Digital World Dispersed workforces and teams that interact with customers, suppliers, and stakeholders nationally and globally are becoming more the norm than exception in companies. Corporate communications leaders must adapt to evolving digital trends, such as by building employees’

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digital acumen and by choosing digital channels that reach both internal and external audi- ences (Bryan, 2019). Although different forms of communication continue to be important in organizations, digital uses of technology are increasingly adding value. For example “wikis enable more efficient virtual collaboration in cross-functional projects; internal blogs, discus- sion boards, and YouTube channels encourage global conversations and knowledge sharing; sophisticated viral media campaigns engage customers and create brand loyalty; next-gener- ation products are codeveloped in open-innovation processes; and corporate leaders work on shaping their enterprise 2.0 strategy” (Deiser & Newton, 2013). As a consequence, lead- ers and managers are challenged to create more horizontal structures, collaborative systems of communicating, and “technologically linked social infrastructure that by design promotes constant interaction across physical and geographical boundaries, as well as self-organized discourse and exchange” (Deiser & Newton, 2013). Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Skype™, YouTube, and other groupware (programs that facilitate collaboration among remote indi- viduals) are now primary forms of communication.

Leaders and followers alike are adjusting to and combining new digital literacy technologies and tools into existing and changing organizational and marketing strategies, structures, customer and working relationships. Relevant to Figure 1.1 in this text, digital changes in communication involve and affect persons, processes, and systems in organizations. A 2017 McKinsey Global Institute survey reported 45% of employees saying that social technologies are very or extremely integrated into day-to-day work at their companies, up from one third of respondents the previ- ous year. The survey reported that

• 52% of employees use team collaboration platforms/apps, • 57% of employees use collaborative document editing, and • 19% of employees use online video conferencing.

What communications leaders first saw as an improved business practice for employee-to- employee communication has begun to drive change among the leadership. Companies using new communication technologies (like those previously listed) for peer-to-peer communica- tion are showing a similar pattern among executives, who are increasingly using social tools with external partners: 59% in 2016, up from 49% in 2015 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017).

This communication evolution stems from the failure of older technologies—such as email, phone calls, and texting—to meet leaders’ and followers’ needs. According to Burke (2015),

• only one third of emails are opened, whereas 99% of texts are responded to; • 14% of calls are answered before being put on hold; • 78% of people wish they could text businesses; and • 95% of texts are read within 3 minutes of being sent.

There is much to be learned about how to use new technology most effectively as a leader.

How to Use Digital Tools in the Communication Process “Six social media skills every leader needs” (Deiser & Newton, 2013) can be summarized as follows. At the personal level, leaders can

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1. Develop creative competencies to produce compelling content by using authenticity, storytelling, and artistic vision, while honing technical skills such as video produc- tion. General Electric, for example, has accomplished this through its media lab, Colab, which GE employees created to facilitate global teamwork and collaboration. The lab combines competencies from Facebook, Twitter, and other social applica- tions that facilitate “networking, information sharing, instant communication, advanced search, blogging, video blogs” (Deiser & Newton, 2013).

2. Understand what causes messages to go viral. Develop and sustain a critical mass of social followers. Social communication invites people to cocreate and contextualize content to add new meaning. Recipients contribute by adding content on blogs, post- ing videos, and commenting on questions.

3. Manage the communication overflow by also being a recipient. Meaning creation is a collaborative process in which leaders can play a thoughtful role by developing empa- thy with different communication channels and understanding how people consume and share information in different forms, including social media.

At the strategic, organizational level, leaders can

4. Be advisers and orchestrators, diving strategic social media utilization. Because social media is still developing commercially, leaders can help build the experience into their cultures by becoming mentors, content curators, and social entrepreneurs.

5. Become architects. Leaders can create organizational infrastructure that protects against irresponsible use. Leaders will have to flex between adding and participat- ing in personalized content that is shared with more formal, organizational business content. Again, one of GE’s Oil & Gas Drilling vice presidents launched a video proj- ect with the history and time line of that business, which he shared with customers and team members. He told a story that involved people who maintained an interest and continued to request updates.

6. Keep ahead of the curve by also becoming analysts. Once leaders embrace and sup- port social media and digital ways of communicating, they have to keep innovating. The Web 2.0 revolution is about the interconnectivity of things and processes (the “Internet of Things”). GE’s leadership university has a program called Leadership Explorations that supports continuous learning of top executives in cutting-edge technologies and mixes seasoned leaders with millennial mind-sets and new ways of thinking.

E-skills and Virtual Communication Today, “e-skills” are becoming more important as technology develops. E-leadership skills involve being able to effectively run different types of organizations; explore new ways of administering organizational processes; and establish new business models. To be able to achieve these goals, e-leaders must have skills such as expertise in a focused area, “transver- sal skills” to allow for collaboration, and user skills that involve being able to use systems as tools for their work (Ivanova & Arenas, 2014).

Avolio, Sosik, Kahai, & Baker (2014) postulate that there are four key behaviors of e-leaders. These leaders need to be flexible, resolve conflicts, manage how they treat followers in a “vir- tual context,” and develop geographically or socially distant followers. In terms of cognition,

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it is important for e-leaders to “be present,” understand expectations of followers, and build trust.

Video conferencing and text-based communication are also important digital capabilities leaders use to keep in touch globally with employees and customers. Synchronous interaction and asynchronous commu- nication are two primary ways of interacting virtually (Hambley, O’Neill, & Kline, 2007). Synchronous interac- tion involves interacting at the same time through a vari- ety of different mediums. For example, with Google docu- ments, all team members can work on the same document, at the same time while staying in communication through a chat feature. Asynchronous communication involves communicating virtually at different times. One example would be emailing a word document back and forth between group members, where only one group member at a time can edit the document. Gen- erally, asynchronous communication takes more time and is better suited for less complicated tasks. Because synchronous interaction is faster, it is better suited for more complicated tasks.

Due to the continuous improvements in technology, it is easier than ever to keep constant communication between leaders and followers (Avolio et al., 2014). Faster feedback time is achieved through email and texting. Instant messaging, Twitter, Skype, and more protected group software programs (via Intranets) like Yammer also enable professionals to stay in constant contact, and help ease communication between time zones.

Back to Basics Although leaders use contemporary forms of media, they must also rely on basic, traditional forms of communicating as well, such as press conferences, face-to-face speeches, and infor- mal and formal talks with different stakeholders and audiences. But even in what may appear an informal conversation on a mobile phone, a text message, or a Skype conversation, leaders, managers, and followers may be sending strategic information without realizing it. Before send- ing strategically important messages, leaders and followers can benefit from considering the following strategies, which apply to e-messages as well as traditional forms of communicating:

Planning the Goal and Content Ensuring that your message achieves its intended goal involves thoughtful consideration of what you want to say. Senders usually address the following questions: What is the intended goal of the message? Is it to inform, persuade, express an opinion, or solicit ideas? What is the intended

Ted S. Warren/Associated Press Microsoft IT leaders take their organization’s pulse using ana- lytical software that monitors trending topics in their Yammer collaboration space. This allows CEO Satya Nadella to hear early warning signals. (Thomas & Silverstone, 2015).

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result of the message? What is the receiver expected to feel, believe, react, respond, or do? (Brass et al., 2004). Lubrin (2015) notes that “Managers need to make time for face time.” This is espe- cially true with regard to performance reviews. Alan Buckelew, chief operations officer of Carni- val Corporation stated that “A review is probably the one time when you want to be physically present” (Lubrin, 2015). Lubrin noted that “When it comes down to it, there is still no good sub- stitute for being in the same room with a direct report or a high-level boss. . . . Yet there is little consensus about how much face time it takes to manage effectively” (Lubrin, 2015).

Deciding Upon the Sender Deciding who should send a particular message is critical because the receiver will usually react differently to different people. An organization should take into account the content of the message, the sender’s position in the organization, the expertise and knowledge of the sender, and the audience receiving the message. If layoffs are to be announced, a CEO may want to deliver that message personally to show that he or she understands that such a decision disrupts people’s lives. In contrast, an emailed announcement of impending layoffs would seem callous and insensitive.

Also for sensitive issues and during emotionally charged crises, the CEO or president is often the best spokesperson. When the BP oil rig explosion occurred in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010—the worst of its kind in history, taking the lives of 11 rig workers—CEO chief execu- tive officer Tony Hayward received a series of crisis updates in his London office on that day. A person with the CEO said on several occasions that Hayward asked, “What did we do to deserve this?” (Muffin, 2010). When responding to that crisis, Hayward’s strategic commu- nication skills have been widely criticized by management and crisis scholars alike. Manage- ment experts spoke out at the time saying that Hayward’s leadership failure started with his delay during the initial weeks of the spill to address the severity of the problem. Others point to his lackluster appearance before the U.S. Congress. Hayward testified, “I wasn’t part of the decision-making process in this well” (Chen, 2010). One of the lessons for CEOs from that communication fiasco is noted: “It’s a fundamental rule of crisis management: Think with a little less head and a little more heart” (Chen, 2010).

Identifying the Receiver Identifying the receiver involves knowing who the receiver is, what the receiver’s needs and interests are, and whether the receiver is the right and relevant audience for whom the par- ticular message is intended. A chairperson at a private university announced a meeting for the entire college a few years ago. Word spread that something exciting and different might be announced. Faculty, staff, and administrators gathered in the large auditorium waiting to hear what was thought to be institution-wide news. The chairperson moved to the podium and announced that the administration had decided to offer 30 older professors a small financial package in exchange for their agreeing to an early retirement plan. Disbelief, bewilderment, and dismay were sensed throughout the gathering and in hallway discussions after the meet- ing: wrong audience, wrong place, and wrong timing for that misplaced message.

Selecting the Best Channel Berger and Iyengar (2013) investigated how “the medium shapes the message” believing that written communication tends to lend itself to more interesting topics, partly because written communication takes more time, which allows for more refining. Figure 7.3 illustrates the

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High channel richness

Low channel richness

Disadvantages Impersonal One-way Slow feedback

Disadvantages No records Spontaneous Dissemination hard

Advantages Personal Two-way Fast-feedback

Advantages Provides record Premeditated Easily disseminated

Formal report

Blogs

Skype

Email, text messaging,

internet

Twitter

Telephone

Memos, letters

Face-to-face verbal

Section 7.1 The Communication Process Defined

type of communication channel with the information richness of the message and the amount of information that can be sent during a particular episode. Each channel has advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 7.3: Communication channels

Source: Daft, Richard L., Lane, Patricia G. (2008). The Leadership Experience, 4th ed. Reproduced with permission of Thomson/South- Western. © Cengage Learning.

High channel richness

Low channel richness

Disadvantages Impersonal One-way Slow feedback

Disadvantages No records Spontaneous Dissemination hard

Advantages Personal Two-way Fast-feedback

Advantages Provides record Premeditated Easily disseminated

Formal report

Blogs

Skype

Email, text messaging,

internet

Twitter

Telephone

Memos, letters

Face-to-face verbal

The richness of the channel, Lengel and Daft (1988) stated, is influenced by the ability of the receiver to understand many cues simultaneously, handle two-way rapid communication, and establish a personal focus in the communication exchange. Face-to-face is the richest type of communication channel. When a message is complex with emotional content, a richer chan- nel (face-to-face) may be more appropriate. Layoffs, firings, and right-sizing are examples of when face-to-face communication may be more appropriate than a more formal, distant type of communication. If the receivers are dispersed geographically, then digital communication or conference calling may be appropriate. If the message is a routine, straightforward report for which no immediate feedback is required, then a memo, text message, or email will work.

Because digital communication is swiftly replacing the print medium, it is easier to confuse matching communication channels with particular messages. Blogs, instant messaging, and Twitter are becoming preferred forms of communicating faster and more inexpensively (King, 2015). Social networking sites are also a platform of communication that companies use for nonconfidential information. The point here is that leaders’ communication effectiveness depends in large part on matching the type of channel (formal report, memo, email, phone, instant messaging, Skype, face-to-face) with the type of message (low richness and emotional content versus high richness and emotional content).

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Timing the Message Finally, selecting the right time to send messages matters. Messages that carry highly emo- tional, sensitive content should not only be delivered through the right communication channel but should be timed so that receivers can understand and discuss or respond to the message. For example, it is not recommended that layoffs be delivered through email, Twitter, or instant messaging, or at times that are inconvenient for people to receive such news. Although layoffs may be necessary for the survival of a business unit or organiza- tion, how, when, and by whom the news is delivered sometimes has as much impact as the content. Consideration for the receiver is an important element with all types of commu- nication. Leadership communication affects not only those who are laid off but also those who stay.

Styles of Communication Are some communication styles more effective than others? There are no definitive theories or evidence that one individual style of communication is more effective than another. Dif- ferent studies, however, show how certain personality styles relate to ways of communicat- ing (de Vries, Bakker-Pieper, & Oostenveld, 2013). Knowing your style provides a baseline for increasing your strengths and developing less effective ways of relating. As discussed in Section 4.3 on contingency theory, leadership effectiveness depends on the fit between a leader, the environment and situation, followers, and the success factors for the organization to succeed. The same holds true for communication.

DeVries et al. (2010) also described seven communication style dimensions: “expressiveness, preciseness, niceness, supportiveness, verbal aggressiveness, (expressed) emotional tension (or, reversed, assuredness), and argumentativeness.” The two primary styles of communica- tion are niceness and verbal aggressiveness. Tskhay, Xu, & Rule (2014) argue that communi- cation is not only what you say, but also what you do. It is important for leaders to know that their nonverbal behavior can have an impact on their ability to communicate (Tskhay et al., 2014). Even simply communicating with your arms crossed instead of by your side can have an impact on the message that you are trying to send. In order to use this as an advantage, you must be constantly aware of your body language when you are communicating in order to ensure that the correct message is conveyed.

The popular DISC (Dominance, Influence, Steadiness, and Conscientiousness) personality type also offers a method for relating personality type to communication style. Take the online assessment and see if your communication style relates to your personality. The printed ver- sion may be downloaded at http://bcnysbc.org/images/DISC.pdf. An online version (http:// discpersonalitytesting.com/free-disc-test/) is also available. Have someone who knows you well and is unbiased take the DISC assessment about you and compare your results.

The styles of the DISC personality inventory include the following, which also describe accom- panying communication styles (Kathy M., 2014):

Dominant (D)—Described as demanding, vocal, adventurous and competi- tive, people with dominant personalities often make the first move in social situations and take the lead at work. They are often project leaders, pioneers

http://bcnysbc.org/images/DISC.pdf

http://discpersonalitytesting.com/free-disc-test/

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in their field, and innovators. People with this personality type may seem rude as they are often in a hurry and tend to interrupt other people as they are speaking. Most people would consider them blunt, opinionated and not up for open discussion.

Influential (I)—Influential people are the social butterflies of the world. They love to communicate, to perform and joke around. They often appear excited, open and friendly with everyone they meet. This personality type is also almost unfailingly positive.

Steady (S)—Steady personality types are stable, deliberate and follow a sys- tem. These are the people that like routine and dislike distractions. They pro- ceed carefully and like to have all the details before making a decision. They can be quiet. However, they are great listeners when communicating one-on- one with someone. People with this personality type are rarely jealous and tend to keep their emotions on an even keel.

Conscientious (C)—Precise, logical, and preferring perfection, conscientious personality types are hard on themselves and like to follow the rules. They are often not very expressive in person and prefer to communicate in writing. For this reason, they can come across as cold and distant. However, this is not the case. They do not like to disagree or to be wrong, so they often keep their feelings to themselves. (Kathy M., 2014)

The purpose of this section is to provide you with information to describe your communica- tion style and effectiveness, and also to enable you to observe others’ communication skills. You may also compare your DISC profile with your Myers–Briggs personality style from Chap- ter 3 to gain insight into how these styles relate to your communication effectiveness.

The Johari Window: Toward Open Communication The Johari window is a framework to help individuals and teams increase open commu- nication by sharing more information with one another. Increased trust and confidence in self and others leads to more self-disclosure, thus enhancing more communication among all members. Observing Figure 7.4 shows that quadrant 1, the open/free area, is the desired space for both individuals and team members, because information is openly shared here. The idea is for an individual or team member to create an organizational and team culture that welcomes self-disclosure and information sharing, thereby expanding quadrant 1 in the figure to quadrants 3 and 4.

Quadrant 3 in Figure 7.4 represents the secret or hidden side of an individual, leader, or team member, who knows what she or he thinks and believes but others do not know. The person may be keeping such information concealed deliberately or is not able to share information for whatever reason. This could be a new member of a team or organization who is not yet comfortable enough to share, or there may be conditions within the team or organization that contribute to the individual’s not feeling comfortable or trusting enough to share informa- tion. Fear of reprisal, violating group norms, or hoarding information for self-interests may be other reasons for concealing information (Nayab, 2011).

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SELF

Known Unknown

Known open/free area blind area

hidden area unknown areaUnknown

OTHERS

Section 7.2 Communication in Organizations

Using and facilitating discussions using the Johari window by a team or organizational leader is another way of creating an open environment for sharing information that is beneficial for organizational productivity, growth, and development. Although there may be certain situa- tions in which confidential or strategic information should not be shared with certain mem- bers and groups at certain times, information sharing in general is an important principle for teams and organizations because no single individual or group has all the answers and insights to solve problems and generate innovations (Nayab, 2011).

Figure 7.4: Johari window

SELF

Known Unknown

Known open/free area blind area

hidden area unknown areaUnknown

OTHERS

7.2 Communication in Organizations Communication in organizations is a complex process, given the different functions, structure, positions, and human elements involved. Eisenberg, Goodall, and Trethewey (2010) describe and summarize five models that chronologically evolved and that describe how communication occurs in organizations. Although each model captures some of the complexity of theses com- munication processes, the five models each contribute to an understanding of an overall view. The last model, organizations as dialogues, captures elements of organizational complexity and nuance that the previous ones do not. The models include: “information transfer, transactional process, strategic control, a balance of creativity and constraint, and organizations as dialogues” (Eisenberg, Goodall, & Trethewey, 2010, p. 28). We will elaborate upon each of these here.

Communication as Information Transfer defines communication as “the exchange of informa- tion and the transmission of meaning.” In this model, information flows between individuals and teams as in a pipeline. Information transfer views language as an exchange of thoughts and

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feelings between parties. There is miscommunication when messages are missing, ambigu- ous, or misinterpreted; when there is information overload; or when noise (contextual, word meaning, or physical) causes distortion. Critics say this model views receivers as passive and the process as incomplete and simplistic with nonverbal communication unexplained.

Communication as a Transactional Process focuses on people, not the message, and views sender and receiver as simultaneously the same, although the receiver is the focus because he or she interprets the meaning (nonverbal and verbal) of the message, not the sender. This model is criticized because of its emphasis on shared meaning, omitting the variety of issues that can go wrong with communication—disagreement over perspectives, conflict, and ambiguity.

Communication as Strategic Control portrays communication as a control tool to respond and manage the environment. In this view, communication effectiveness is described as goal attainment with the primary objective centering on organized action. Senders and receiver have different goals and select strategies for goal attainment. Rational and objective com- munication is not the primary mode. Clarity in information and interaction sharing is not a central goal; instead, individuals’ communication is typically unclear and strategically ambig- uous in goal achievement in this model. This strategic communication ambiguity also uses different meanings given to the same messages to increase unified diversity among people. Issues with this model are that it overemphasizes individuals’ function and power in meaning creation while deemphasizing cooperation, coordination, and interdependence of people and groups; and minimizes the ethics with this system of communicating.

Communication as a Balance of Creativity and Constraint views communication as a dichotomy between a macro and micro perspective. At a micro level, employees are viewed as creating and molding organizations. At a macro level, the focus is on organizational constraints that affect communication and employees. Structures are viewed as outcomes of communication practices but are simultaneously obligated to rules that created them. From this perspective, communication becomes the continuous settling of tensions been individual creativity and organizational restrictions. From this balancing, creativity evolves as the strategic responses to organizational constraints. With this perspective, communication can be understood and analyzed as a balancing act between these forces. An apparent limitation of this model is the omission of how each person’s “voice” and the dialogue between individuals and others help explain reality that is also constructed through and between interpersonal communications.

Finally, organizations are viewed as dialogues. Because communication is a balance of cre- ativity and constraint, the authors stated that “we maintain that dialogue is balanced com- munication, or communication in which each individual has a chance to both speak and be heard.” Dialogue has four elements that represent the development of more collaboration and respect for others. In this regard, dialogue encompasses and makes possible “(1) mind- fulness, (2) equitable transaction, (3) empathic conversation, and (4) real meeting” (Eisen- berg et al., pp. 40, 41). Mindfulness (as contrasted with mindless communication) means being centered; it requires focus and discipline. Mindful communication can add both pur- posive and strategic content, context, and depth to communication, thereby create possi- bilities for a more open, trusting, and collaborative environment. Dialogue also facilitates possibilities for members in the organization to be more equitable (and ethical) in their transactions because everyone is given a voice and can be heard. While this is not a given, it is more possible.

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Empathetic conversation involves “the ability to understand or imagine the world as another person understands or imagines it” (Eisenberg et al., p. 44). Empathic conversa- tion encourages listening to others’ perspectives and viewpoints in different work units, and thereby creates opportunities for more shared information. Respect for individuals can also develop when different voices are heard. Appreciating the diversity of individuals and groups can be enhanced and can contribute to satisfaction and productivity. Finally, the authors define real meeting as “through communication, a genuine communion can take place between people that transcends differences in role or perspective and that recognizes all parties’ common humanity” (Eisenberg et al., p. 70). Through real meeting, individuals engage “to learn more about the self in context with others” (p. 71). Related to empathy, real meetings involves individuals appreciating and paying attention to others as if they mattered, not just as objects.

Limitations to this model include the following: dialogue is time consuming; it can also lead to people assuming that their ideas and opinions will be implemented when the leaders or deci- sion makers may not agree; and it may lead to “a lack of closure or to the feeling that ‘no right answer’ can be found” (Eisenberg et al., p. 46). Still, this view does present a more nuanced and realistic view of individuals than the earlier models described in this perspective. Also, although somewhat idealistic in sections, studies do support propositions in this model with regard to the value of dialogue, empathy, ethics, and mindfulness.

Leaders as Champions of Strategic Communication Leaders are the face, voice, and role models of their companies. What they say, to whom, and how is important, and their ability to change organizations and cultures, particularly during times of crisis and uncertainty, is significant. They are and must be, in effect, champions of strategic communication. As strategic communicators (Clampitt, Berk, & Williams, 2002), leaders must communicate from a big picture, systems perspective (as discussed in the first part of this chapter). They must always be conscious of upholding and maintaining the vision, mission, values, and strategy of the entire organization when they communicate. They must also look to inspire, build trust, unite, and mobilize followers around a common identity and purpose of the organization.

Tactical communicators, on the other hand, are more concerned with transactional types of exchanges that involve implementation and hands-on details and tactics. For example, man- agers, as tactical communicators, spend over 80% of each day communicating as “information processors” (Mintzberg, 1973). As transactional managers, they control, schedule, correct, and direct daily processes, procedures, and people around specific tasks, projects, and programs. They spend 48 minutes of every hour on the phone, in meetings, and communicating with teams, suppliers, and vendors to implement details of organizational objectives. Of course, both strategic and tactical communication are necessary for organizational goal attainment. It is important here, however, to distinguish between these types, because strategic leader- ship communication sets the overall tone and context for organizational exchanges.

Strategic leadership conversations differ from transactional, tactical discussions. They cre- ate an open climate for dialogue, emphasize strategic topics to provide clarity, focus on the customer’s needs and wants, share responsibility with followers, and involve constant and consistent feedback (Young & Post, 1993).

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Open Climate for Dialogue Leaders engage in strategic conversations by creating an open climate that is two-way, not top-down; communication flows and is not constrained by status of position titles. By asking the right questions, leaders discover what people feel and think about issues and opportunities. There are two types of questions leaders can ask: leader centered and follower centered (Spitzer & Evans, 1997). Leader-centered questions seek to gain follower knowledge and expertise as well as feelings and thoughts about different topics relevant to the goals, strategies, and ini- tiatives of the organization. Leaders also build trust and confidence in followers by asking these types of questions with authenticity, concern, and interest (Newberry, 2003). Follower- centered questions focus on developing new ideas, expanding awareness, and stimulating critical thinking. Similarly, with these types of questions, leaders ask in ways that show inter- est in followers’ ideas and opinions.

Listening Burleson (2011) defines listening as “a collaborative process … of interpreting the commu- nicative behavior of other in the effort to understand the meaning and implications of that behavior” and states that there are multiple names for listening, including: “message recep- tion,” “message processing,” and “decoding.”

Edwards (2011) describes the listening model as having three parts: listening presage, listening process, and listening outcome. Listening presage focuses on personality traits, such as listen- ing style preference, empathy, and listening capacity. The listening process not only focuses on processing the message, but also the behavioral response. The listening process has four stages: attention, decoding/interpretation, memory systems, and response preparation. Attention is the difference between simply hearing and actually listening to what is being said. Decoding /interpretation is where the listener actually processes what they are hearing and forms it into meaning. Memory systems involve putting the meaningful communication into a memory so that it may be recalled at a later date. The last stage of the listening process is response prepara- tion where the listener exhibits behavioral responses that could be either spoken or physical.

Similarly, Burleson (2011) describes the listening process by touching on similar points, but uses a five-step process. The process includes: hearing, comprehension, interpretation, act recognition, and understanding. The third stage of the listening model is interpretation,

Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock Creating an open dialogue is vital to effective organizational communication.

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which includes the outcomes of listening, such as gaining knowledge, building relationships, and responses.

Although there are different stages in the listening model, there are also different levels of listening, as Burleson (2011) describes. The most basic level of listening is called surface-level where the listener can interpret the message at face value instead of looking for a deeper meaning. The more advanced level of listening deals with depth processing, where the listener searches for a deeper meaning, which requires more extensive analysis and thinking.

Active Listening Active listening is another classic communication technique that strategic leaders use to gain knowledge and build relationships with followers. In active listening, the listener’s focus and attention is on understanding, interpreting, assessing, and showing the sender that what was said is understood. This sounds easier in theory than in practice. Active listening is not passive; after absorbing what the speaker is saying without interrupting, distracting, or indicating disinterest, the listener asks questions for clarification if neces- sary. Eye contact and nonverbal body language show that the listener is fully engaged and interested in the messenger as well as the message. Poor listeners, on the other hand, do not show interest through eye contact and attentive body language; listen for facts and not emotion; and usually daydream, interrupt, and respond with judgmental or argumentative opinions (Morgan & Baker, 1985; Okum, 1975). Poor listening and communication habits foster closed cultural climates and emotional disconnection between leaders and followers. Strategic conversations cannot thrive without active listening skills. Take Assessment 7.1 to see how effective a listener you are.

Assessment 7.1: Are You an Effective Listener?

Instructions Go through the following questions, answering no or yes next to each. Mark each as truthfully as you can in light of your behavior in the last few meetings or social gatherings.

No Yes

1. I give attention to nonverbal clues of others when communicating.

________ ________

2. I ask someone to explain or make clear what they are saying if I don’t understand.

________ ________

3. I try hard to understand someone’s position and opinion when communicating.

________ ________

4. Most people sense that I understand their viewpoint even if we don’t agree .

________ ________

(continued)

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5. I try to listen to many conversations at once instead of focusing on one at a time.

________ ________

6. I prefer individuals to share factual information with me and let me decide.

________ ________

7. I act like I am listening when I really am not. ________ ________

8. I can tell what someone will say before they even say it.

________ ________

9. I answer right after someone finishes talking to me. ________ ________

10. I assess what someone is saying while they’re talking. ________ ________

11. I usually focus on the other person’s style while they’re talking, which sometimes distracts me from what they are saying.

________ ________

12. I am thinking about how I will respond while someone is talking with me.

________ ________

Scoring and Interpretation: According to communications experts, “no” is the correct choice to statements 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; and “yes” is the correct choice to statements 1, 2, 3, 4. Use the following suggested interpretation for self-development in listening:

9–12 correct items: You evaluated yourself as an effective listener.

7–8 correct items: You have some areas that need improvement in your listening skills.

6 correct items: You need improvement in listening skills; your followers and coworkers may observe that you are not giving your full attention when listening to them.

Assessment 7.1: Are You an Effective Listener? (continued)

Emphasize Strategic Topics Effective leaders use strategic conversations and dialogue to understand issues that followers and stakeholders have about certain strategic topics and to gain acceptance on these topics. Leaders rely on discussion to clarify controversial topics and on dialogue to reach agreement and gain acceptance. In dialogue, in contrast to discussion, people share their positions on a topic, gain understanding of each other and the topic, and reach common ground. Discussion, on the other hand, involves stating positions and opinions based on facts, logic, and beliefs and may not lead to agreement between two parties. Although dialogue certainly involves facts, logic, and beliefs, it differs from discussion in that “people usually hold relatively fixed positions and argue in favour of their views as they try to convince others to change. At best this may produce agreement or compromise, but it does not give rise to anything creative” (Bohm & Peat, 1987, p. 241). David Bohm further suggested that “the purpose of dialogue is to reveal the incoherence in our thought. In so doing it becomes possible to discover or re-establish a ‘genuine and creative collective consciousness’”(Bohm, Factor, & Garrett, 1991). The process of dialogue is a process of “awakening”; it entails a free flow of meaning among all the participants (Smith, 2001).

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Clarification of the topic may be gained through discussion, but mind-sets may not be changed (Schein, 1993). Dialogue requires active listening skills, an open mind, and the ability to bring people of differing opinions together on controversial topics. Leaders in organizational cul- tures that are built on trust have a higher probability of leading change through dialogue than those in distrusting settings.

Focus on the Customer Clampitt, Berk, & Williams (2002) found that leaders and managers who were successful in dealing with change included the following mantra in their strategic conversations: “Keep close to the customer.” The researchers concluded that successful companies’ communica- tions programs, in their interactions with employees who dealt directly with customers, framed certain types of questions: What does the customer want to know? When do they prefer to receive information? In what form (at home, email, graphic display) do they want to receive it?

In these companies there was a clear trend toward insisting that employee communications staff monitor their customers and audiences, and understand the organizational issues, job demands, and other communications efforts that affect the customers. In the best companies, communications programs serve the audience’s needs and, as a result, improve the organiza- tion’s capacity for dealing with change (Clampitt, Berk, & William, 2002).

Share Responsibility An underlying theme of effective strategic conversations is that leaders share responsibility with followers. Whether good or bad news occurs, followers want their leaders and managers to inform them, share with them, and explain such happenings to them. A major theme from a study on leaders as communication champions was that “people want to hear news from their boss, not from their peers or from the grapevine” (Clampitt et al., 2002).

Give and Receive Feedback Leaders give and receive feedback more easily as part of a shared communication process in organizations where trust and an open climate are cultural traits. Both leaders and followers must give and receive feedback in their mutual influencing process toward organizational goal attainment. Feedback consists of letting others know in a straightforward manner what you think of them, how well they have performed, and if they have met your needs and expec- tations. We note that giving and receiving constructive feedback, especially if it is negative in content, is not easy—and probably never will be. In addition to the guidelines offered here, it is important to separate emotions from the message. Focusing on the goal of the feedback and importance of communicating the message involves taking an objective perspective. Also, followers who have less power than the leaders and supervisors to whom they report have an added burden in giving feedback—especially negative feedback. Again, in addition to the following guidelines, ensuring that your message is true, verifiable, and necessary to deliver can provide assurance that how it is delivered is often as important as what is being delivered. Guidelines for giving honest feedback include the following (Bolton, 1979):

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1. Check your motivations before giving feedback. Make sure your reasons are clear and justifiable.

2. Check your frame of mind. Being angry, tired, or uncertain interferes with giving objective feedback.

3. Ensure that your feedback is purposed to help the receiver. 4. Offer feedback directly to the receiver, with genuine feelings. 5. Be descriptive, not evaluative. Omit words like should, must, and ought. 6. Be specific instead of general; offer clear, recent examples. 7. Choose a time when the receiver and you are ready. 8. Check the validity of your intended feedback with others who are reliable and will

keep your communication confidential. Be sure you are communicating facts, not gossip.

9. Include only areas that the recipient has control over. 10. Do not share more than the receiver can handle emotionally or factually.

Confident leaders will often ask followers as well as peers as part of giving feedback, “How am I doing? What do I need to be doing differently? What needs do you have that aren’t being met by the organization?”

Guidelines for receiving honest feedback include the following (Athos & Gabarro, 1978):

1. Avoid being defensive. Take a neutral, objective view that will facilitate the sender’s offering you unbiased information.

2. To ensure that you understand the feedback, summarize what you heard and ask for clarification in an understanding, nonjudgmental way.

3. Share your feelings about specific behaviors at issue in order to validate the information, feelings, and understanding of the subject.

4. Remember that you have the right to evaluate and validate what you hear, to decide what you believe about the feedback, and to decide if you feel that it is personally and professionally worth the effort to change.

Each of these characteristics of strate- gic conversations could also be termed leadership communication skills: ways that leaders can ensure they are effec- tively conveying the information they need to convey and receiving the infor- mation they need to receive. In the last section of this chapter, we turn to another essential leadership communi- cation skill: persuasion.

Von Bergen, Bressler, & Campbell (2014) describe an ineffective method of giving feedback, before moving on to guidelines for proper feedback. Many people use a “sandwich method,” which they cling to like a safety blanket, because they are uncomfortable giving criticism. In this

Creatas/Thinkstock Feedback consists of letting others know what you think of them, how well they have performed, and if they have met your needs and expectations.

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Section 7.3 Leadership Skills in Persuasion

method, the criticism is sandwiched between two compliments. However, this can lead to confusion in the intended message. Instead, Von Bergen et al. (2014) suggest that the proper way to give feedback is by using the following guidelines:

• Plan the discussion, when possible. • Keep positives and negatives separate. • Time discipline so as not to be too soon or too late. • Focus on the issue regarding behavior. • Connect the behavioral issue with how the issue has an impact. • State consequences if behavior does not improve. • Identify the proper and required behavioral change that is expected. • Ask how you can help with the change. • Express confidence in their ability to improve.

7.3 Leadership Skills in Persuasion Persuasion is commonly defined as the act of convincing someone to believe or do some- thing; it uses communication to achieve a goal. Leaders use persuasion as a form of influence to get work done through other people. Even in high-performance cultures, leaders still have to influence and persuade followers. It is a fundamental leadership competency. Jay Conger, an expert on leadership, wrote:

Effective persuasion is a difficult and time-consuming proposition, but it may also be more powerful than the command-and-control managerial model it succeeds. As AlliedSignal’s CEO Lawrence Bossidy said . . . , “The day when you could yell and scream and beat people into good performance is over. Today you have to appeal to them by helping them see how they can get from here to there, by establishing some credibility, and by giving them some reason and help to get there. Do all those things, and they’ll knock down doors.” In essence, he is describing persuasion—now more than ever, the language of business leadership. (Conger, 1998, p. 86)

If persuasion is the language of business leadership, as Conger (1998) put it, then it is critical that leaders know how to perform it effectively. We will examine the four steps of persuasion before examining the common pitfalls.

Four Steps of Persuasion The four steps of persuasion are (1) establishing credibility, (2) building goals from a com- mon frame, (3) presenting a compelling position, and (4) connecting emotionally (Conger, 1998). Establishing credibility involves expertise and relationships: The leader—or whoever is doing the persuading—must possess the relevant knowledge as well as a trusting relation- ship with whomever he or she is trying to persuade. For example, suppose you wanted an honest assessment of your health. You would more likely be inclined to believe a longtime family doctor than some stranger at the ballpark. In taking the first steps to establish their credibility, leaders must make an honest assessment of how others perceive their knowledge

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and of the strength of their relationships with those whom they will try to persuade. Leaders can also ask to what extent their audience perceives them as trustworthy and helpful.

However, credibility is not enough to persuade others. Leaders also need to build goals from a common ground, or find an area that those being persuaded can agree on. People need to know and be shown how they will personally benefit from the offer to be made. Knowing their audience will help leaders find common ground on the proposal that is the subject of persuasion. To do this, leaders need to talk with the people whom they will engage—test the waters—and find out what they are thinking and what they want. If leaders cannot see, feel, or experience any common ground, they should revisit their proposal.

Leaders who can present a compelling position after they have established credibility and framed a common ground have a higher probability of succeeding. Winning others over involves the use of lively metaphors, stories, numbers, and analogies that paint a vivid picture and pave the way for a compelling, tangible description of the persuader’s offer.

Finally, effective leaders connect emotionally with their followers or others whom they are per- suading. They have to show their emotional commitment to their position in a reasonable and clear headed way. People are persuaded not only in their heads but also in their hearts, especially if leaders are asking for significant time, energy, or effort from those who are being persuaded.

Nasar (2013) identified 21 principles of persuasion that resonate with our general presenta- tion on leadership communication and with Conger’s arguments here. Here is a sample of some of the more notable principles:

1. Persuasion is not manipulation. Persuasion is the art of getting people to do things that are in their own best interest that also benefit you.

2. Context and timing. Context creates a standard of what is acceptable. Timing requires what we want from others and life. We make choices in terms of context and timing.

3. You have to be interested to be persuaded. The first art of persuasion is learning how to talk to people about them; doing that means you always have their captive attention.

4. Persistence pays. Abraham Lincoln lost his mother, three sons, a sister, and his girlfriend; failed in business; and lost eight separate elections before he was elected president of the United States.

5. Don’t assume. Don’t ever assume what someone needs; always offer your value and leave the choice to them.

6. Truth-tell. Truth-tell without judgment or agenda, and you’ll often find others’ responses quite surprising.

7. Build rapport. You can build a sense of rapport where people feel more comfortable with you and become more open to your suggestions.

8. Behavioral flexibility. The larger your repertoire of behaviors, the more persuasive you’ll be.

9. Learn to transfer energy. The most persuasive people know how to transfer their energy to others, to motivate and invigorate them. It can be as simple as eye contact, physical touch, laughter, excitement in verbal responses, or even just active listening.

10. Communicating clearly is key. The art of persuasion lies in simplifying something down to its core, and communicating to others what they really care about.

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Section 7.3 Leadership Skills in Persuasion

Four Traps That Lead to Persuasion Failure Leaders fail at effective persuasion when they too often fall into one or more of the falling traps. First, leaders who try to make their case with a hard, upfront sell more often than not fail, according to Conger (1998), because they show their logic and tactics at the outset, thus giving their potential opponents reasons to attack. It is more effective to start a dialogue or conversation before trying to convince the person to be persuaded or back the person into a corner.

Second, leaders who resist compromise at the outset and see it as a weakness usually commu- nicate inflexibility and stubbornness. Persuasion is often a two-way path that involves some give and take, listening, and accepting parts of what others have to offer into the proposed perspective.

Third, some leaders believe that their arguments and ideas are the greatest and that the secret of persuasion lies in sharing these ideas with others. Arguments are important, but they are, as Conger noted, only part of the equation; persuasion also depends on the four steps men- tioned earlier.

Finally, when leaders assume that they have one shot at getting others to buy into a proposition, they are again wrong. Persuasion, said Con- ger, is a process. It can take time. Dif- ficulties are experienced. Listening is required. Developing and redevelop- ing a position that is tested and com- promised before being accepted is to be expected. Through the process, the results may be worth the time and energy given.

Successful persuasion, then, involves all of the skills and competencies required for effective communica- tion. Leaders must plan their mes- sages, know their audiences, actively listen, give and receive feedback, have strategic conversations, create an open environment for dialogue,

use the right communication channels for the type of messages they convey, and establish credibility with those whom they are persuading. Effective communication is an integral part of who leaders are and what they do; that is, as we discussed in Chapter 1, influencing followers to achieve common goals through shared purposes.

iStock/Thinkstock The four traps that lead to persuasion failure are the hard, upfront sell, resisting compromise, failing to present a compelling position, and failing to connect emotionally.

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Summary & Resources

Take the Lead Leadership and Strategic Communication You’ve just been recruited to lead an organization’s sales and marketing department. You are leaving behind your old company, where you became famous for elevating their brand to new heights in your 15-year career. However, leadership did not support the challenge you desired in new product development, so you determined your best next career move would be outside the organization.

You arrive at your new organization and find the sales and marketing department runs like a well-oiled machine. Instead of being broken, as at your prior organization, this new organization has a much better structure, processes for performing business, and what appears to be a highly qualified and eager staff ready and willing to forge ahead.

Considering your leadership and strategic communication, how will you:

1. Immediately develop ties with your new sales and marketing community? 2. Disseminate your thoughts within the department? 3. Identify the best forum for communicating effectively? 4. Ensure that members of the department are being heard?

See the appendix for possible answers.

Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary Effective communication is essential to successful leadership. Communication involves a per- son’s capacities, personality, skills, competencies, and relationship abilities. Communication also affects every aspect of leading: influencing, motivating, visioning, creating culture, devel- oping strategy, mobilizing change, and managing stakeholders locally, face-to-face, and globally through digital information technologies. Leading and managing digital communication has also become a requirement of leadership because most businesses now involve some form of digital communication. To succeed in a digital world, leaders must also become participants as well as producers, architects, directors, and change agents in embracing and integrating groupware and social media into their strategies, marketing, and customer and employee relationships. Under- standing how leaders’ personalities and communication styles affect their ability to send and receive messages across different channels to different audiences is also important. Discerning when blind spots in communication occur can assist leaders in giving and receiving feedback more effectively. Leaders also have the obligation of owning and communicating strategic con- tent with followers, which involves active listening, creating an open climate for dialogue as well as discussions, emphasizing strategic topics, focusing on the customer, and sharing responsibil- ity. Learning principles of effective persuasion is also a key competency of leaders whose pri- mary role is responsible influence.

As you take the assessment in this chapter and digest the different elements of communica- tion from a leader’s perspective, reflect on what specific changes and development you need to increase your communication effectiveness.

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Summary & Resources

Web Resources

Leadership Is All About Emotional Persuasion

http://www.forbes.com/2010/02/02/communication-emotional-persuasion-leadership- managing-speaking.html A communications consultant offers insight on persuasion.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Describe some important similarities and differences between a leader’s communi- cation and that of followers in an organization?

2. Identify some major miscommunication issues that you face in your work, profes- sional, and student life. What methods do or can you use to change or eliminate those?

3. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of relying only or mainly on digital ways of communicating. Answer this same question about yourself.

4. Give an example of how you would use the Johari window to move from a blind spot you have with another person or group to open knowledge between you and that person or group.

5. Referring to the chapter and assessment, what is your communication style and describe some advantages and liabilities (issues) that you experience with your style? Identify a few ways you could develop or change the issues you experienced with your style.

6. Describe your effectiveness as an active listener. What particular issues do you expe- rience in your current work or job that hinder active listening? Identify some ways you can improve your active listening skills.

7. Suggest ways that an organization in which you work or are familiar could imple- ment elements from the fifth model (communication as dialogue) in the organiza- tional communication part of this chapter.

8. In what ways is persuasion important for leadership communication? How effective are you in persuading people to do something? What ways can you improve your ability to be more effective in persuading others to do constructive tasks?

Key Terms active listening A communication tech- nique that involves the listener’s focus and attention on understanding, interpreting, assessing, and showing the sender that what was said is understood.

communication The process of conveying information and meaning between a sender and a receiver; one of the most important competencies of leaders. It is also stating clearly what you want and expect from oth- ers, clearly expressing your thoughts and ideas, and maintaining a precise and con- stant flow of information.

http://www.forbes.com/2010/02/02/communication-emotional-persuasion-leadership-managing-speaking.html

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Summary & Resources

communication process The flow of information in an organization. An effec- tive communication process involves send- ers and receivers connecting with each other’s intended and accurate messages and meanings.

dialogue A form of communication that entails a free flow of meaning among all the participants, with the aim of opening up differences to arrive at new insights. It is not centered on debate or proving right or wrong; it aims at collaboratively discovering common ground between communicators. Contrast with discussion.

discussion A form of communication that involves stating positions and opinions based on facts, logic, and beliefs and may not lead to agreement between two parties. Contrast with dialogue.

Johari’s window A communication and training model that is used to improve understanding and awareness of self and of others for development and improving communications.

persuasion The act of convincing someone to believe or do something; using communi- cation to achieve a goal.

strategic communication Communicating from a “big picture,” systems perspective. Being conscious of upholding and maintain- ing the vision, mission, values, and strategy of the entire organization when communi- cating. Seeking to inspire, build trust, unite, and mobilize followers around a common identity and purpose of the organization.