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7Work and Family Balance

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

ሁ Outline the social and economic factors that have redefined family roles over the past half-century. ሁ Describe the variables that play a role in work-life balance. ሁ Analyze policies of family-friendly workplaces. ሁ Evaluate strategies for achieving work-life balance. ሁ Describe the unique challenges that impact military families.

Section 7.1The Evolution of the Working Family

Introduction In the United States, most adults must work and simultaneously meet a variety of family responsibilities, including caring for and educating children. Some families must also care for elderly parents and accommodate adult children who move back home. The term sandwich generation has been coined to describe parents who are raising their children while simulta- neously caring for their own parents; they are sandwiched between two sets of expectations and pressures from younger and older relatives.

This chapter focuses on the challenges of working families, including balancing job and fam- ily responsibilities, making sure children receive appropriate and affordable care, and finding family-friendly workplaces. We will examine strategies families can use to manage their time and financial resources. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of the unique experience of military families as they strive to achieve a balance between work and family life.

7.1 The Evolution of the Working Family To achieve a big picture understanding of today’s working families, it is important to con- sider their historical context. Prior to the social movements of the 1960s, the American working family was one in which the father would earn the living, whether it was on the farm, in a factory, as a craftsman, or another occupation, and the mother would care for the children and the home. It was the norm for women to remain at home until the youngest child graduated from high school (Bianchi et al., 2006). Then they might seek paid employ- ment outside the home, especially in teaching, nursing, and secretarial work. Although women were deployed throughout the wartime economy during World War II, while men were away and factories needed workers, they largely returned to their prewar roles in the late 1940s and 1950s.

As American schools, early childhood programs, and other community child, youth, and fam- ily agencies developed and expanded from the late 1800s through the 1960s, they tended to design their services around this model of family organization. For example, schools expected mothers to volunteer during the day, attend meetings and conferences often during tradi- tional work hours, and become actively involved in parent–teacher associations. In modern society, few working parents are available during the day to participate in school activities. However, the system has yet to be updated to accommodate parents’ schedules, making it dif- ficult for them to tend to both their family and work life. In this section, we examine the social and economic factors that resulted in a new family structure in which most parents work to support their family and traditional roles are called into question.

Dual-Earner Families: Social and Economic Forces The second half of the 20th century produced a myriad of social, cultural, economic, and polit- ical changes in the United States and around the world that dramatically altered the tradi- tional, two-parent family. Key social and legal changes included the following:

• People began to delay marriage and have fewer children. • The counterculture of the 1960s challenged traditional American values, including

marriage, the traditional family structure, and the requirement for women to marry before having children.

Section 7.1The Evolution of the Working Family

• The sexual revolution of the 1960s celebrated the separation of sexual activity from its role within marriage and procreation.

• The federal Head Start program was created, and working fami- lies had more child care and early childhood options, freeing moth- ers from the necessity of choos- ing between family and work.

• The Civil Rights Movement and the Women’s Movement of the 1960s and 1970s expanded minorities’ and women’s options for attending college, and increased employment options through federal laws and pro- grams. These include: — Title VII of the Civil Rights Act

of 1964, which outlawed employment discrimination based on race, color, reli- gion, sex, or national origin;

— Affirmative Action programs, which gave non-White applicants and women spe- cial consideration in school admissions, hiring, and federal contracts; and

— The Equal Pay Act of 1963, which protected men and women performing sub- stantially equal work in the same place from sex-based wage discrimination.

• The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of legalizing the birth control pill and other forms of contraception for all married couples (1965), and legalized abortion in all 50 states (1973).

• No-fault divorce laws were passed in all states, starting with California in 1969.

Coupled with the social and legal changes were several key economic developments that called into question traditional roles within families. The passage of free-trade agreements, such as NAFTA in 1994, encouraged a more globalized economy, and resulted in the emer- gence of China, India, and Brazil as fierce competitors to U.S. labor markets. By outsourcing factory work to developing countries that pay their workers less, U.S. business and industry shifted away from manufacturing to a more information- and service-based economy, requir- ing better-educated workers. Many of these developments occurred in tandem with the com- mercialization of the Internet in 1995. To develop its white-collar workforce, American school systems have shifted from preparing students for a variety of vocational and professional options to an approach that focuses mainly on college preparation.

The combination of these social, legal, and economic changes produced two fundamental developments in the American workplace: (1) a vast increase in the number of women in the workplace and (2) an increase in the number of dual-earner families (Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2001), in which married or cohabiting couples (with or without children) both work, either full time or part time. As employers were no longer legally allowed to dis- criminate in favor of male breadwinners, more women flooded into the job market. In fact, by 2010 women represented 46.7% percent of the United States labor force, and 71.9 million women were employed or looking for work (U.S. Department of Labor, 2010).

Underwood Archives/Underwood Photo Archives/Superstock ሁ One of the achievements of the Civil Rights

Movement was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which expanded the availability of education and employment for minorities and women in America.

Section 7.1The Evolution of the Working Family

Today, more women than men graduate from high school, go on to college, and complete col- lege degrees (Peter, K., & Horn, L. n.d.). Thus, in ever more working families, the woman is more educated than the man and often can earn a better income. This has led to a shift in household incomes and an increase in the number of stay-at-home fathers (Amato, et al., 2003; Pew Research Center, 2014a; Swanson, 2008).

Work and Parenting: Then and now Since the 1960s, there has been a dramatic shift in the way mothers and fathers spend their time. As shown in Figure 7.1, mothers do almost three times as much paid work as they did in 1965, although they are still surpassed by fathers who do nearly 15 more hours of paid work each week. And while fathers do more housework and caretaking than they did five decades ago, mothers still do twice as much.

Figure 7.1: changes in parents’ roles over time

Source: “Modern Parenthood,” Pew Research Center, Washington, DC (March, 2013). Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/03/14/modern- parenthood-slideshow/modernparenthood-slideshow_002/

In general, dual-earner mothers and fathers are spending more time with their children. Bianchi and colleagues (2006) determined that between 1965 and 2000, total parental time with children, including direct child care and recreational activities, increased from 21 to 33 hours for married fathers, and 47 to 51 hours for married mothers. The researchers cited several reasons for this increase:

1. In dual-earner families, men increased the amount of time engaged in chores and child care activities;

2. Parents decreased the amount of time spent doing housework and household chores between 1965 and 2000, while increasing the time spent multitasking;

3. Parents and children spent far more time together when the parents were not work- ing than they did in 1965; and

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9.8

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Section 7.2Challenges of Working Families

4. Parents spent more time with their children in 2000 at the expense of time alone, time with each other, time with friends, and time doing a variety of civic activities (Bianchi, S., Robinson, J., Milkie, M., 2006).

While dual-earner mothers and fathers spend more of their time parenting, single mothers spend less time with their children. As Figure 7.2 illustrates, total parenting time for single mothers decreased from 50 to 44 hours between 1965 and 2000. Bianchi and colleagues (2006) determined that lack of support with non-child-related activities, such as household chores, was one cause for this decrease. The implementation of the 1996 federal Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, better known as the Welfare Reform Act, may also explain why single mothers spend less time with their children. The legislation required parents receiving welfare to seek employment and limited the amount of time a mother could receive welfare payments. These reforms resulted in an increase in the number of single, working mothers (Longley, n.d.). To learn more about this legislation, visit http:// www.welfareinfo.org/reform/.

Figure 7.2: Total parenting time in 1965 vs. 2000

Source: Based on Bianchi, S. M., Robinson, J. P., & Milkie, M. A. (2006). Changing rhythms of American family life. New York, NY: Russell Sage.

During their study, Bianchi and colleagues (2006) asked parents how they felt about their ability to budget their time. About 50% of parents felt they were not spending enough time with their children, and about 60% felt they did not spend enough time with a spouse. In addi- tion, 50% of fathers and 75% of mothers felt they did not have enough time for themselves. When it came to work-life balance, 20% of parents believed they were sacrificing family life for work, while between 30% and 40% felt they sacrificed work for their family (Bianchi et al., 2006). Despite these challenges, researchers noted that contemporary parents (including single mothers) expressed satisfaction in spending time with their children.

7.2 challenges of Working Families Given the demands on their time, it is not surprising that contemporary parents and caregiv- ers struggle to simultaneously meet the needs of their families while working to support them financially. When parents struggle, their family’s well-being suffers, which in turn can affect

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Section 7.2Challenges of Working Families

a wide variety of factors. These include overall physical and psychological health of a fam- ily, high levels of self-esteem, a sense of power, and an internal locus of control. (Recall from Chapter 2 that an internal locus of control is a sense that the outcome of an action is the result of one’s own abilities and efforts, as opposed to external locus of control, in which a person perceives the outcome of an action as the result of luck, chance, or powerful forces beyond his or her control.) (Crandell, Crandell, & Zanden, 2012). Family well-being often encompasses good physical and mental health, few behavior and discipline problems with children, strong social support, high marital quality and stability (in two-parent families), and positive par- ent–child relationships (Barnett, 2008; Conger & Donnellan, 2007; McLoyd, Aikens, & Burton, 2006). In the following sections, we will take a closer look at some of the major factors that impact family well-being. These include enduring financial pressures, achieving job satisfac- tion, and weighing child care options.

maintaining Financial Stability The employment of family members is central to the role of parenting and the health of a family. Socioeconomic status can have a major impact on family well-being and children’s healthy growth, development, and learning (Rothstein, 2008). Since the 1970s, the United States has weathered several recessions that have made it difficult for working families to perform essential tasks, or family functions, to meet the basic needs of the children and other family members. These basic needs include housing, food, transportation, health care, child care, and other necessities (Bernstein & Lin, 2008). The inability to provide for basic family needs can lead to a variety of outcomes, including food insecurity, homelessness, more fre- quent cohabitation with significant others, extended family, and friends, and young families returning to live with their parents.

According to Bernstein and Lin (2008), the cost of caring for a family with two adults and two children, differs greatly across the country (see Figure 7.3). However on average, a two- parent, two child family requires $48,778 to meet their basic needs described above (Bern- stein & Lin, 2008). In the United States, 30% of American families have an income below this level and struggle to maintain financial stability (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010a).

Figure 7.3: cost of caring for a family with two adults and two children, 2008

Source: Bernstein, J., & Lin, J. (2008, October 29). What we need to get by: A basic standard of living costs $48,778, and nearly one-third of families fall short. Economic Policy Institute Report Briefing Paper #224. Retrieved from http://www.epi.org/publication/bp224/

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Section 7.2Challenges of Working Families

Unemployment and insufficient employment (also known as underemployment) places fam- ilies under great economic and emotional stress. Its effects are less severe for two-parent working families, when only one parent is unemployed or underemployed. Results of parent unemployment, according to Hanisch (1999) and Voydanoff (1983), include the following:

• Increased family tension and instability • Increased levels of family violence • Increased mental health problems

Research also suggests that the men are more likely than women to experience mental health problems as a result of unemployment. This can be traced in part to men’s traditional role as the primary family provider (although this is changing, as we have noted) and the fact that men are traditionally less involved with caring for the children, a role that may offset the negative stress of unemployment (Artazcoz, L., Benach, J., Borrell, C., & Cortes, I., 2004).

Achieving Job Satisfaction While financial stability is a major factor in establishing work-life balance, feeling satisfied with one’s job is also important. Job status, job complexity, and job autonomy are all fac- tors in job satisfaction. Individuals with job status feel important at work and enjoy a certain level of prestige within their organization. Those with job complexity feel that their work is challenging and stimulating. Finally, people with job autonomy experience high levels of self- direction, control, and independence. College teachers, company managers or directors, entrepreneurs, and self-employed individuals usually have a lot of job autonomy built into their work.

Job satisfaction is important not only for the individual parent’s well-being but also correlates strongly with a family’s well-being. When a family member struggles at work, other family members can be indirectly affected. If a family member’s work environment does not sup- port quality family life (such as requiring the mother to travel out of town frequently), then family well-being is adversely impacted. However, the level and nature of the impact depends on the external support the family receives (e.g., grandparents able to care for children when needed) and the level of family communication, cohesion, flexibility, and independence/inter- dependence (see Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory in Chapter 3).

Another factor that leads to greater job satisfaction is working in a family-friendly workplace. As we address later in this chapter, more companies are beginning to establish family-friendly

P A u S E A n D R E F l E c T: U N E M P L O y M E N T A N D T H E F A M I L y Click on the following link to watch interviews with adults and the children of unemployed parents: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GuIMZ818WG0.

Reflection Questions 1. How are the parents’ economic difficulties affecting their children? 2. How has unemployment changed the children’s image of their parents? 3. What emotional reactions are the adults having? 4. Describe the vicious cycle that can start when a parent becomes unemployed.

Section 7.2Challenges of Working Families

workplaces and policies. Many developed countries, such as France, Norway, and Sweden, already provide far more generous family leave policies than do American companies and government agencies, even going so far as to offer taxpayer-funded child care and universal preschool (Wardle, 2013b).

Weighing child care options Another challenge parents and caregivers face is ensuring that their children receive ade- quate care while they are at work. Child care can be prohibitively expensive, so families must choose carefully and often come up with creative solutions. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, “families rely on a patchwork of child care services to meet their work and family needs” (2013a). Figure 7.4 outlines the different care options utilized by families with young children. Parents and relatives, including grandparents and siblings, provide nearly half of the child care, while day care centers, nursery schools, preschools, and Head Start programs make up another 25%. The remainder is made up of more informal, non-family arrangements. In the following sections, we will take a closer look at stay-at-home parenting, organized facility options, and extended-day programs.

Figure 7.4: Who’s minding the kids?

Source: U.S. Census Bureau https://www.census.gov/library/infographics/child_care.html

Stay-at-Home Parenting While stay-at-home parenting is a choice for some, for many it is a purely economic decision. Families often rely on the income of both parents to maintain financial stability, making it

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Relatives 27%

25%

49% Parents and relatives

make up half of all preschool child care

arrangements

One in five relatives who provided care was a grandparent

22%

13%

Organized facilities

Parents

Other nonrelative

Other

DEFINITIONS Relatives—grandparents, siblings, and other relatives Organized Facilities—day care or child care centers, nursery schools, preschools, and Head Start programs. Parents—fathers who provided care while the mother worked or mothers who provided care while working. Other nonrelative—in-home babysitters, neighbors, friends, and family day care homes. Other nonrelative—in-home babysitters, neighbors, friends, and family day care homes. Other—school, self-care, and not regular arrangement.

Section 7.2Challenges of Working Families

impossible for one of them to stay home. However, in some situations it makes financial sense for one parent to stay home in order to avoid paying expensive child care costs.

The question then becomes: Who stays home? When making this decision, couples usually consider earning ability, chances for career advancement, or a disability of one of the par- ents (Pew Research Center, 2014a). An employer’s benefits package can also be a factor in the decision, especially if the family has a child with a disability who requires medical and therapeutic support. Other considerations include family-friendly workplaces (see section 7.3), proximity of work to the home, and other variables.

In most cases, the mother is the stay-at-home parent. The U.S. Census Bureau (2010a) esti- mates that 5.6 million American women choose to forgo careers and jobs in order to stay home and raise their children, and the Pew Research Center (Patten, 2014) has reported that significantly more women than men interrupt their careers to tend to family members (see Figure 7.5). However, as parental roles continue to change, more fathers are relinquish- ing employment and becoming the primary caretakers. In 2012, 2 million fathers worked inside the home caring for their children under age 18, nearly twice as many as in 1989 (Pew Research Center, 2014a). This figure represents 16% of stay-at-home parents in 2012.

Figure 7.5: career interruptions by mothers and fathers

Source: “On Equal Pay Day, key facts about the gender pay gap,” Pew Research Center, Washington, DC (April, 2015) http://www.pewresearch.org/fact- tank/2015/04/14/on-equal-pay-day-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-gender-pay-gap/.

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Fathers

Mothers, more than Fathers, Experience Career Interruptions

percent saying they have . . . in order to care for a child or family member

Reduced work hours 42

24 Taken a signi�cant amount of time off

Notes: Based on those who have ever worked, “Fathers” and “Mothers” include those with children of any age, including adult children (n = 1,254).

10 Quit job

10 Turned down a

promotion 13

Mothers

Section 7.2Challenges of Working Families

Child Care Child care for children under age 5, and extended care for children over age 5, is expensive. According to Child Care Aware of America (2014), nearly 11 million children under age 5 require child care services each week in the United States. For middle-class parents, center- based care averages $11,666 per year, with a range from $3,582 to $18,773 per year. For some infants, the cost can be as much as $2,000 each month. The age of the child (the younger, the more expensive) and geographic location are the main cost variables. Home care options tend to be less expensive, costing an average of $7,761 for infants and toddlers and ranging from $3,582 to $11,940 per year. Home care for preschool children averages $4,000–$8,500 (Child Care Aware of America, 2014).

For low-income families, a variety of child-care options are available, including Early Head Start and Head Start, and state- and sometimes city-funded programs. The federal govern- ment also subsidizes child care for low-income families. Even so, for middle-class families, child care can be expensive and difficult to coordinate, and Head Start and most state-funded programs function for only part of the day. Some school districts provide preschool programs, but most parents must pay for these services. For many families, the choice of child care programs is an important decision. Professionals who work with young families need to be knowledgeable about programs available in their communities so that they can help families find programs that match their unique needs.

T h E E v o l v i n g F A m i l y : S imone ’ S S tay-at-Home Da D Simone, aged 3, attends an early childhood program every morning that is run by the Lutheran church her family attends. In the afternoon, she is cared for at home by her father, Ray, who also cares for her one-year-old brother. Ray is a stay-at-home dad. Simone’s mother is a pediatric nurse at the local hospital—a stable position that offers good health insurance for the family. Ray works part time in the evenings and some weekends when his wife is home.

Although he understands the practical side of their arrangement, Simone’s father struggles with being a stay-at-home dad. He loves his children and enjoys seeing them grow and develop, and he is even taking a child development class at the local community college to better understand his children. But he often sees his old buddies who work full-time and feels uncomfortable when they all get together to discuss their lives, interests, and chal- lenges. He also believes that the female director and her staff at Simone’s program do not take him seriously and always seem to be waiting for his wife to communicate issues of concern about Simone.

Discussion Questions 1. If you were in a position to advise Ray and his wife, what would you recommend for

them? 2. Do you believe a father can provide the same support, nurturance, and care for young

children that a mother can, or should family preference be for the mother to stay home, if at all possible?

3. Do you believe that each couple should use their talents and resources where they are most needed, or are men and women naturally good at and comfortable doing different things?

4. Should the family continue to search to find a good job for Ray, or is it an acceptable choice for him to stay at home and care for the children?

Section 7.3Family-Friendly Workplaces

Extended-Day Programs Many families with children must find care for their school-age children when they are not attending school. This need usually arises during two time frames:

1. Before and after the regular school day, which is shorter than the traditional 8-hour work day; and

2. On days that school is out of session because of teacher in-service training, regular school holidays, and vacations.

Some school districts operate year-round. In these pro- grams, the number of total school days children attend is the same as in the traditional school calendar, but the longer vacations are distributed evenly throughout the year, usually each being about two weeks in duration.

Many school districts provide extended-day programs, though at a cost to the family. A variety of private early childhood programs and schools also offer these pro- grams for their public school counterparts, often providing transportation between the child’s school and the extended-day school site. Some city parks and recreational programs, yMCAs, and other community agencies also offer programs, especially during the long summer holi- day. Families can also choose from an array of summer camps, depending on their children’s interests, the cost, and the academics or activities their children may need to work on. There are also specialized camps for children with a variety of disabilities.

7.3 Family-Friendly Workplaces In many contemporary two-parent American families, both parents work either full time or part time. To accommodate today’s working parents, companies must find ways to be more “family friendly.” Those who do can expect their employees to have greater job satisfaction and family well-being. In the following discussion, we will consider what it means for a com- pany to be family-friendly and explore some of the benefits and protections they offer.

What is a Family-Friendly Workplace? According to Community Tool Box (2013), family-friendly policies include two components: (1) a workplace that includes policies that help employees to more easily balance family and work life, and to meet both family and work obligations; and (2) laws, regulations, and gov- ernment policies that recognize the importance of families in society and help address the needs of children, parents, older adults, and people with disabilities. Family-friendly work- places include one or more of these supports for parents: flextime, job sharing, the option of part-time work, telecommuting, onsite child care, and family leave benefits, among oth- ers (Community Tool Box, 2013). Employees of these companies can make more choices and have more control of their lives. Studies show employees want control over what they do in the workplace, and lack of control, combined with stress, can produce illness and cause people to leave their jobs. Family-friendly benefits and policies also enable working parents

Caia Images/Caia Images/Superstock ሁ Families with parents who work

8-hour days often need to find care options for their children outside regular school hours.

Section 7.3Family-Friendly Workplaces

(dual earners and single parents) to increase their earning power and improve outcomes for their children.

The best places to work also promote gender equality in the workplace, which encompasses work expectations, hours worked, advancement, and time off to care for the needs of employ- ees’ children. In these companies, employees feel free to use their benefits without the fear of gender discrimination or social disapproval. Gender equality in the workplace is supported by policies that do not pressure women to stay home with children or men to be the primary wage earners (Community Tool Box, 2013; Gornick & Meyers, 2003; Ray, Gornick, & Schmitt, 2009). Let’s now take a look at the benefits and policies that encourage a healthy work-life balance for families.

Flextime A flextime work schedule allows employees to choose when they work, as long as they put in the required hours. This arrangement enables parents to schedule their work around each other’s schedules (in dual-earner families), school, child care, sports and extracurricular activities. Working four days a week, taking days off midweek rather than on weekends, and starting and finishing the work day earlier or later than usual are all examples of flextime.

Job Sharing In a job-sharing arrangement, two or more workers share one job, each working a faction of full-time hours. This enables a person to care for a child or an elderly person without losing their job. In some cases, participants can also keep their health insurance.

Option of Part-Time Work In some companies, a full-time employee is allowed to switch to part time, or reduce hours, either temporarily or permanently, while maintaining their position and benefits. A new mother (or a parent who has just adopted a child or accepted a foster child placement) may choose this option so they can spend more time bonding with their child.

Working Off-Site Certain employees are permitted to work from home or at a remote location for all or part of the work day; this is also known as telecommuting. A variety of telecom- munications tools, e-mail programs, video conferencing (e.g., through Skype), and teleconferencing enable workers to stay in touch with supervisors and work teams. Instructors who work for online universi- ties and teach from home are a good example.

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ The ability to work from home can provide

parents much needed relief when other child care options are not available.

Section 7.3Family-Friendly Workplaces

Child Care and Other Family Benefits Family-friendly companies may provide referrals for approved child care options, subsi- dize care, and even offer onsite child care. They may also sponsor activities, such as family- oriented events, picnics, Christmas parties, and other outings, as well as parenting classes and brown-bag lunch sessions. When employees are unable to find child care, some compa- nies allow them to bring children to the workplace, under certain conditions. A special room or area might be set up for the children to play in when they are at the office.

If the employee needs to leave work for a child-related or elder-care emergency, the employer can offer flexible emergency leave in the form of a number of paid days off each year. As stated earlier, the U.S. government does not mandate paid maternity or paternity leave for its citizens; however, private companies often offer it to employees, as either paid or unpaid leave. Also, the federal government does require certain employers to offer unpaid family and medical leave.

Many employers offer health and dental benefits for the entire family, although the high cost of health care has led to many employers offering subsidized coverage only to their work- ers. Other employee benefits that are family-friendly include on-site wellness centers and fitness centers, fitness programs for children, financial assistance for parents who wish to take courses to improve their skills and marketability, and college scholarships or loans for employees’ children.

The Family and Medical Leave Act Administered by the U.S. Department of Labor, the Family and medical leave Act (FmlA) of 1993 allows employees to take off 12 weeks from work, keep their insurance benefits, and have their job to return to when the leave is over. (The law applies only to businesses with 50 or more employees.) The FMLA lists circumstances where it applies, including the birth, adop- tion, or placement of a child; the care of a spouse, minor, or incompetent child or parent who has a “serious health issue”; or the handling of the employee’s own serious health condition.

c A S E S T u D y : B R i g h T h o R i z o n S : a Fa m i ly- F r i e nDly P L A C E T O W O R K Bright Horizons Family Solutions exemplifies a family-friendly place to work. It provides early education and preschool, employee-sponsored child care, and backup child care. In 2014, the company was rated number 77 among Forbes 100 Best Companies to Work For. Founded in 1986, Bright Horizons employs 23,755 worldwide and has 622 sites in the United States, including its headquarters in Watertown, Massachusetts.

Forbes rated Bright Horizons and its competitors on six categories, with most employees reporting positive workplace attributes:

• Great challenges: 94% • Great atmosphere: 94% • Great rewards: 86% • Great pride: 95%

(continued)

Section 7.3Family-Friendly Workplaces

incentives for Employers There are many incentives for companies, government agencies, and educational institutions to provide family-friendly policies. For one thing, these policies allow parents to spend more and higher-quality time with their children. This, in turn, helps parents bond with newborn infants (and newly adopted and foster children) and enables parents to interact with their chil- dren without guilt and stress. This reduction in stress and increase in positive relationships

c A S E S T u D y : B R i g h T h o R i z o n S : a Fa m i ly- F r i e nDly P L A C E T O W O R K ( c o n t i n u e d )

• Great communication: 92% • Great bosses: 90%

Ninety percent of the employees reported that they were given a lot of responsibilities, 83% believed management trusted them to carry out these responsibilities, and 86% said that working for Bright Horizons is “more than a job.” Most employees believed they receive the training needed to do their job and that promotions went to those who deserved them.

Bright Horizons reimburses its employees’ college tuition up to $5,000; those who com- plete a Child Development Associate certificate (CDA), bachelor’s, or master’s degree receive a 5% annual raise. In addition to formal education, full-time employees receive an average of 65 hours of training per year.

Ninety-four percent of the employees reported a friendly work atmosphere that was car- ing and supportive, and many described Bright Horizons as a fun and cooperative place to work. The company has a Well-Being Help Center that provides free information, legal advice, grief counseling, and health support for a variety of work and family issues, sup- porting its philosophy, which stresses work–life balance. Benefits include onsite child care and subsidized offsite child care, elder care resources, and the options of a compressed work week, job sharing, flexible schedules, and telecommuting. 401k and 403b pretax sav- ings plans are offered to help employees save for retirement.

A $2,500 adoption benefit is provided to parents of newly adopted children, and 12 weeks of protected maternity leave supplement FMLA requirements for both men and women. Health benefits are particularly generous and include dental care, prescription drug sub- sidies, vision care, fertility treatments, alternative treatments (e.g., acupuncture), and mental health care. A fitness center, various health screenings, and subsidized offsite gym membership is another benefit of employment.

Ninety-five percent of employees reported having pride in the company as well as pride at their own accomplishments. The company also supports a philanthropic institution called Bright Spaces, a program that establishes playrooms in homeless shelters in the United States, Canada, England, and Scotland. Employees are recognized for their volunteer work in the community and can win grants from the company to assist charitable organizations they support.

Of Bright Horizons’ large worldwide employee pool, 70% said that information flows freely and their managers keep them well informed; 90% feel positively about their supervisors, feel they can ask their supervisor any reasonable questions, , and believe that the leaders of the company are ethical, competent, and caring (Great Rated.com, 2014).

Section 7.4Strategies for Balancing Family Life and Work

with children builds protective parenting factors (see Chapter 2) and reduces the risk of child abuse. Family-friendly policies can reduce the stress of family members who care for elderly parents, a person with a disability, or a family member with a severe medical condition. They also take the guesswork out of finding quality child care and enable parents to participate in important activities in their children’s lives, such as sports, presentations, and conferences.

But how do these benefits accrue to the employer? First, employees who use the company’s family-friendly policies are more productive. Studies have shown that after companies switch to family-friendly policies, their productivity and profits actually increase (Community Tool Box, 2013). Also, workers are better able to focus on their jobs and are more likely to stay with the company. Policies that balance work and family life keep stress at a reasonable level and enable people to have more energy to devote to both work and family. Family-friendly policies help companies to stay competitive—to retain and hire the best and the brightest employees. According to Community Toolbox (2013), many job applicants are willing to sacrifice pay for a more family-friendly work environment.

7.4 Strategies for Balancing Family life and Work As emphasized throughout this chapter, balancing family life and work responsibilities is challenging for all working parents. Scholars have studied this issue by interviewing work- ing parents, and have developed approaches and practices to address these challenges. Some ideas for balancing home and work responsibilities are described here.

Juggling Work and Family Responsibilities In dual-earner families, parents find a variety of ways to juggle family and work responsibili- ties and their roles as caretakers. Francine Deutsch (1999) conducted a study in which she determined that couples typically fall into one of four categories as they strive to balance work, family life, and gender roles:

• Equal sharers: Each parent partakes equally in work and caring for children and the home. Couples used a variety of different approaches to achieve this level of equality.

• 60–40 couples: Work and caring for children and the home are divided up almost equally, but with one parent (usually the mother) taking on 60% of the commitment and the other only 40%.

• 75–25 couples: The parents work out a 75%–25% split in home and work responsibilities.

• Alternative shifters: One parent works a day shift and the other a night shift (or simi- lar combinations).

Over time, families may alternate among these various patterns, being more unequal in their responsibilities when the children are infants but becoming more egalitarian as the children grow up and go on to school.

Deutsch found that families in all four groups were similar in their politics, education level, and economic class, but did differ significantly in how they negotiated the subjects of house- hold tasks and caring for their children. Those who believed in equal responsibilities for work, child care, and housework continually focused on trying to make this a reality in their family.

Section 7.4Strategies for Balancing Family Life and Work

In another study that focused on middle managers and professionals (Becker & Moen, 1999), the majority of couples relied on one of three approaches to reduce work obligations so that they could spend more time with their families and caring for their home:

• Placing limits. These parents turn down jobs or promotions that require relocation, travel, and more time at work; refuse overtime hours; and limit the number of hours they work. Women often do this upon the birth of a child.

• Job-versus-career strategy. One of the parents focuses on a long-term career while the other parent holds a job for extra income that is secondary to the family needs and the support of the career parent.

• Trading off. Parents alternate between holding jobs and pursuing careers, depending on the needs of the family, and the various career opportunities (especially salary and benefits) that arise for each parent.

According to Deutsch (1999), parents need to constantly make choices to balance careers and parenting responsibilities. This means both parents need to scale back—limit work hours per day and workdays per week, travel, and overtime—and let family obligations take precedence over work and career (Brooks, 2011; McNall, Masuda, & Nicklin, 2010). Single parents, in particular, benefit from enlisting the help of grandparents and other extended family mem- bers to help out when needed. They may even be able to exchange child care services with relatives or friends. Finally, parents can enroll children in community services, such as city parks and recreation programs, 4H programs, and Boys and Girls Clubs. The feature box Resources for Working with Families provides an array of ideas for families, both to meet their essential needs, such as child care and medical care, and also for recreation and entertainment.

R E S o u R c E S F o R W o R k i n g W i T h F A m i l i E S Professionals who work with families need to be familiar with an array of community resources. The kind of resources that are appropriate will depend on each family’s income, religion, culture, number and age of children, size of household, and other important factors.

• Schools. Schools provide many services beyond classroom instruction, which may include free and reduced-cost breakfasts and lunches, summer camps, extended day care, and programs for teen mothers and their children. For children with disabilities, schools provide direct services as well as support and referral information for parents. Many schools also provide parenting classes and a variety of programs for new immi- grant families.

• Early childhood programs. Early childhood programs are often in tune with services in their community—from government programs, to religious and privately run services. For example, Head Start programs are required to have official relationships with a variety of programs to meet the needs of families with young children, including par- enting classes and training and job placement.

• Community colleges. Community colleges and other institutions of higher learning often provide vocational training and higher education for older children, opportu- nities for parents to advance their careers, and in some states, advanced placement classes for high school students.

(continued)

R E S o u R c E S F o R W o R k i n g W i T h F A m i l i E S ( c o n t i n u e d )

• Houses of worship. Churches, synagogues, temples, and other houses of worship provide a variety of supports and resources for families who attend them. They often work with the entire family and may have members within their congregation who can pro- vide direct help or who can refer families to individuals or agencies. Often these are great places for new immigrant families to find services and develop a sense of belong- ing in their community.

• Health care agencies. Clinics and mental health care centers provide a variety of ser- vices to family members, from children to grandparents. Psychologists, social workers, substance abuse counselors, marriage and family therapists, and other professionals can be found in most communities. Families may need help finding helping profes- sionals who are well matched with their distinct culture, language, religion, and other characteristics. For example, families who have children with disabilities use a variety of specialists and clinics. Also, many health care centers provide new immigrant fami- lies with information about local immunization laws, school entrance requirements, nutrition, seatbelt and car seat laws, and child abuse and neglect laws.

• Food banks. A variety of food banks and distribution centers are situated throughout low-income communities. Some are located in churches and other houses of worship, and others in a variety of local government agencies or community centers. In the sum- mer, many of these programs provide free breakfast and lunch in parks and other pub- lic places in the community.

• Recreational centers. Boys and Girls clubs, city and town recreational centers, local sports clubs, and cultural centers are places where children can exercise, participate in team sports, and make friends. Adults can join a gym or a local sports team at the same center, and grandparents can meet with other seniors to engage in their favorite activi- ties and socialize.

• Public libraries. Library systems have branches throughout the community. Entrance and membership are free, and libraries lend books, videos, and other media that can be used by families to stimulate and support learning as well as to entertain. Many libraries offer a variety of other programs, such as reading to young children, book clubs, film screenings, and talks by authors, as well as help with job-seeking and advice to students researching academic papers. In some communities, libraries maintain archives and exhibits of local culture and history. In addition, library staff can help members tap into additional resources from other libraries and the larger community.

• Museums. Most museums have certain days of the month that offer free or reduced-fee entrance or that cater to families. Also, many offer classes, workshops, and tours for children and adults as well as lectures, gallery openings, screenings, and other special events.

• Historic parks. Historic parks are essentially outdoor museums that display local his- tory and period buildings unique to that locale and often feature staff dressed in period costume, working in traditional activities of the past. Many outdoor museums are free or low cost, as part of city or state park systems, and give children the oppor- tunity to learn in a hands-on way in a living environment.

• Green spaces. Parks, gardens, playgrounds, greenways, and trails can be found in most American cities and provide free or low-cost places for families to explore nature, enjoy playground activities, ride a bicycle, observe wildlife, and engage in much needed exercise while learning to appreciate the outdoors.

Adapted from Wardle, F (2013b). Human Relationships and Learning in the Multicultural Environment (pp. 378–383). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education.

Section 7.4Strategies for Balancing Family Life and Work

(continued)

R E S o u R c E S F o R W o R k i n g W i T h F A m i l i E S ( c o n t i n u e d )

Adapted from Wardle, F (2013b). Human Relationships and Learning in the Multicultural Environment (pp. 378–383). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education.

Section 7.4Strategies for Balancing Family Life and Work

Time management Many parents, both in dual-earner and single-parent homes, feel constantly rushed for time. According to Robinson and Godbey (1997), part of this feeling of not having enough time—what they refer to as time famine—is illusory. Because contemporary American society has greatly increased the pace of life, this produces in parents a view of constantly being rushed. Adding to this sense of urgency is that, when parents do have free time, they are much more likely to spend it watching television rather than being engaged in more satisfying activities such as pursuing a social life with family and friends. In fact, on average, parents watch four hours of television per day (Ameri- can Pediatric Association, 2013). TV is probably the default activity (1) because of exhaustion and (2) because it can be accessed without having to create sched- ules, set aside time, and communicate with other people—something parents are doing plenty of already.

Robinson and Godbey (1997) suggest that parents need to find free times and then carefully plan meaningful activities to maximize their use of these hours. And parents are better off planning to spend free time in activities that give them lasting satisfaction, whether that is with the rest of the family, alone with their partner, or with colleagues. Part of this process also involves setting priorities and saying “no” to too many requests. Robinson and Godbey also suggest that parents examine their attempts at time-saving and multitasking while focusing on savoring important events in their lives.

Setting Work–Family Boundaries In our discussion of family systems theory in Chapter 1, we touched on the importance of boundaries. In that context, we were discussing boundaries among family members (adults and older children) within the home. Here, we explore boundaries between home life and work responsibilities. With the advent of the Internet, various technology tools, and social media, along with more people working at home at least part time, establishing and maintain- ing work–family boundaries is more important than ever (Haddoc, S. A., Zimmerman, T. S., Ziemba, S. J., & Current, L. R., 2001).

Parents can employ several strategies to help establish these boundaries. They can clearly let colleagues and bosses know they cannot be contacted at home at certain hours (especially

Purestock/Thinkstock ሁ Parents often feel rushed due to the pace of life in

American society, but planning meaningful activities during free time, instead of just watching TV, can help reduce that stress and sense of urgency.

Section 7.5The Unique Challenges of Military Families

mealtimes and one-on-one times with children or a spouse) unless it is a real emergency. They can also refuse to bring work home unless this is an agreed-upon part of a flextime arrangement with the company. For parents who work at home (either self-employed or for an employer), clear boundaries can be created and reinforced about (1) the hours of the day when they must be available for work; (2) the conditions under which they must work (e.g., to what extent can children and/or a spouse intrude), and (3) how work at home is as important and “separate” as work in an office when it comes to schedules, interruptions, and requests. It is easy to assume that when parents are physically present they are somehow available—to care for children in emergency, answer important questions, or do something important, such as putting in the next load of laundry.

Boundaries involving children should be set when they are young to ensure that they have a clear understanding of what is expected of them. The most obvious example involves home- work. Parents and children can agree on a schedule for homework and the level and nature of external interruptions allowed (for example phone calls, social media, texting). Parents may also choose to restrict technology during important family interactions, such as meals and one-on-one activities with parents.

Many people allow cell phones, television, and gaming to intrude on important social interac- tions and quality time at home and in the community. Boundaries are an important antidote to this plugged-in world, as they establish the appropriate use of technology, for both work- related communication and social interactions. It is important for parents to act as role mod- els in reinforcing these boundaries because children’s screen time tends to reflect that of their parents (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013).

7.5 The unique challenges of military Families Military families struggle with many of the same challenges that civilian families face. How- ever, the unique and often dangerous nature of their job coupled with the instability associ- ated with being in the service make it that much more difficult for military parents to strike a balance between work and family life. In this section, we will explore military life and analyze its effect on families.

In 2012, there were 1.4 million active duty service members: 14.6% women and 85.4% men. More than half of these active duty members were married: 58% of men and 45% of women, and 6.3% of servicemen and women are in dual-military marriages, where both husband and wife are on active duty (U.S. Department of Defense, 2012). Figure 7.6 shows military person- nel by marital status.

Among the active duty military, 38.7% are married with children and 5.2% are single parents. The largest group of children in military families are aged birth to 5 years (517,734), and the next largest group is 6–11 years of age (376, 551). There are 273,524 children between ages 12 and 18 and 53,132 children between ages 19 and 22 (see Figure 7.7). The National Guard and Reserves include another 848,302 members. Thus, almost 2 million children live in mili- tary families, 37% of whom are 5 years old or younger (U.S. Department of Defense, 2012).

Section 7.5The Unique Challenges of Military Families

Figure 7.7: Age of children of military families, 2012

Source: U.S. Department of Defense (2012). 2012 Demographics: Profile of the military community. Washington, DC: Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved from http://www.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/2012_Demographics_Report.pdf

Figure 7.6: marital status of active duty military personnel

Note: Single includes annulled, divorced, and widowed. Children include minor dependents aged 20 or younger or dependents aged 22 and younger enrolled as full-time students.

Source: U.S. Department of Defense (2012). 2012 Demographics: Profile of the military community, p. 120. Washington, DC: Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved from http://www.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/2012_Demographics_Report.pdf

N = 1,338,028

f07.06

Married to civilian, no children

(n = 192,554) 13.9%

Married to civilian, with children (n = 497,758) 35.9%

Single, no children (n = 537,252) 38.7%

Single, with children (n = 72,471) 5.2%

Dual-military, with children (n = 38,430) 2.8%

Dual-military, no children (n = 49,563) 3.6%

f07.07

N um

b er

o f

ch ild

re n

Children of military families by age group

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0 0–5 6–11 12–18 19–22

Section 7.5The Unique Challenges of Military Families

Families who live on military bases receive various support services, including comprehen- sive child care and extended care programs, medical assistance, and of course the support of other families and soldiers (U. S. Department of Defense, 2005). Despite these benefits, mili- tary families endure major stressors that can negatively impact their well-being. These can include being separated, lacking family support, frequent moves, the constant fear of the loss or injury of loved ones, and a variety of financial pressures (Varcoe, Emper, & Lees, 2002). The very strict culture of the military and of military lives can also be hard on a family. Children experience periods of separation from a parent or parents and the real risk of the death or injury of a parent. Physical and psychological injury can have a profound impact on a family for decades after deployment, depending on its nature and severity.

Military families, like other Americans families, are very diverse in background and family structure. Some are dual-parent families, others single-parent families. Also, because the mili- tary attracts people from all groups in American society, there are a far higher percentage of interethnic, interracial, and interreligious families in the military than in the general Ameri- can population (Wardle & Cruz-Janzen, 2004).

Before and During Deployment Deployment is the most stressful time for military families. It is comprised of four steps: pre- deployment (notification to depart), deployment (active duty in a war zone or military base away from the family), reunion (return to the family), and postdeployment (readjustment to civilian life) (Brooks, 2011). For active-duty military personnel, this cycle can be repeated multiple times.

In predeployment, service members continue to engage in their regular jobs as they prepare to leave; meanwhile, other family members may be anxious, stressed, and concerned. Even infants and toddlers sense a change in the family environment. Although preschool children do not have a clear understanding of the future, they know something is going to change. Older children have a more realistic understanding of the road ahead and the potential dan- gers involved. Teens must deal with these family changes along with their own rapidly chang- ing physical and social lives (Brooks, 2011) (see also Chapter 5, Parenting During Middle Childhood and Adolescence).

During a deployment, the remaining spouse takes over all the tasks of the home while wor- rying about the welfare of the absent parent. With very young children, this often involves considerable additional chores; although if the family has adolescents, they may take over additional duties in the home and feel empowered by playing such an important role. How- ever, other teens use this shift in home authority to challenge home rules, while they too feel worried and anxious about their missing parent. Living on or near military bases with other families also experiencing deployment can be a source of support for family members, although they may be stationed far from other friends and relatives, including grandparents who could help support them during this time if they lived nearby. Military child care fills in some of these gaps by providing needed support for these children and families.

Families with a deployed service member can use a variety of ways to stay in touch with their absent parent. The phone, Internet video calls (using apps like Skype or FaceTime), and vari- ous other approaches are used for this important function. However, it is important for both the absent parent and the family at home to maintain certain boundaries in sharing informa- tion. Some information of the family’s daily life may cause anxiety in the absent parent (for

Section 7.5The Unique Challenges of Military Families

example an adolescent who is in trouble at school); knowing the dangers and uncertain bat- tlefield conditions of the absent parent can cause undue worry for the family or even be a breach of national security. Over time, the family slowly adjusts to the absence of one parent, and often feels empowered and competent in its ability to survive and continue until the deployed parent comes home again.

Reintegration of Service members Reintegration involves reentry either into the service person’s daily life (work, family, and personal experiences) as experienced before deployment, or into a new civilian life. This stage can last from several months to several years, depending on a variety of parental, family, and community factors (Marek et al., 2014). While many military families experience a smooth reintegration process, other families have difficulty during this stage.

Studies suggest that the stress of reintegration reaches a peak between 4 and 9 months after the return of the service member. A major challenge is for the returning family member to fit back into a family routine that has probably dramatically changed since he or she left. Changes include the parent who has stayed at home and older children (especially adoles- cents) assuming new roles and responsibilities. Conflicts can arise if the returning parent expects the roles to return to the way they were, while other family members expect to keep the newly developed structure and responsibilities (Marek et al., 2014).

Reintegrating service members must deal with a host of physical, psychological, and social challenges (Adler, Zamorski, & Britt, 2011). Specific challenges for these returning service members include:

• Feeling that they no longer fit into the family because of changes that took place in their absence, including the natural physical and emotional growth of their children and the increased competence of their spouse;

• A sense of alienation from the culture to which they are retuning, including a lack of respect or understanding from civilians, and the complex and unstructured nature of normal family life in the United States; and

P A u S E A n D R E F l E c T: t e l e - Pa r en t i ng Du r i ng D E P L O y M E N T Watch this video on Military.com about how service members connect with their families during deployment overseas:

http://www.military.com/video/family-and-spouse/deployment/ skype-connects-deployed-parents-with-kids/3271596931001/

Reflection Questions 1. What effects do the parents’ deployment have on their children? 2. Do you think that technology can help with the bonding process between family

members? 3. What type of communication helps these families to stay connected?

Section 7.5The Unique Challenges of Military Families

• Problems with interpersonal relationships, including with a spouse, parents, and children, potentially arising from poor anger management, inadequate coping skills and self-regulation, hypervigilance, or social withdrawal. These problems are exag- gerated by post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), physical injuries or disabilities, and additional emotional challenges (Adler, Zamorski, & Britt, 2011).

Factors that put families at more risk of reintegration problems include:

• A lack of understanding of the full impact of deployment and combat stress; • Poor family communication; • Inadequate parenting skills; • Lack of understanding of children’s development over time; • Impaired (chaotic or rigid) family organization; and • A lack of a guiding belief system that enables the family to make sense of their cir-

cumstances and challenges. (Saltzman et al., 2011)

For those suffering from PTSD, reintegration into civilian life can be particularly difficult for both the individual and his or her family members. In the past, the U.S. military has not given adequate attention or resources to dealing with the psychological difficulties associated with the aftermath of deployment. Further, the pervasive “tough guy” culture of the military often gets in the way of military personnel getting needed care and medical or psychiatric atten- tion. Returning servicemen and women are at greater risk of engaging in domestic violence and child abuse, often related to their inability to cope with the traumatic experiences they faced in the field. This risk is heightened in cases of PTSD (American Psychological Associa- tion, 2007).

Effects on Spouses and Partners Spouses and partners react to the return of a deployed service member in many different ways. Some spouses report no problems in adjusting, while others report a rather difficult adjustment (Chandra et al., 2011). Some of the challenges military spouses face include fitting the deployed member back into the home routine, rebalancing child and family responsibili- ties, getting to know their spouse again, and worrying about a possible subsequent deploy- ment. Spouses must also cope with the mood changes and other psychological difficulties that their returning spouse may be dealing with, and expend time and energy figuring out where to turn for needed advice (Chandra et al., 2011).

Effects on children Children and youth in military homes experience a range of responses to the reintegration of a service member parent. Both the deployed parent and the children often undergo sig- nificant changes during deployment. The child’s stages of development (social, emotional, psychological, physical, and cognitive), the satisfaction of the parent who stayed home, the degree of marital stability, and the emotional state of both parents all affect how well children in military families adjust (Chandra et al., 2011). On the return of a parent, many children expect increased attention, but often do not receive it. Age and gender seem to be a factor in children’s adjustment as well. For example, older girls of parents who experienced longer deployments are at greater risk of reintegration difficulties, while boys may have more dif- ficulty adjusting to reduced autonomy and more structure when a parent, especially their father, returns (Chandra et al., 2011).

Summary and Resources

Supporting military Families Military personnel, program providers (such as early childhood programs, schools, and col- leges, helping professionals, and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs [VA]) are becoming more aware of the strain of wartime deployment on military families, particularly during the last stage of reintegration or postdeployment (Marek et al., 2014). These professionals need to understand the reintegration process and its effect on service members and their family. As increasing numbers of servicemen and women are returning from deployment overseas, it is critical that support be provided for these families (Marek et al., 2014).

Professionals who work with military families should encourage skills and behaviors aimed at reducing the stress of service life. These include adopting flexible roles, in which each fam- ily member performs multiple duties; developing and using coping skills; utilizing a variety of ways to stay in contact during deployments (see Pause and Reflect: Tele-Parenting During Deployment, above); having realistic expectations during the reintegration stage; engaging in continual, open communication with the whole family; and developing and using effective parenting skills (Marek et al., 2011).

It is particularly difficult for single-parent homes and dual-parent military families to read- just. However, being close to a military base affords these families more needed services and support. Central to supporting military families in all phases of the deployment cycle is con- necting these families with needed resources and advocating for military families with all community agencies, including community colleges, schools, early childhood programs, clin- ics and mental health centers, veterans hospitals, and other organizations. Families of ser- vicemen and women who return with severe physical or psychological injuries (or both) will be under additional strain and need appropriate referrals and support.

Community agencies that serve military families, such as veterans groups and the VA as well as Head Start, early childhood programs, and schools need to train staff to be aware of and sensitive to the deployment cycle and to provide referral services to families who need them. In many schools that serve a large number of military families, programs have been created to provide group counseling and other support activities (yeary, 2007).

Summary and Resources

chapter Summary In this chapter, we explored the delicate balance between work and family. We began with a discussion of the various attitudes, social movements, and legislative developments that have shaped family life over the past century. We also compared family trends from the past with those we see today. One of these trends is the need for both parents to work in order to meet the needs of their family, which may include young children, adult children who have moved home, and elderly parents or relatives who need extra care.

Establishing financial stability is one of the most significant challenges working families face when trying to maintain family well-being. Thus, employment of family members is central to the role of parenting and the health of a family. Job satisfaction also correlates strongly with family well-being, as does finding appropriate and affordable care for children when they are not in school.

Summary and Resources

Family-friendly workplaces provide a variety of concessions and adaptations to help fam- ily members balance their home and work responsibilities; these include flextime, family- related programs at work, and employer-sponsored child care. Often, new parents looking for employment seek out companies and government employers with family-friendly policies. In turn, employers have discovered that these policies are good for their business, work envi- ronment, and public image.

Next, we discussed strategies and resources for balancing parenting and work priorities. We stressed the importance of time management, budgeting and setting family boundaries, for both parents and children, between the spheres of home and work.

The chapter concluded with a discussion of the challenges of military families, who expe- rience additional stress beyond that of nonmilitary families. Children in particular can suf- fer, especially if a parent dies or returns from a deployment with severe mental or physical injuries.

critical Thinking Questions 1. How has the role of the mother in a typical two-parent family in America changed

since the 1960s? How has this change affected children? How have programs such as early childhood programs and schools adapted to this change in the mother’s role?

2. How does a parent’s job satisfaction influence family well-being? What qualities of a job tend to result in a satisfying work experience?

3. As mothers have taken on more work outside the home, to what extent have fathers shouldered more child care and housework?

4. What types of arrangements do parents employ to ensure that their children are cared for while they are at work?

5. In what ways have some companies and organizations adapted to accommodate busy working parents? Do family-friendly policies discriminate against employees without children? Explain.

6. What strategies can parents employ to balance family life and work? 7. List five resources in your community that may help working parents manage their

time and provide enriching experiences for their children. 8. What types of challenges to military families experience before, during, and after

deployment? 9. How can professionals help support military personnel and their families?

key Terms boundaries The extent to which family members operate independently, and how they operate as a unit (internal boundaries); also, how open the family is to outside influ- ence (external boundaries). Boundaries can also be used to limit the use of technology in family settings and to create a line of separa- tion between job duties and family time.

deployment The cycle military personnel undergo during active duty. It is comprised

of four steps: predeployment (notification to depart), deployment (active duty in a war zone or military base away from the family), reunion (return to the family), and postde- ployment (readjustment to civilian life).

dual-earner families Households (with or without children) headed by married or cohabiting couples who both work, either full time or part time.

Summary and Resources

Family and medical leave Act (FmlA) Administered by the U.S. Depart- ment of Labor, this federal legislation allows employees to take off 12 weeks from work in the case of a family or medical emergency, keep their insurance benefits, and have their job to return to when the leave is over. The law only applies to businesses with 50 or more employees.

family-friendly policies A menu of con- cessions and adaptations by employers to help employees and their family members, including flextime, family-related programs at work, employer-sponsored child care, and in some cases, elder care.

flextime A system in which employers require employees to work a set number of hours but allow them to fulfill this duty at various times according to their needs, e.g., working 10 hours per day, 4 days per week to accommodate family-related responsibilities.

job autonomy A characteristic of jobs that provide the employee with high levels of self- direction, control, and independence.

job complexity A feature of work that is both challenging and stimulating.

job status In an occupation, a level of importance and prestige in an organization, community, or association.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) A syndrome in which an adult or child who has been in a highly stressful situation (e.g., military combat, violence, a natural disaster, or abuse) develops persistent psychologi- cal symptoms such as mood swings, anxiety, hypervigilance, flashbacks, nightmares, and patterns of avoidance.

reintegration For military personnel, reentry either into the service person’s daily life (work, family, and personal experiences) as experienced before deployment, or into a new civilian life.

sandwich generation A term to describe parents who are raising their children while simultaneously caring for their own parents. They are “sandwiched” between two sets of expectations and pressures from younger and older relatives.

time famine The belief by working parents that they are continually rushed and do not have sufficient time for themselves, their spouses, or their children.