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7 Teamwork and Group Skills
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Recognize the important role leadership plays in guiding constructive teams and groups. • Evaluate types of teams and various background factors. • Respond to each stage of team development and other team processes. • Utilize a systems approach to teamwork. • Understand how to build and guide high-performance teams.
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Introduction
Introduction
What does NASCAR racing have in common with book publishing? Both rely on teams and groups to successfully complete their tasks. As NASCAR’s website (2015) puts it, “a full-blown pit stop consists of the following—changing four tires, adding a full tank of Sunoco racing fuel, wiping the grille clean and making minor adjustments to the car. Oh, and the really good team can accomplish all of that in 12 seconds with the allotted six crew members” (para. 1–2). Typically, the individuals involved are the rear tire carrier, the rear tire changer, a jackman, the front tire carrier, the front tire changer, and a gas man. A support crew works behind the pit crew to make sure everything moves smoothly. A crew chief and his/her car chief lead the group, assisted by an engineer.
The leadership team creates a strategy that the crew must carry out. Several factors dictate a team’s pit-road strategy. Race length, caution flags, fuel mileage, and tire wear are all consid- ered before the crew chief decides on an appropriate course of action. Then, the team must make adjustments on the fly. Change two tires or four (or zero)? Other corrections make sure the car will not get worse due to changing track conditions.
All the while, the car’s driver receives most of the attention and fame, as the supporting cast does the dirty work. Many people know the name Danica Patrick. But who can identify her crew chief or any member of her team?
The same holds true in book publishing. A typical book is guided by an editor-in-chief, who will assign a sponsoring editor to a project. That person works with a team consisting of an editorial coordinator; a composition person or team; a cover design employee; one or more copy editors; manuscript reviewers; a developmental editor; and individuals assigned to cre- ate graphics, design pages, and edit photos. Then, a publicity team and a sales force must make sure copies of the book show up in the right hands in order for it to gain traction in the marketplace.
And yet, one or a few names appear on the book’s cover. The author’s level of success is often determined, at least in part, by the quality of the team working behind the scenes. These indi- viduals must be properly led, managed, and coordinated for a bestseller to take shape.
Skills in leading teams and building teamwork are critical to being an effective leader, and having leaders skilled in these areas is critical to the success of organizations. The payoffs of teamwork have been extensively researched (Katzenback & Smith, 1993; Larson & LaFasto, 2001; McShane & Von Glinow, 2010; Hellriegel & Slocum, 2011; Mathieu, Maynard, Rapp, & Gilson, 2008). On a personal level, skills in teamwork have become so important that Fortune Magazine reported that “[b]ecoming skilled at teamwork may be the single most important thing you can do to increase your value regardless of your level of authority” (Useem, 2006, p. 11).
I devote this chapter to helping leaders understand the dynamics of how teams function and to preparing individuals to be skilled team players, leaders, and builders. It is designed to encourage leaders to be strong advocates of the importance of teamwork throughout the organization.
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Section 7.1 The Study of Groups and Teams
7.1 The Study of Groups and Teams
Leaders throughout the centuries have studied and shared thoughts about teams. For example, leaders have had to make decisions about how to organize and manage military operations, build magnificent buildings, and complete many other endeavors. These efforts required the use of teams. At first, little was written about the formal study of teams. Some trace the for- mal study of teams to the work of Norman Triplett who in the late 1800s studied the effects of working alone versus working in a group (1897). He noted, for example, that bicycle racers who pedaled around a racetrack in groups were faster than those who pedaled around alone.
A major breakthrough in the study of teams occurred in 1933 when Elton Mayo published his findings from the Hawthorne studies conducted at a Western Electric plant outside of Chi- cago. Mayo was part of a Harvard University research team asked to study the activities of work groups at the Hawthorne plant. Prior to the group coming in, an initial study was done to evaluate the effect of lighting intensity on performance. One group worked in a room where the intensity was kept constant and another where the intensity was varied. As expected, as illumination increased, productivity also increased. However, when illumination decreased, output continued to increase. This is when the Harvard research team was brought in to dis- cover why this was happening.
The Hawthorne studies were origi- nally designed to evaluate the effect of working conditions on productivity by varying such things as the intensity of lighting, length of breaks, incentive pay, and shorter working days. Instead, the results launched a whole new interest in human relations and group dynam- ics. The researchers concluded that the increases in productivity were more a result of the dynamics taking place in the groups and the special attention the experimental group was getting than the influence of working conditions.
The next major wave of developments in the study of teams came from the work of Kurt Lewin, as Lewin used the term “group dynamics” to describe the scientific study of behavior in groups (1951). After Lewin, many other researchers and popular writers have focused on group dynam- ics, the importance and effectiveness of teams, and it’s important to distinguish between groups and teams.
“Group” was the primary term used in the earlier studies of the dynamics that take place in sets of people. We can define a group as two or more people gathered or classified together with a common purpose. Groups can be formal or informal.
Formal groups are established to allow members to work together to accomplish a given out- come. Examples of formal groups would be an ongoing set of individuals who work together on a job, such as members of a department or a subset of a department in a business; a project team completing a specific assignment; or a committee that oversees an element of an opera- tion, such as workplace safety or employee benefits.
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A group is two or more people gathered together with a common purpose.
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Section 7.1 The Study of Groups and Teams
Informal groups emerge among individuals with common interests. Informal groups tend to form around activities, such as a company bowling or soccer team; shared sentiments, includ- ing political and religious affiliations; and interactions that result from being around people on an everyday basis, such as those on the same floor of an office building or employees who are assigned to a remote location of a company.
We can define a team as two or more people with a common purpose, interdependent roles, and complementary skills. Consider a group as a broader term that encompasses a wide range of activities and a team as a specific kind of formal group of individuals with not only a common purpose but also interdependent roles and complementary skills. All teams can be considered groups, but not all groups would be considered teams. Teams become distinct from groups when synergies, or increased levels of performance, emerge from greater inter- dependence and shared effort (Katzenbach & Smith, 1999; Rico, Sanchez-Manzanares, Gil, & Gibson, 2008). Characteristics of teams include:
• sharing leadership responsibilities among members; • shifting from individual responsibility to individual plus collective responsibility; • evaluating success based on team outcomes rather than individual outcomes; and • improved collective problem solving.
Trust constitutes an additional key component of a team. Effective teams go beyond interac- tion and move to the point of collaboration.
Skills in leading teams and building teamwork are critical to being an effective leader, and having leaders skilled in these areas is critical to the success of organizations. Any type of organization that excels at teamwork at the top, within teams, between teams, and outside the organization with key stakeholders holds many advantages. Table 7.1 displays a number of reasons why teamwork is important to leaders and organizations.
Table 7.1: The value of teamwork
The Importance of Teamwork to a Leader’s Success
• Leaders who are excellent team players, who can build high-performance teams, and who can develop teamwork between teams will be in high demand in the organization of the future.
• The higher you go as a leader, the more you will rely on teamwork to succeed.
• In any endeavor there are limits to how far you can go and how much you can accomplish without the support and help of others.
The Importance of Teamwork to the Success of Organizations
• Organizations cannot successfully compete and sustain success at a high level without teamwork.
• Effective teamwork improves performance, speed in getting things done, the quality of work, products and services, communications, innovative thinking, the work culture, morale and motivation, employee engagement, team and personal development, and employee retention and loyalty to the organization.
• The organization of the future will rely increasingly on teamwork not only internally but also externally, as they will need to partner with others to succeed.
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
Students of the dynamics of teams often become more effective leaders. Studying team dynam- ics means being aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the team, the team members, and the activities taking place internally and externally that affect the health and effectiveness of the team. Individuals can learn how to fully utilize the potential of the team as well as any team issues that should be addressed or could be improved. Perhaps you have been part of a team in which the members were aware of a number of dynamics taking place that were affecting the group but the team leader was not aware of them. Among the topics a leader should understand are the following factors:
• the type of team; • background factors; • the stage of development; and • team processes.
An analysis of the first two of these factors follows in this section. Later in this section, we cover the other two factors.
Types of Teams
Before analyzing additional fac- tors related to team success or failure, the first step is to under- stand the types of teams utilized in organizations. Four of the most common are:
• self-managed work teams; • problem-solving teams; • cross-functional teams;
and • virtual teams.
Each presents potential benefits and challenges to the leader and the overall organization.
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What type of team might this be?
Self-Reflection Questions
1. Both teams and groups share goals. Explain the types of goals that would be associated with a formal group and the types of goals that those in an infor- mal group would seek.
2. Table 7.1 displays the importance of teamwork to a leader and an organi- zation. How would poor or missing teamwork become a detriment to the leader and his or her company?
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
Self-Managed Teams Many leaders find that employees can successfully direct certain types of work. A self- managed work team consists of a group of employees who are assigned managerial responsibilities combined with work tasks. The managerial activities performed by members of self-managed work teams include planning activities, scheduling work, assigning tasks to individual team members, overseeing the pace of work, making on-the-spot decisions, and facilitating some elements of the control function. In some instances self-managed teams conduct internal per- formance evaluations.
Research regarding the effectiveness of self-managed teams has produced mixed findings. Some evidence suggests team members report higher levels of job satisfaction (Cordery, Mueller, & Smith, 1991; van Mierlo, Rutte, Kompier, & Doorewaard, 2005). In other instances, workplace productivity increased as accident rates were reduced in manufacturing settings (Royal, 1999). In contrast, supervisors and other leaders who would lose authority in self- management team settings are logically inclined to resist such a change, viewing the move as a threat to job security.
Self-managed work teams would appear to have better chances for success when employ- ees are well trained and perform more sophisticated jobs. The organization must be able to support the program with rewards for team performance. Firms exhibiting centralization or strong patterns of managerial control at top levels are not the best candidates for such pro- grams. Note that even in self-managed teams leaders become part of the process. A leader will either be designated to take charge or one will emerge in the vacuum that will otherwise appear.
Problem-Solving Teams When members of an organization are placed into groups to examine specific organizational problems or processes, a problem-solving team may emerge. Teamwork occurs when mem- bers are willing to share information, cooperate, and seek to achieve group as well as indi- vidual objectives. Problem-solving teams can at times resemble quality circles and at times project teams. Such teams remain popular for dealing with various organizational issues.
In some instances, a team may be asked to serve only in an advisory role. The team assesses a problem and then reports to a decision maker. These individuals serve as part of an advisory team. Such teams may play additional roles, including at times when they are assigned to provide council to top management or those directing a specific project or activity. Leader- ship of problem-solving teams involves the ability to solicit quality ideas while directing those involved to the best solutions rather than compromises or other less valid approaches.
Cross-Functional Teams A cross-functional team consists of employees from different areas in the company who are assembled to achieve a specific purpose. Combining experts to work on an exciting problem, task, or issue often leads to effective cross-functional teams. Teams can be assigned to develop a new product, such as has been standard practice at Apple Computers for many years.
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
Cross-functional teams at times resemble a task force. Many automobile manufacturers have employed task forces to coordinate complex projects. Harley Davidson relies on collections of individuals from various departments to help manage product lines, including the design of the product, manufacturing, and even contacts with suppliers (Brunetti, 1999).
Note that both problem-solving teams and cross-functional teams often become change teams. These sets of individuals are assigned to tackle specific issues causing problems for an organization or to guide the company to take advantage of a new opportunity. In both instances, the team institutes change.
Virtual Teams Current technology allows members of groups to meet in cyberspace. Virtual teams employ Internet and digital technologies to achieve common goals, such as collaborating, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities. Virtual teams are formed for short- term projects as well as long-range, ongoing issues.
Virtual teams enjoy the advantages of reducing travel costs and allowing people from remote locations to participate (see Figure 7.1). They are flexible in the sense that meetings can be arranged fairly quickly, especially when compared to the necessity to travel to a distant place. Volvo and Lockheed Martin have both made effective use of the advantages of these types of teams (Ante, 2003; Naughton, 2003; Crock, 2003).
Figure 7.1: Virtual teams
Virtual teams employ Internet and digital technologies to achieve common goals.
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
One could argue that a virtual team would be better named a “virtual group.” The reasoning connected to this interpretation would be that virtual collaborations do not take on the ele- ments of trust and member interdependence that are part of the team concept. Three limita- tions to virtual teams have been described, two of which reduce the ability to take on team- like characteristics. First, in virtual meetings, paraverbal and nonverbal cues, such as voice tone and inflection (paraverbal) and eye contact, distance, gestures, and facial expression (nonverbal) cannot as easily be sent or received. This limits the richness of communications between members. Second, socialization will be reduced. As virtual meetings conclude and members adjourn, they cannot remain “in the room” to discuss issues and fraternize. The third problem associated with virtual teams is that members will most likely meet at dif- fering times, depending on location. A meeting that begins at 4:00 in the afternoon in San Diego is taking place at 7:00 p.m. in New York, a time when most people have left the office. International virtual meetings become even more problematic. Leading a team in those cir- cumstances constitutes a greater challenge.
In summary, the four types of teams are prevalent in many of today’s companies. A leader’s efforts can be designed to improve functioning and can assist self-managed teams, problem- solving groups that become teams, cross-functional teams following the same path, and vir- tual teams. We describe other elements of team success next.
Team Background Factors
Not only is it important for leaders to know the types of teams that function within organi- zations, it is also important to know the various background factors that contribute to how teams collectively think and function. Background factors include the internal and external factors that influence the group. These include the history of the team; the mission, goals, and culture of the organization; the team’s purpose and tasks; team member characteristics; and the status of the group. A brief analysis follows.
History A leader should know the background of a group. A new leader would be wise to invest time learning as much as possible about the team by interviewing and getting to know all of the team members. The leader can ask about the manner in which the team was formed, the characteristics of any previous leader, and other elements before deciding how to operate and possibly improve a team.
The Organization’s Mission, Goals, and Culture For a team to be successful, it must to be designed to effectively contribute to the mission, goals, and culture of an organization. Therefore, leaders should become familiar with these factors make sure the team is aligned to best contribute to the success of the organization.
The Team’s Purpose and Tasks The purpose and tasks a group performs need to be clear and designed in the best possi- ble way for the team to perform at a high level. The tasks performed by a team can have
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
a significant impact on its subsequent level of success. Members should have the skill sets needed to complete various assignments. If not, the leader should seek to add new members or address the situation in some other way.
Member Characteristics Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of each team member and how the team members work together is critical information for a leader to discover. Are team members being fully utilized? Do they function well together? Are there problems with or between team members?
The Team’s Status and Influence A highly respected team tends to exhibit confidence and may be more motivated to complete its project or assignment. Members who believe they are perceived in a more favorable light because they belong to a certain team will likely give greater effort and be more willing to support the team’s activities.
Herb Kelleher: Team Building at Southwest Airlines
One of the most influential leaders in the airline industry, Herb Kelleher, is responsible for forming and building a major force: Southwest Airlines. His novel approach to management included a heavy emphasis on team building. Leadership processes were designed for that purpose. “Power should be reserved for weightlifting and boats, and leadership really involves responsibility,” Kelleher once noted (Free Enterprise, 2014, para. 1).
The team-building process begins at the hiring stage. “We will hire someone with less experience, less education, and less expertise, than someone who has more of those things and has a rotten attitude. Because we can train people. We can teach people how to lead. We can teach people how to provide customer service. But we can’t change their DNA.” He adds, “I forgive all personal weaknesses except egomania and pretension” (Free Enterprise, 2014, para. 3, 5).
From there, the company’s culture guides people to share in numerous activities. Early in the company’s development, Kelleher and his management team were guided by the idea that less time spent at the gate meant more time in the air. As a result, when a plane went through a “turnaround,” everyone from the gate agents to the flight captain and all other nearby employees were charged with cleanup and preparation for the next flight. The net result was the ability to add additional flights each day, leading to the ability to lower fares while building profits.
Southwest Airlines has placed a strong emphasis on customer satisfaction. The company works hard to make sure that considerate employees resolve problems on flights such as lost luggage and delays. For years the company’s staff meetings resembled pep rallies. Kelleher notes, “A company is stronger if it is bound by love rather than by fear.” He notes, “One piece of advice that always stuck in my mind is that people should be respected and trusted as people, not because of their position or title” (Free Enterprise, 2014, para. 2, 6).
For years, Herb Kelleher was one of the most sought-after public speakers in the business world. At times he was booked for more than 2 years in advance. Clearly his understanding of the value of teamwork played a vital role in his success as an organizational leader and pioneer (Reingold, 2013; Clow and Baack, 2010).
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1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
Leaders assess these elements and then respond. In the following paragraphs, we discuss how teams develop over time and some of the processes that take place within them. Only with an understanding of this can a leader apply an effective leadership approach.
Stages of Team Development
Now that you have a better understanding of the background factors that comprise individual teams and the types of teams that can develop, it’s important to look at precisely how this developmental process works. Research regarding team interactions indicates that they go through a number of stages of development, and that if they do not devote the adequate atten- tion needed to address one phase, it handicaps them in their efforts at the next stage (Tuck- man, 1965; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Tuckman and Jensen (1997) developed one commonly cited approach used to explain how groups and teams evolve over time. Their model suggests a sequence in which individuals gradually surrender a sense of independence in favor of greater interdependence. While the sequence may not be as precise as the one depicted in Figure 7.2, the figure does provide a general sense of how groups tend to operate.
Figure 7.2: The stages of group development
Communication issues are present at each stage of group development.
1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
Forming Initially, new team members are likely to distrust one another to some extent and to experi- ence feelings of uncertainty. Two behaviors appear in the first stage of development, known as the forming stage. First, members try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. The other will be the first tentative actions of a leader when one has been designated, such as setting a meeting time or agenda, or by those seeking to lead when one has not been appointed. The forming stage ends when sufficient compliance suggests that members see themselves as part of the larger group.
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
Storming Although members now view themselves as part of something, they sometimes disagree with the constraints imposed by the team or simply test to see what the limits are. In the storm- ing stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to discover their place in the group’s structure (Tuckman, 1965). If the leader cannot manage the group successfully, the possibil- ity of subgroups, member procrastination, conflicts between members, and open rebellion emerges. Group survival may be at risk.
Norming The close of the storming stage occurs when the team has firmly established a leader, often through the efforts of another member who challenges the group to come together. Closer relationships build between members, and discussions of power become less emotional and more matter-of-fact. Norms, or rules governing behaviors in the group, begin to emerge. The norming stage is complete when members share a common set of expectations about behav- iors and contributions to the group. As Table 7.2 shows, norms apply to three main areas in both formal and informal groups. In fact, many times norms overlap between the two groups. Norms can be formally or informally sanctioned, with approval or disapproval by group mem- bers. Someone engaged in a pleasant conversation with a supervisor in an organization where the norm is to see management as adversaries will probably be accused of being a “brown noser,” or worse.
Table 7.2: Types of norms
Area of Behavior Example of Norm
Effort Time on the job/overtime
Level of productivity
Sales calls, sales totals, customer follow-ups
Work behaviors Clothes and hairstyle, tattoos and piercings
Use of language, cursing, formality
Obeying or ignoring work rules and procedures
Social behaviors Fraternization between management and labor
Office romances
Norms tend to develop slowly but then become difficult to change. They apply to the work- place more so than to off-work activities. They also apply to behaviors rather than private feelings and thoughts. Members may “go along” with norms they think are foolish, although high-status group members may choose to ignore them. In general, norms summarize group influence processes, including the rules for joining and maintaining membership (Hackman, 1992).
Norms may form around the time people arrive for meetings; how prepared people are for meetings; productivity, attitudes, vocabulary; how problems are dealt with; how decisions
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
are made; and many other dynamics in the team. Team norms may be called other things such as team standards or guidelines (Hackman, 1992).
Norms can provide vital organizational functions when they clarify the group or organiza- tion’s key values and convey a sense of identity. Enforcing norms can assist an individual in either meeting behavioral expectations and/or avoiding making behavioral mistakes. Some authors argue norms help the group or the organization to survive (Feldman, 1984), bearing in mind that counterproductive norms may also emerge that hinder organizational success and limit the leader’s ability to function effectively.
Performing When the team reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving task problems, the performing stage has opened. Open communication takes place between mem- bers as they cooperate with and support one another. Any disputes are handled quickly and constructively (Mason & Griffin, 2005). Ongoing work groups and committees that reach the performing stage remain there unless drastic events interfere. Project teams end when the task is complete. These groups then move to the final stage.
Adjourning Teams that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. These take the forms of parties, official statements of appreciation by company leaders, or even gradua- tions and mock funerals. Individuals resume a stronger sense of independence as the group disbands.
Leaders can assist group functioning at every stage of development. In the forming stage they can make members feel as comfortable as possible and establish basic ground rules. In the storming stage an effective leader works to resolve conflicts and differences of opinion. In the norming stage the leader can make sure that unethical or counterproductive norms do not emerge. In the performing stage, the leader facilitates group activities. In the adjourning stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good work.
Team Processes
Once a team is created, how that team actually functions becomes critical. Team processes refer to how things get done in a team. For example, processes could include the norms that guide the group and the ways in which the team members solve problems, make decisions, and resolve conflicts. Team processes could also include the team’s problem-solving style, the roles team members play, communication patterns among members, the social structure, and the degree of trust among team members.
Team Problem Solving The manner in which members of a team solve problems, make decisions, and resolve con- flicts plays a key role in how effectively the team will function. Unfortunately, these processes
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
tend to develop with little thought given to how they are done or their implications. Effec- tive leaders pay close attention to these processes. It may be helpful to discuss each of these processes with team members and agree on guidelines for how they should be approached. Training in these areas for leaders and perhaps all of the team members can also be helpful.
Team Member Roles A role is the “part” a person plays in a social setting. Teams can be divided into four basic roles. The team leader is the person who has been assigned to direct activities in a formal group or someone who evolves into that role in an informal group. Formal leaders in teams and groups include supervisors, heads of task forces, and committee chairs. Informal leaders might evolve from being the person who picks the restaurant each day for the “lunch bunch,” someone who signs up a group to participate in a bowling league, or an individual who takes charge of a group of employees who are involved in political or religious activities outside of work.
Opinion leaders are the leader’s closest associates. They derive the name from the willingness to express team goals and norms. A person who says, “We need to pay attention to our safety rules,” in an assembly line setting is likely the opinion leader for a work team. A group mem- ber who says, “We just want to have some fun” at a company softball game, when a player gets a little too serious about winning, serves as an informal group opinion leader.
Members in good standing are individuals who become part of the team but do not direct its activities or reinforce group goals or norms. They simply participate in team activities.
The gatekeeper is the individual who decides which people will be included in a group and who will be excluded. Both formal teams and informal groups have gatekeepers. At times the entire group or team decides as a collective—which is known as the “gatekeeping function.”
Table 7.3 displays the productive and unproductive roles team members play. In a healthy team it is likely that all members engage in productive roles. For the unproductive roles, leaders should take care not to call attention to minor unproductive behaviors that anyone could slip into at times. But leaders should address unproductive roles that are disruptive to the team.
A set of factors that can interfere with both the atmosphere present and performance levels includes various issues related to team member roles. The three major forces that can disrupt effective role performance and morale include role conflict, role ambiguity, and role overload.
Role conflict occurs when an individual confronts differing role expectations. An intra-role (within the role) conflict takes place when an employee faces two expectations that are not in agreement. A restaurant server who is told by the leader to give personal, attentive service that makes patrons feel comfortable may also be encouraged to “turn the table over” or get people to leave as quickly as possible, in order to accommodate more guests. Achieving both objectives will be extremely difficult. An inter-role conflict takes place when a role or task performed on the job clashes with personal feelings. The role of attentive parent may conflict with the role of reliable employee, especially when being reliable requires travel, working at night, or long hours away from family (Peterson et al., 1995). An effective leader makes sure these conflicts are effectively resolved.
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
Table 7.3: Constructive and unconstructive team roles
Constructive Roles Unconstructive Roles
Leader Effective leaders clarify objectives and respon- sibilities, ensure that problems are clearly defined and resolved, draw group members into the discussion, work in terms of priorities and results, and motivate group members to use their capabilities.
Sidetrackers Sidetrackers get a group off the subject by bringing up irrelevant information, changing the subject, telling stories, pursuing hidden agendas, joking inappropri- ately, carrying on sideline conversations during meet- ings, or arriving late or leaving early.
Taskmaster Taskmasters keep the group on the task, prevent sidetracking, and assure that tasks are accom- plished on time.
Shotgunner Shotgunners are critical and judgmental, and they continuously put down ideas and people by playing the devil’s advocate.
Human Relations Facilitator Human relations facilitators keep group harmony, relieve tension, encourage and support group members, help reconcile differences, keep com- munication open, show warmth and friendliness, use humor appropriately, and watch over the emotional climate of the group.
Assumer Assumers assume things about people and ideas with- out checking them out.
Perception Checker When appropriate, perception checkers check out their understanding of what others have said, check to see if others have understood them, and occasionally summarize results and check for consensus.
Isolate Isolaters withdraw from the group by being silent, showing disinterest, pouting, looking bored, or refus- ing to participate or cooperate with the group.
Leveler and Confronter Constructive leveling and confronting is used to get issues into the open. It is impossible to have a healthy group without leveling and confronting.
Autocrat Autocrats dominate the group by forcing their own ideas, manipulating and intimidating group members, monopolizing group time, and making unilateral decisions.
Problem Solver Problem solvers attack problems and not people, are good listeners, identify the key issues, explore alternatives, and motivate the group to select the best decision given the realities of a situation.
Problem Maker Problem makers make a habit of disrupting, being poor listeners, creating and looking for problems and seldom having solutions, gossiping, ignoring the chain of command and group policies, rebelling against change or attempts to achieve change, and informally rallying group members to their causes.
Contributor Contributing includes becoming a member of the group by accepting responsibility for one’s behav- ior and its consequences, by getting involved, and by offering ideas and support.
Manipulator Manipulators maneuver people to get their own way and send double messages by saying one thing when they mean another.
Role ambiguity results from lack of clarity about a role. An employee who complains, “I don’t know what it is I’m supposed to be doing,” expresses role ambiguity. It appears when a per- son first begins a position or joins a new organization. Role ambiguity may also material- ize following dramatic changes in the group or in a company, such as when downsizing or restructuring takes place. The individual will be unclear about new job responsibilities. Role
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Section 7.2 What Leaders Need to Know About Teams
ambiguity has been related to both job dissatisfaction and levels of personal stress. It can be reduced through managerial efforts to increase role clarity, such as more specific job instruc- tions, feedback, and coaching by a quality leader.
Role overload comes from being asked to do too much within a role. The person may have been mismatched in the first place, being unprepared to tackle a position or occupation. Oth- ers experience overload when managers place increasing demands on them without allocat- ing sufficient time to accomplish the work. Role overload has been linked to job dissatisfac- tion, stress-related problems, and conflicts with others. Table 7.4 identifies leadership tactics designed to reduce role conflict, role ambiguity, and role overload.
Table 7.4: Reducing role-related problems
Problem Methods
Role conflicts Clear task instructions
Employees only answer to one leader
Socially and morally responsible atmosphere
Role ambiguity Careful selection process
Clear rules and procedures
Goal-setting programs
Specific performance feedback
Quality leader-member relationships
Role overload Match person to job
Assist new or less experienced employees
Help during “crunch time” as needed
Communication Patterns A leader can learn a great deal about a team by observing communication patterns. The desir- able pattern is that communication between team members and the leader as well as with one another is open, considerate, and candid. What is not desirable occurs when individuals communicate primarily with select individuals, when destructive dialogue takes place behind the scenes, when gossip about other team members including the leader routinely can be heard, and when interactions are not respectful.
Social Structure The social structure of a team dictates how members relate to each other and the status of each team member. Is the team like a caring family where they all look out for one another, or perhaps more like a dysfunctional family where there are cliques and high- and low-status members? How does the team leader relate to the team members, and how do they respond back? Imbalances in the social structure such as a lack of socialization, too much socialization,
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Section 7.3 A Systems Approach to Teamwork
significant differences in status, or the emergence of cliques can make it difficult for a team to function effectively. Quality team leaders work to ensure that social patterns are caring and respectful.
Team Trust Trust is essential for team members to work efficiently and effectively together. It emerges from straightforward, fair, and honest dealings among team members who then become able to rely on the efforts and good intentions of others. A lack of trust makes it difficult to accom- plish tasks, as decisions and behaviors are second guessed. Trust is something that is earned and not something that is likely to be the result of experiential exercises.
In summary, an excellent team leader first tries to understand how the people involved oper- ate together. The leader identifies the manner in which the team solves problems. Then, the leader identifies or develops opinion leaders, members in good standing, and how gatekeep- ing takes place. Also, outstanding leaders work to make sure roles are played in a productive manner. From there, team communication patterns and social structure can be studied and team trust can be built.
Self-Reflection Questions
1. Can you think of a situation in which a team would be both cross-functional and virtual at the same time? Explain.
2. Can you think of a situation in which a team would be both problem solving and virtual at the same time? Explain.
3. Of the background factors mentioned in this section, which might pose the greatest challenge to a leader, and which the least? Defend your answer.
4. How might team norms and team roles conflict with each other? 5. What kinds of events or situations could prevent a team from moving into
the performing stage of its development? What should a manager do if that happens?
6. Explain the ways in which distrust can damage a team and what a leader can do to build trust among members with each other and with the leader.
7.3 A Systems Approach to Teamwork
Skilled teamwork rarely happens by chance. People do not automatically become skilled team players. Teams do not automatically perform like high-performance teams simply because they are teams, and it certainly does not always naturally occur to teams to work collabora- tively together for a common purpose. In fact, teams can become myopic in seeing things from their limited perspective and in looking out for their own interest.
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Section 7.3 A Systems Approach to Teamwork
For an organization to function at its best, leaders, and particularly top-level leaders, need to think of teamwork from a systems perspective. This means that they should think of team- work in terms of the whole system and not just in terms of the teams they lead. In other words, there ideally needs to be teamwork at the top, within teams, between teams, and out- side the organization with key stakeholders, and leaders at all levels need to do whatever they can to contribute to teamwork throughout the organization.
Teamwork at the Top
Teamwork should start at the top in order to provide a quality exam- ple. It is hard to preach teamwork if you do not practice teamwork. Note that whatever happens at the top sets the standard for the rest of the organization and is multiplied throughout the orga- nization. Therefore, the top-level team should set an example of leadership and teamwork for the rest of the organization. Ideally, the top-level team should func- tion in a manner that manages the organization well but focuses primarily on leading the organi- zation to success. Unfortunately, many top-level teams are ineffec- tive because they do little to pro- vide an example for others to follow. It becomes the duty of the top-level leader to ensure that teams see a quality model of behavior on a daily basis.
Teamwork Within Teams
Leaders at all levels of an organization should receive training on how to develop effective teams. Building high-performing teams that excel at teamwork is an important part of a leader’s job that requires time and effort. Even a small investment in building teamwork can often pay significant dividends in the performance and morale of a team and avoid many of the team problems and sometimes dysfunctional behaviors that occur when teamwork is left to chance.
Teamwork Between Teams
It takes teamwork between teams as well as within teams for organizations to excel. Unfor- tunately, teamwork between teams is seldom developed in a purposeful way. Consequently,
Rawpixel Ltd/iStock/Thinkstock
Leaders at all levels of an organization need to know how to develop effective and high-performing teams.
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Section 7.3 A Systems Approach to Teamwork
the left hand often does not know what the right hand is doing, and there is little effort to coordinate and synchronize the interdependent activities undertaken by teams. Leaders need to purposefully make efforts to break down walls, barriers, and conflicting goals between teams and to systematically build teamwork between teams and create a “one team” mental- ity throughout the organization.
Teamwork With Stakeholders
Part of an organization’s success is dependent on the relationships and teamwork the orga- nization develops with key stakeholders outside the organization like customers, suppliers, investors, unions, communities, and various partnerships that organizations are now often engaged in. This is another part of a systems approach to teamwork that should not be left to chance but instead directed and guided by the leader.
Other Insights
Two additional insights merit special mention. The first is that you get what you reward, value, and measure. Leaders can talk as much as they want about the importance of team- work and even offer training on how to be a team player and how to build teamwork. If the desired behavior is not rewarded, however, it is not likely to last. For example, leaders may emphasize teamwork, but if it is only individual behavior that is rewarded, most employees will pursue individual efforts. Those who respond to the encouragement to be team players may actually be penalized because of the time invested in teamwork that takes away from individual efforts. The message for leaders is that if they recognize the importance of team- work and want to encourage teamwork, they need to find ways to value, reward, and measure teamwork.
The second insight that leaders should consider is that you cannot have a strong team with weak players. One of the most difficult and challenging responsibilities of leaders is to do everything within their power to get the right people on the team. This means making hiring team members a high priority, and making sure that these individuals know what is expected of them as players. It involves coaching team members about how they are doing as team players and making efforts to develop the skills of weaker members. Table 7.5 lists insights leaders should consider when building teams.
In summary, the systems approach to teamwork requires the leader to examine every possi- ble type of team relationship. It begins with deliberate action at the top of the organization but quickly expands to include those inside the leader’s team, interactions with other teams, and finally with other stakeholders, including those outside of the organization. Effective sys- tematic leaders understand how to reward employees and how to choose members who are most likely to contribute to team success.
Table 7.5: Insights leaders need to know about teams and teamwork
1. To successfully compete in today’s times, organizations need to be skilled at teamwork at the top, within teams, between teams, and outside the organization with key stakeholders.
2. Almost everyone believes that teamwork is essential to the success of organizations and to gaining com- petitive advantage, but few organizations do anything to purposely develop teamwork.
3. You get what you value, reward, and measure. Organizations seldom have a process for valuing and rewarding teamwork and being a team player and often have practices and rewards that discourage teamwork and being a team player.
4. Leaders who know how to build high-performance teams and teamwork will be in high demand in pres- ent and future organizations.
5. You cannot have an A team with C players! An A player is a team member who is committed to the team and contributes significantly to the team. B players are committed to the team and contribute to the team but need experience. They can be valuable members of the team. C players are either not commit- ted, make minimal contributions, or are disruptive to the team and are unwilling or unable to improve. It only takes one C player to derail or handicap a team.
6. Teamwork is so important to the success of organizations that organizations need to make recruiting for teamwork and developing employees into skilled team players a high priority.
7. While teamwork is essential to an organization’s success and can improve performance, the quality of work, products and services, the commitment to decisions, communications, and innovative thinking, and can result in numerous other benefits, it is not suited for all situations. It can be over-utilized as well as under-utilized.
8. All teams do not need to be alike. They need to be designed to fit their particular purpose.
9. Many team-building methods are ineffective at improving the performance of teams. Building a high- performance takes hard and purposeful work and practice.
10. High-performance teams often appear somewhat chaotic, as everyone is engaged and involved and wants to contribute. However, they unite and perform at a high level when things need to get done.
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
the left hand often does not know what the right hand is doing, and there is little effort to coordinate and synchronize the interdependent activities undertaken by teams. Leaders need to purposefully make efforts to break down walls, barriers, and conflicting goals between teams and to systematically build teamwork between teams and create a “one team” mental- ity throughout the organization.
Teamwork With Stakeholders
Part of an organization’s success is dependent on the relationships and teamwork the orga- nization develops with key stakeholders outside the organization like customers, suppliers, investors, unions, communities, and various partnerships that organizations are now often engaged in. This is another part of a systems approach to teamwork that should not be left to chance but instead directed and guided by the leader.
Other Insights
Two additional insights merit special mention. The first is that you get what you reward, value, and measure. Leaders can talk as much as they want about the importance of team- work and even offer training on how to be a team player and how to build teamwork. If the desired behavior is not rewarded, however, it is not likely to last. For example, leaders may emphasize teamwork, but if it is only individual behavior that is rewarded, most employees will pursue individual efforts. Those who respond to the encouragement to be team players may actually be penalized because of the time invested in teamwork that takes away from individual efforts. The message for leaders is that if they recognize the importance of team- work and want to encourage teamwork, they need to find ways to value, reward, and measure teamwork.
The second insight that leaders should consider is that you cannot have a strong team with weak players. One of the most difficult and challenging responsibilities of leaders is to do everything within their power to get the right people on the team. This means making hiring team members a high priority, and making sure that these individuals know what is expected of them as players. It involves coaching team members about how they are doing as team players and making efforts to develop the skills of weaker members. Table 7.5 lists insights leaders should consider when building teams.
In summary, the systems approach to teamwork requires the leader to examine every possi- ble type of team relationship. It begins with deliberate action at the top of the organization but quickly expands to include those inside the leader’s team, interactions with other teams, and finally with other stakeholders, including those outside of the organization. Effective sys- tematic leaders understand how to reward employees and how to choose members who are most likely to contribute to team success.
Table 7.5: Insights leaders need to know about teams and teamwork
1. To successfully compete in today’s times, organizations need to be skilled at teamwork at the top, within teams, between teams, and outside the organization with key stakeholders.
2. Almost everyone believes that teamwork is essential to the success of organizations and to gaining com- petitive advantage, but few organizations do anything to purposely develop teamwork.
3. You get what you value, reward, and measure. Organizations seldom have a process for valuing and rewarding teamwork and being a team player and often have practices and rewards that discourage teamwork and being a team player.
4. Leaders who know how to build high-performance teams and teamwork will be in high demand in pres- ent and future organizations.
5. You cannot have an A team with C players! An A player is a team member who is committed to the team and contributes significantly to the team. B players are committed to the team and contribute to the team but need experience. They can be valuable members of the team. C players are either not commit- ted, make minimal contributions, or are disruptive to the team and are unwilling or unable to improve. It only takes one C player to derail or handicap a team.
6. Teamwork is so important to the success of organizations that organizations need to make recruiting for teamwork and developing employees into skilled team players a high priority.
7. While teamwork is essential to an organization’s success and can improve performance, the quality of work, products and services, the commitment to decisions, communications, and innovative thinking, and can result in numerous other benefits, it is not suited for all situations. It can be over-utilized as well as under-utilized.
8. All teams do not need to be alike. They need to be designed to fit their particular purpose.
9. Many team-building methods are ineffective at improving the performance of teams. Building a high- performance takes hard and purposeful work and practice.
10. High-performance teams often appear somewhat chaotic, as everyone is engaged and involved and wants to contribute. However, they unite and perform at a high level when things need to get done.
Self-Reflection Questions
1. This section suggests that effective teamwork starts at the top. Can you make an argument that, instead, effective teamwork really starts at the bottom? Why or why not?
2. Can you think of situations in which the goals of insiders (within the team) and the goals of outsiders (stakeholders) contradict one another? If so, what should the leader do in those situations?
7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
Team skills are important for all team members but are especially important for leaders. Lead- ers must be able to model being a good team player to have credibility in encouraging others to be good team players. They also need to be skilled at leading teams. Leaders do not have
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
the luxury of being solo players who primarily look out for themselves. They are called lead- ers primarily because of their skills in facilitating the activities and success levels of others.
This section focuses on methods to build high-performance teams. To do so, the first step is to understand the characteristics of them, distinguishing between experiential and action team building. Next the leader should master the skills and activities needed to build high- performance teams. This includes the communication techniques necessary to guide these units. Finally, the leader can focus on the characteristics of effective team members and leaders.
The Characteristics of High-Performance Teams
To purposely build a high-performing team, a leader first needs to know what a high- performance team looks like. How many leaders do you know who have a good understand- ing of the characteristics of a high-performance team and have a plan for building one? It can be helpful for leaders to adopt or develop a model they can use as a guide in building teams that is based on research on teams that perform at a high level. Numerous resources provide models or information leaders can use for this purpose (Wheelan, 2010; Thompson, 2000; Levi, 2011). Table 7.6 displays the characteristics shown and described in the model.
Table 7.6: Characteristics of high-performance teams
1. Structured for results
2. Effective team processes that are continuously improved
3. An atmosphere that brings out the best in the team and team members
4. Excellent performance and morale
5. Quality communication
As you can see in the figure, effective teams are structured for results. This involves focusing members on the task at hand while carefully guiding members away from distracting topics, arguments, and activities. Continuous improvement results when the leader understands the stages of team development, as noted earlier in the chapter, and works to build team processes designed to achieve results. Only then can an atmosphere that brings out the best emerge.
Note that an effective leader must be aware of forces that can disrupt the team. For example, in some instances, extreme declines in individual effort result from the addition of new group members. Social loafing occurs when group members give less effort to a group than they would if working individually. At the extreme, social loafing involves a member taking a free ride and contributing nearly nothing. Social norms offer a method to induce a social loafer to at least provide some effort (Liden & Erdogan, 2003). Effective leaders identify social loafers and work to include and involve them in meaningful and helpful ways.
Excellent performance and morale evolve from the leader’s guidance of the team accompa- nied by the cooperative efforts of those involved. One final characteristic of high team per- formance, quality communication, deserves special attention. Later in this section, we’ll look at the role of team leaders in communicating effectively with teams, especially in meetings.
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
The Differences Between Experiential and Action Team Building
Mention the term “team building” and most people will associate it with a series of experi- ential exercises such as trust walks, trust falls, ropes courses, and a variety of other inside or outside experiences that some enjoy and others would just as soon avoid. When a leader seeks an internal or external professional to help build his or her team into a more effective team, he or she is likely to get a person who specializes in experiential team building.
There are actually at least two major types of team building: experiential team building and action team building. It is important for leaders to understand the differences in the two approaches and the outcomes that can be expected from each, as they have different pur- poses. The primary purpose of experiential team building is to build camaraderie and to help people understand concepts about teams. In other words, experiential team building can be effective in helping people get to know one another and in building team spirit, and it can be effective in portraying valuable concepts about teams. It would be a mistake to think that by conducting experiential team building exercises that a group will suddenly become a high- performance team. Doing a trust walk may provide an understanding of the importance of trust, but actually building trust, like building a team, takes time and actions. Little evidence indicates that experiential team building actually makes teams more effective over the long run, but there is evidence that individual attitudes and team skills may improve (Regan, 2004).
Building a high-performance team takes work and practice, does not happen overnight, and comes primarily from action team building. The primary purpose of action team building is to involve team members in specific actions needed to build an effective team. For example, a team may need to agree on the mission, responsibilities, and goals of the team; the norms the team will operate by; and the responsibilities of each team member. Members may also need to address how they will make decisions and resolve problems and conflicts. Once the team establishes the fundamentals, it takes time, practice, and continuous improvement to build a high-performing team.
In deciding what is needed to build a high-performance team, leaders need to take into account the unique purpose and circumstances of the team involved and if the team needs to be a high-performance team. Some teams need considerable team building and others need very little, if any, team building.
The Essentials of Building High-Performance Teams
An understanding of what it takes to build high-performance teams applies to both new and existing teams, ongoing and temporary project teams, and face-to-face or virtual teams. Both experiential and action team building are options. Still, the actual work of building teams relies primarily on action team building. Figure 7.3 provides a six-step model for building high-performance teams.
Effective teams almost always have effective leaders. No team-building process will replace the need to have a skilled team leader that is committed to building a high-performance team (Caudron, 1994). We’ll describe the skills needed to become a more successful leader at the end of this section.
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1. Effective team leadership
2. Capable and committed team members
3. Team norms that create a climate for excellence
4. A team structure designed for results
5. An organized way to manage and improve team processes
6. An organized way to manage and improve team results
Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
Effective teams also feature capable and committed team members. Team members should be willing to develop the skills needed for the team to excel. They also need to be committed to the success of the team. Even having talented team members will not result in a high- performing team if they are not committed team members and able to work effectively together.
Team norms that create a climate for excellence can greatly enhance outcomes. Team norms that evolve by design or default in a team begin to shape the team culture, practices, and behaviors. Norms can be positive or negative, helpful or harmful, and can have a significant influence on the performance and health of a team. Therefore, it is best for the leader to try to guide the team to develop norms that are most important so that they evolve in helpful ways.
High-performance teams feature a structure designed for results. For teams to function at a high level, they eventually have to agree on the team vision, mission, goals, core values or team norms, the responsibilities of the team and each team member, and how the team is going to meet and function.
An organized way to manage and improve team processes also contributes to eventual out- comes. The first four steps in Figure 7.3 prepare the team for success. The next two steps help the team perform at a high level and to continuously improve as a team. The first of the last two steps is having an organized way to manage and improve team processes. This step in the team-building process is accomplished by a team meeting periodically to evaluate the team and team processes and make any needed improvements.
High-performance teams feature an organized way to manage and improve team results. In addition to improving team processes, teams also need planned ways to improve team results. Teams can accomplish this by meeting on a regularly scheduled basis such as once a month or once a quarter to evaluate progress toward goals and other team measures and make needed adjustments. The team should design the frequency of the meetings to meet their needs.
Additional Considerations When building a high-performance team, leaders should take into consideration several important factors. First, as mentioned previously, the amount and type of team building needed should be tailored to the needs and functions of a particular team. Second, the leader needs to develop a plan for the approach used to develop teams. Some teams may meet several
Figure 7.3: Steps to building high-performance teams
1. Effective team leadership
2. Capable and committed team members
3. Team norms that create a climate for excellence
4. A team structure designed for results
5. An organized way to manage and improve team processes
6. An organized way to manage and improve team results
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
times during the year for a day or more so they can address all of the six steps or other needs. These sessions could be planned to be on-site, off-site, or virtual. Other teams meet for short periods of time such as a few hours and address different parts of the team-building process.
A third consideration involves deciding who will facilitate team-building sessions. The infor- mation in this chapter is designed to help leaders do most of their own team building. There are times when it would be more appropriate to have a professional from inside or outside the organization facilitate the session and possibly do an assessment of the team as well prior to the team improvement session.
A fourth consideration is identifying a process for having individuals or groups follow up on any changes or improvements that need to be made. The process should include a follow- up meeting with a specific date to aim for, such as 1 month, to share the results of follow- up efforts. Accountability for follow-up is crucial to making team-building efforts a valuable investment of time.
Stan Richards: High-Performing Teams and Communication
In 2014, the University of Texas named a major department the Stan Richards School of Advertising and Public Relations. The school bestowed the honor as homage to his lifetime of achievement in the advertising industry as founder and CEO of the Richards Group. The company is the largest independently owned ad shop in the United States, housing more than 650 employees. The firm created many memorable advertising campaigns over the past 30 years, including Chick-fil-A’s famous cows, the alluring Corona beer ads with couples lounging on the beach, and Motel 6’s “We’ll Leave the Light on for You,” to name a few (Helm, 2015).
Richards’s management style includes an emphasis on discipline coupled with the thoughtful assembly of teams and groups. As much as any industry, advertising is driven by teamwork and cooperation between specialists from a wide variety of areas. In the same way that a conductor brings together all of the pieces of an orchestra, Richards directs the activities of individuals holding titles and positions such as creative, media planner, media buyer, account executive, consumer research, and specialists working with social media and new cultural challenges.
Early on, Richards recognized that these unique skills sets must be brought together in ways that generate creativity. He once noted that most advertising agencies begin on a single floor of an office building, which means that these talented individuals work together to develop new ideas, all while resolving differences and conflicts. The energy that emerges from such collaboration represents a key part of the organization’s success.
Then, when the firm grows, Richards commented that many firms begin to separate employees by specialty, with creatives on one floor and media planners and/or buyers on another. At the moment, he argued, the specialties form into “tribes” and often “go to war” as a result. His approach has been to continue to co-mingle specialists in every part of his large office building in Dallas, thereby helping to maintain the much-needed interactions of all team members on a daily basis. Further, staff meetings take place in the stairwells, so that everyone feels part of something larger.
At the same time, Richards insists on professionalism in terms of manner of dress and time on task (Helm, 2015). His management structure does not include the standard hierarchy. Instead, one layer of project managers separates Richards from rank-and-file employees. He continues to carefully direct staff and creative meetings for major accounts. The net result has been a thriving company for more than 30 years, with an impressive list of ongoing clients.
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
Team Meetings: Communication Techniques
We’ve discussed most of the characteristics of a high-performance team previously in the chapter. What we’ve not yet examined is the importance of encouraging results-oriented team meetings. In team meetings, teams share information, make plans, set goals, and address problems and conflicts. Also, decisions are made, training and team building can occur, many cultural norms are formed, and relationships are built. The quality of team meetings can make or break teams.
Research regarding meetings in organizations indicate that meetings are often a waste of time and resources (Bens, 2007). Common complaints include that there are too many, they are too long, and they are unproductive (Lussier & Achua, 2016). For leaders to be more purpose- ful about meetings, they need to consider at least three important factors: (1) whether it is best to have a formal or informal meeting; (2) what it takes to run a successful meeting; and (3) the type of meeting that is best suited for the desired outcome.
Formal Versus Informal Team Meetings Formal meetings are meetings with two or more people that are scheduled for a specific pur- pose. With today’s technology, formal meetings can be face to face or held using a wide variety of technological options. Informal meetings are impromptu meetings with two or more peo- ple. These meetings are typically quickly called to address issues, or they can be unannounced drop-in type meetings. They can be effective for addressing issues, giving positive feedback, seeking ideas, or informing people of important information. The first issue the leader con- siders is which type of meeting effectively suits the communication purpose.
Keys to Successful Team Meetings People spend an increasing amount of time in meetings as they move up in an organization. Many of these meetings are ineffective, which means that organizations are utilizing valuable time and money for unproductive activities. Effective meetings require thought and careful planning. Some keys to successful meetings include the following ideas.
First, consider the purpose and best approach for the meeting. Evaluate the purpose of the meeting; the best approach to reach the desired objective; and the best setting in terms of time, place, or technology involved.
Second, decide who should attend. Choosing those who should attend is an important deci- sion. When little thought is given to meetings, people who do not need to be there are some- times required to attend and those who should be there get overlooked.
Third, prepare people for the meeting. When people come unprepared for a meeting, it lim- its what the meeting can accomplish. Sending the right information and the right amount of information prior to a meeting is an important decision. Participants typically need to be made aware of the purpose, agenda, and objectives of the meeting. It may also be appro- priate to send other pertinent information or to make specific assignments in preparing for meetings.
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
Fourth, make meetings as useful, brief, interesting, and positive as possible. It is important to consider that time is precious to you and others and that you should make attending meet- ings worth the time people are giving to you. Try to make meetings as productive and timely as you can. It is also helpful to consider ways to make meetings as interesting and positive as possible. Think about how many meetings you dread going to because they are boring and tedious and have a tendency to focus on the negative or negative approaches to resolving issues. Leaders should be creative in finding ways to make meetings interesting and learn to focus on the good things that are happening, not just the bad, and should do their best to turn difficulties into opportunities to be innovative in addressing issues.
Fifth, the leader should start the meeting by establishing a clear purpose and process. Unless it is self-evident, it is usually helpful to start meetings by making clear the purpose, and where appropriate, clarifying the agenda or process being used and any ground rules that would help the process.
Sixth, the leader should provide opportunities for people to be involved and engaged. Not everyone needs to have things to say in every meeting. Leaders should make mental checks periodically to assure that team members are involved and engaged.
Seventh, a leader should help members learn from meetings and consider ways to improve them. This includes taking the time to periodically involve team members in considering ways to improve meetings.
Eighth, a leader makes sure that any needed follow-up is clear. Follow-up can make or break the value of meetings. Even a great meeting without needed follow through is of little use. If follow-up is needed, it should be clear regarding who is going to do what, and there should be accountability for doing what people committed to do.
Ninth, and finally, where appropriate, the leader should assign someone to keep a record of the meeting. In cases where it is appropriate to do so, formal or informal notes need to be kept on what took place in the meeting, the decisions that were made, and the follow-up that has been assigned.
Types of Meetings Leaders can get into the habit of having a regular meeting for all purposes, such as meeting every Monday morning from 8:00 to 9:00. But not all meetings have to be the same. Leaders can use a variety of meetings for different purposes approached in different ways. For exam- ple, leaders can design information meetings to be quick and to the point. Some use stand-up meetings and set time and format guidelines to assure the meetings are brief.
Decision-making and problem-solving meetings should have a clear statement of purpose, an agenda, and objectives. Leaders can approach them in a variety of ways such as using break- out groups to generate ideas or solutions.
Leaders should set aside time for occasional team improvement meetings in which the group evaluates what is working well or could be improved in the team. Prior to the session, it may be helpful to have team members anonymously complete a questionnaire that generates information about the team that can be used in the session.
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Section 7.4 Building High-Performance Teams
Social/developmental meetings are important to the vitality of a team. Even teams that are functioning well can become stale if they do not have opportunities for socializing and train- ing and development time. One top-level team at a division of Hewlett Packard appointed a member of the team for each quarter who was in charge of “fun and development” for the team. One team member arranged for an all-day ski trip. Another brought in a speaker to provide training on a topic useful to the team.
Quality leadership involves identifying the type of meeting that is in order. Then the leader creates a format and agenda that will facilitate the meeting’s purpose. At the conclusion, an effective leader analyzes whether the meeting achieved its intention or if changes and improvements will be required. Remember that team communication is like glue: It is what holds the entire process together.
Team Player Skills
Most people at work participate on multiple teams, some of which they lead and some of which they are a team member. Being a skilled team player is a good way to set yourself apart and add value to teams (Sarin & O’Connor, 2009). Teams need team members who have a strong commitment to the team, are easy to work with, help keep the team focused and get things done, and can be counted on to keep their commitments.
Team Leadership Skills
This entire chapter is designed to prepare leaders to be skilled team leaders. There are a num- ber of common roles that good leaders play in leading teams. In addition to this chapter, there are many resources available that can guide leaders in being skilled team leaders (Lorinkova, Pearsall, & Sims, 2013; LaFasto, Frank, & Larson, 2001; Dyer, Dyer, & Dyer, 2013). Basically, however, team leadership skills include the items you see in Table 7.7.
Table 7.7: Team leadership skills
Provide vision, direction, and inspiration
Structure the team for results with the right people in the right places doing the right things
Establish effective team processes
Develop a high-performance team atmosphere
Plan results-oriented meetings
Achieve the desired results
Develop the team into a high-performance team
Evaluate and improve the health of the team
Motivate, coach, and inspire team members to be their best
Pave the way for the team and team members to get things done
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Chapter Summary
Chapter Summary
A Brief History of the Study of Groups and Teams A group consists of two or more people gathered or classified together with a common pur- pose. Groups can be formal or informal. Formal groups are established to allow members to work together to accomplish a given outcome. Informal groups emerge among individuals with common interests. A team has two or more people working together for a common purpose with interdependent roles and complementary skills.
What Leaders Need to Know About Teams The first step a leader takes is to understand the types of teams utilized in organizations. Four of the most common are:
• self-managed work teams;
• problem-solving teams;
• cross-functional teams; and
• virtual teams.
Each presents potential benefits and challenges to the leader and the overall organization.
Next, the leader assesses the background factors including the internal and external fac- tors that influence the group. These include the history of the team; the mission, goals, and culture of the organization; the team’s purpose and tasks; team member characteristics; and the status of the group.
Self-Reflection Questions
1. Which characteristic of high-performing teams do you believe is the most vital? Explain why.
2. A poorly run meeting of a team can lead to conflict and dysfunction. Explain what you as a leader would do to make sure this does not happen.
3. Can you make an argument that becoming a good team player represents the starting point to becoming an effective team leader? Explain your answer.
In summary, building high-performance teams constitutes a painstaking and ongoing pro- cess. The leader must first understand what makes up such a collection of people and then undertake a series of activities in order to help the team achieve. Communication continues to be the cornerstone of quality team leadership. High-performance teams result from the efforts of individuals who understand how to be effective team players as well as leaders.
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Chapter Summary
The stages of team development include:
• forming;
• storming;
• norming;
• performing; and
• adjourning.
An effective leader addresses each stage with due consideration, taking steps to make sure members adjust to and thrive in those circumstances. Quality leadership helps mem- bers understand their roles and overcome any tendency to become unproductive or suf- fer from role conflict, ambiguity, or overload. Team trust represents another important consideration.
A Systems Approach to Teamwork Ideally there needs to be teamwork at the top, within teams, between teams, and outside the organization with key stakeholders, and leaders at all levels need to do whatever they can to contribute to teamwork throughout the organization.
Building High-Performance Teams Leadership involves understanding the characteristics of high-performing teams. They include:
• being structured for results;
• effective team processes that are continuously improved;
• an atmosphere that brings out the best in the team and team members;
• excellent performance and morale; and
• quality communication.
For leaders to be more purposeful about meetings, they need to consider at least three important factors: whether it is best to have a formal or informal meeting; what it takes to run a successful meeting; and the type of meeting that is best suited for the desired outcome.
Finally, working with teams and groups involves two types of skills. The first is being an effective member. The second involves being an effective team leader.
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Key Terms formal group Type of group that is estab- lished to allow members to work together to accomplish a given outcome.
group Two or more people gathered or classified together with a common purpose; can be formal or informal.
informal group Type of group that emerges among individuals with common interests.
norms Rules governing behaviors in a group.
role The “part” a person plays in a social setting.
social loafing Phenomenon that occurs when group members give less effort to a group than they would if working individually.
team Two or more people with a common purpose, interdependent roles, and comple- mentary skills.
Leadership Applications and Tools
Leadership Exercises
1. Shari loves lunch. Each day she takes a few minutes to send texts to her friends on the job to make sure they all agree on a restaurant to attend. She carefully avoids sending a message to Marcus, as he can be a little bit pushy and dominate conversation to the point that no one else has a good time. The “lunch bunch” agrees and carefully avoids letting him know their plans.
Which two group roles is Shari playing? What type of group is involved? 2. Can a self-managed team become a quality problem-solving team? Consider the follow-
ing situations and develop a response:
• a firm about to go through major downsizing—team to decide who will be laid off • a company on the cusp of dramatic growth—team to decide on whether to
expand internationally • a set of employees on a production line for a customized product where several
defective items have been detected • a group of employees assigned to deal with a series of unsatisfied customers
3. The recent Ebola crisis led to a series of teams assigned to help assist in solving the dilem- mas the disease created. Describe the type of team that would most effectively deal with the following situations, along with the key leader activities that team would require.
• team to decide whether travelers to affected areas should be quarantined • team providing medical treatment to those affected in rural African areas • team providing medical treatment to those who returned to the United States
with the infection • team dedicated to setting policies for future epidemic outbreaks
4. Lloyd has the reputation of being the company’s biggest slacker. He keeps his job because he is the nephew of the firm’s owner. Whenever he is assigned to a team, Lloyd
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always manages to do the least amount possible, if anything at all. Most of the time this is not a problem, as the other members pick up the load. Unfortunately, Lloyd is cur- rently assigned to the company’s benefits committee. He is an accountant and holds the type of information needed to decide which benefits the organization can and cannot afford.
What term in this chapter was used to describe someone like Lloyd? If you were the team leader of the benefits committee, what tactics would you use to inspire him to contribute in meaningful ways?
5. Maria has just been assigned to lead a task force investigating the cause of a major fire that damaged a company’s main plant. In her first organizational meeting, she notices that two individuals placed on the team appear to love to “pontificate.” She concludes that they enjoy hearing the sounds of their own voices but don’t appear to be overly concerned with discovering the cause of the fire or creating protocols to make sure this does not occur in the future. What should Maria do to make team meetings run more smoothly without undue interruptions and unnecessary speech-a-fying?
6. Some argue that individuals with high levels of skill often make poor leaders when managing others to perform the same activity, such as a highly successful salesperson becoming a sales manager or a highly talented IT expert being asked to lead a com- pany’s technology department.
7. Do you believe such a generality is true? Defend your answer. 8. If you were asked to help train such an individual (highly skilled but poor leader) to
become an effective leader, what specific skills would you try to instill in that individ- ual? Explain.
Applications and Tools There are a few tools that leaders need when developing high-performance teams. One par- ticularly helpful tool is a questionnaire that leaders can use to evaluate the effectiveness and realities of a team. Here are questionnaires that can help you do just that.
1. Complete the following to help you assess teamwork in an organization.
Assessing Teamwork in an Organization Instructions: After considering each statement about your organization, rate your organization on a 10-point scale considering 10 the highest rating and 1 the lowest. Total your points to determine the overall rating of your organization on how effective it is at teamwork and team building. Then list the major strengths and opportuni- ties for improvement of your organization regarding teamwork and team building. Please use the following scale in selecting your ratings:
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Leadership Applications and Tools
Low Rating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High Rating
1. _____ My organization has a strong commitment to developing teamwork through- out the organization.
2. _____ My organization does a good job of training leaders on the importance of teamwork and on how to build high-performance teams.
3. _____ My organization excels at teamwork throughout the organization. 4. _____ The top-level leaders function like an effective high-performance team. 5. _____ Teamwork within groups throughout the organization is at a high level. 6. _____ Teamwork between groups that impact one another throughout the organi-
zation is at a high level. 7. _____ Teamwork between my organization and outside people and organizations
that affect my organization is at a high level. 8. _____ Being a team player in my organization is recognized and rewarded. 9. _____ My organization is designed to encourage, value, and reward teamwork.
10. _____ From a teamwork perspective, my organization is a great place to work and is a great place to do business with.
_____ TOTAL POINTS
Organization Teamwork and Team-Building Effectiveness Scale
A = 90–100 B = 80-89 C = 70–79 D = 60–69 F = 59 and below
Major Organization Strengths Major Organization Opportunities for Improvements
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Low Avg. High
Structure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. The team leader provides vision, direction, and inspiration.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. The team has a clear mission.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. The responsibilities of the team and each team member are clear.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. The team has clear goals.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. The team is effectively organized to achieve the best possible results.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. The team does the necessary planning to be effective.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. The team is effective at following through on goals, projects, and commitments.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. The team has the necessary resources, support, and control to succeed.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. The team operates with minimal red tape and bureaucracy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. The potential of the team and each team member is fully utilized.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. The team is flexible and responds quickly to needed changes.
Processes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. The team leader encourages participation and involvement.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. All team members have a strong commitment to the success of the team.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. All team members are committed team players.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. Team members feel free to be candid and commu- nicate openly.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. Ideas are critiqued in a positive way by attacking problems and not people.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. All team members use a style that encourages effective problem solving.
2. Complete the following team-building questionnaire based on the characteristics of a high-performance team discussed in the chapter.
Team Building Questionnaire Instructions: On each item below, circle the number that best represents how you would rate your team. Consider 1–3 a low rating, 4 an average rating, and 5–7 a high rating. Circle only one number for each statement. It is very important that you express your observations honestly and objectively so an accurate profile can be devel- oped. Total your points to discover the type of team you have.
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Low Avg. High
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. Problems and conflicts are openly discussed and resolved.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. Team members may disagree but are united once decisions are made.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. Team members are valued and rewarded for their efforts.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21. The team has an excellent relationship with other teams in the organization.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22. Time is taken periodically to evaluate and improve the team.
Culture
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. The team has a sense of vitality, enthusiasm, and team spirit.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. Team members work well together and support and encourage each other.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25. An atmosphere of trust exists among the team members.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 26. The team has an environment that encourages innovative ideas and constant improvement.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 27. The team has an environment that is warm, friendly, and fun.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 28. The team encourages and supports state-of-the- art training and personal development.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 29. The team fully utilizes the talents of each team member.
Meetings
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 30. The team meetings are well designed to be useful and productive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 31. A variety of meetings are held to involve team members in sharing ideas.
Results
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 32. The team is very successful at achieving the desired results.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33. Team morale is high.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 34. The team excels at being customer driven and service oriented.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 35. The team produces high-quality work.
High Performance = 193–224 Good = 160–192 Average = 129–159 Below Average = 96–127 Weak = 32–95
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3. The following provides guidelines and examples of team norms and a form for struc- turing a team for results.
Understanding Team Norms Norms are patterns of behavior and attitudes that emerge in teams. The patterns can be positive or negative, helpful or harmful, and can have a significant influence on the performance and health of a team. For example, a norm could be that team members show up for meetings on time or are perpetually late. A norm could be that commu- nication is open and straightforward or closed and guarded. Norms tend to form by default but should be developed by design. They can be developed by design by brain- storming the ideal norms for the team and then selecting a few meaningful norms that would help the team and team members excel. In writing norms, keep in mind that too many norms or bland norms are quickly forgotten.
Examples of Possible Team Norms
• All team members contribute to the success and morale of the team. • Be a positive, dependable, and supportive team player. • Be a source of harmony and not disharmony. • Be part of the solution and not part of the problem. • Have clear agendas and productive and results-oriented meetings. • Be prepared and on time with your work. • Be straightforward and considerate in accomplishing work and resolving issues. • Treat everyone with respect. • Act openly and honestly and don’t undermine your team or teammates. • Encourage innovative, breakthrough thinking and ideas. • Encourage open and lively dialogue but unity once decisions are made. • Follow through. Do what we say we will do. • Keep your commitments. • Keep things clear and simple. • Be willing to identify and proactively and quickly resolve issues. • Attack problems and not people. • Ask for help when help is needed. • Don’t participate in guerilla warfare.
Team Strengths Team Opportunities
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Maintaining Team Norms Team norms need to be maintained to realize the payoffs of developing norms by design. There are several ways this can be accomplished. For example, the team should periodically compare present practices with the team norms. It is also possible to turn the norms into a questionnaire that can be used to survey team members. However, the most important method is to agree on a process for confronting frequent or significant breeches in the norms.
4. The following is a form that a team can use to address team essentials such as the team mission, team leader and team member responsibilities, team norms, team meeting and communication processes, team goals, and the team process for handling problems and conflicts.
Outlining Core Team Principles: Structuring the Team for Results
Team Name: Team Leader:
Team Members:
Team Mission (Purpose)
Team Leader Role (Responsibilities)
Team Member Role (Responsibilities)
Team Responsibilities
Team Norms
Team Meetings and Ways of Communicating
Type of Meeting Ways of Communicating Frequency
Team Goals
Goals Target Date Goal Leader
Team Process for Handling Team Issues
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