digital divide

What is Special Education? 1

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Pre-Test

1. You can use the terms disability and handicap interchangeably. T/F 2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F 3. The first American legislation that protected students with disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F 4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special education classrooms. T/F 5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

7Teaching in the 21st Century

KidStock/Getty Images

Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

• Identify 21st-century skills and their related models of teaching, and describe the importance of developing such skills.

• Explain the relevance of democracy to 21st-century skills.

• Compare various classroom models and explain how the role of the teacher and student is changing in schools.

• Analyze the use of technology in today’s classrooms.

• Explain the benefits and challenges of technology in today’s classrooms.

If we teach today’s students as we taught yesterday’s, we rob them of tomorrow. —John Dewey

It would be an understatement to say that our world has fundamentally changed over the past 20 years. Virtually anywhere you go, there is evidence of how significantly our world has shifted and the role technology plays in this shift. We now purchase applications for our smart phones, iPads, or tablets with the touch of a button. These apps can do such things as track where we park our cars, help us navigate new territories, and tell us the name of a song on the radio. Social networking has contributed to toppling governments (Beaumont, 2011; Comninos, 2011; Zuckerman, 2011) and even to creating them. For example, in the 2008 U.S. presidential campaign, candidate Barack Obama’s team was the first to make wide use of social networking to spread his message, which significantly contributed to his win. Since that time, social networking has been politically important both nationally and locally. In short, technology has made us more globally aware and connected.

Today, the economy is increasingly dependent on global interactions as the work world moves from an industrial model to an information society. Important to this transition is the need to consider the more than two centuries of a tradition of democracy. So that citizens can read, hear, and share opinions that are knowledgeable, it is important for them to know how govern- ment is run, how the branches of government function, and how to distinguish fact from fiction. Unfortunately, a true civics education, or teaching about government, has become a rarity in American schools. In fact, this situation led to the creation of the Center for Civic Education, a non-partisan, non-profit educational corporation located in Calabasas, California. Its network includes representatives in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, as well as in eastern Euro- pean countries that are working to provide ways to learn and live democracy. Programs have been piloted and instituted for every grade, preschool through senior high school. While these programs are still unusual in the United States, they have actually been adopted as part of the K–12 curriculum in the war-torn country of Bosnia (Center for Civic Education, 2013).

Reflecting on the importance of civics learning in a democracy as applied to 21st-century skills, retired Supreme Court justice Sandra Day O’Connor (2010) has said, “Schools that pay attention to civic learning are more likely to help young people build strong character and develop the attitudes and relationships that are essential for success in the twenty-first cen- tury workplace and society” (p. xiii). Or, as another writer puts it, “We need schools that pro- vide young people with well-structured spaces in which to discover who they are and what they care deeply about. We need schools where adults prepare students for active citizenship and the twenty-first-century workplace” (Chaltain, 2010, p. 1).

Given the national and global changes that have occurred, and those that are continuing to evolve, schools carry the heavy burden of ensuring not only that students are prepared for knowledgeable citizenship and for the jobs of the future, but also that they have the neces- sary skill sets to thrive in an increasingly competitive world economy. As O’Connor has said, “Knowledge about our government is not handed down through the gene pool. Every genera- tion has to learn it, and we all learn best by doing” (p. xiii). In addition, we need to under- stand what it means to live and teach in an ever-changing society where students can find information on anything, anywhere, at any time. Teachers should provide students with the tools to help comprehend and process the immense amount of information they receive daily. These issues, as well as others, have caused a sea change in education and forced educators to rethink their roles, the way they teach, and what is taught.

Section 7.1Teaching for Democracy and a Global Economy

7.1 Teaching for Democracy and a Global Economy Globalization has been around since ancient times. The most notable example would be the Silk Road, which permitted trade between China and the Mediterranean. Today, we see a simi- lar global exchange that is both trade and culture oriented but affected by an explosion in technological invention, and all within the decades of the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries.

Preparing children for participation in this rapidly changing world requires education that looks somewhat different from how it did in the past. As potential teachers in this still-new century, readers of this text will have the responsibilities attached to this endeavor. In Chapter 1, we discussed how a growing body of research has identified those 21st-century skills that students need for success in the global economy: analyzing, creating, and evaluating ideas; understanding complex questions; sifting through an abundance of information; applying knowledge in complex situations; thinking critically; problem-solving multifaceted issues; being digitally literate; communicating through a range of media; and collaborating with others.

Essentially, in order for students to function successfully in the global economy, as well as to participate knowledgeably as citizens, they will need to think critically and use a range of tools to enhance communication, collaboration, and leadership capa- bilities. Thinking and acting globally includes an understanding of, and respect for, diverse others through- out the world, including in one’s own country. Cultural understanding is a complex, long-term goal that must be addressed from the beginning of schooling to its conclusion. For edu- cators, this means that, “[r]ather than trying to insert knowledge into our kids’ heads, as in the past (and then to measure how much of it got there), today’s teachers need to find ways to create 21st-century citizens (and workers) who parrot less and think more” (Prensky, 2012, p. 3).

While attempts to identify these skills have shed light on what students need to learn and be able to accomplish, educators have not yet discovered a consistent path to ensure that students develop these skills. For too long, many observers have noted, our education system focused on teaching the values of a traditional workplace culture that has started to fade away; in this culture, for example, a priority is placed on such skills as learning how to sit still, facing the one who is in charge, and acquiring knowledge rather than thinking creatively. Nevertheless, schools and teachers have begun to shift the way they operate to more accu- rately mirror today’s workplace and provide rigor and real-world relevance to their teaching. The range of innovations now occurring in classrooms, along with the focus on 21st-century

Cusp/Cusp/Superstock More than ever before, teachers today need to equip students with skills rather than fill them with information.

Section 7.1Teaching for Democracy and a Global Economy

skills, is important because virtually every segment of the workforce is looking for workers who can make sense of information, determine which information is important and why, and then connect the information to their work at hand (Trilling & Fadel, 2009).

Methods of communication are changing in the 21st-century economy, and education must necessarily change to meet the requirements of the new workplace. Nowadays, we transfer and share information through email, video chatting, and conference calls. We collaborate with people from different departments and in different locations on shared electronic docu- ments. Furthermore, we post on social networking sites, maintain blogs, text our colleagues, surf the Web, and use various applications to assist in projects (Florida, 2002, 2005). As Fig- ure 7.1 indicates, the American (or developed country) jobs that will be most sought after in the future are those that appear above the line, such as design, marketing, and research. In these fields, graduates will be required to work creatively and demonstrate complex skills. Even the most routine jobs are being transformed dramatically: “Every field and job—from factory work to retail and healthcare to hospitality to garbage collection—is in the process of being transformed dramatically, and often unrecognizably, by technology and other forces” (Prensky, 2012, p. 16). This includes the basic jobs that have been the mainstay of societies for years. These are also undergoing transformation to become more automated and outsourced to less-developed countries. Our economic world is changing, and so are the skills needed to succeed.

Figure 7.1: The future of 21st-century work

The skills of the 21st century are shaping future job availability around the world. The majority of creative work will be performed in developed nations, while routine work will be increasingly performed by developing nations.

f07.01_EDU 304.ai

Developed nations

Developing nations

Routine work performed by

machines Routine work performed by

people

Creative work • Research & development • Design • Marketing & sales • Global supply chain management

Source: Adapted from The 21st Century Skills Book, National Center on Education and Economy, 2007.

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

The skills required for living in a democracy must also be addressed by educators. A society that vests its citizens with democratic power requires individuals who know how to think for themselves and share informed opinions. The critical connection between democracy and education can be summed up in this way: “A democratic public is an educated public. . . . The necessary learning begins with the very young and should become habitual in our preschools, nursery schools, and kindergartens and increasingly rigorous in later years” (Goodlad, Soder, & McDaniel, 2008, p. 2). Maria Montessori demonstrated decades ago that children can, indeed, begin to engage in such behaviors as early as preschool. Later in this chapter, you will read more about Montessori schools as well as about the schools of Chugach, Alaska, where the kind of independent responsibility associated with being “increasingly rigorous” not only raises academic scores but also fosters skills necessary for life in a democracy.

Teaching for democracy creates a less authoritarian role for the teacher, but that does not mean that the teacher’s role becomes easier. In fact, the opposite is often true: “Rather than decreasing the responsibilities for the adults . . . this increased freedom for students actually increases our work and responsibilities” (Goodlad, Soder, & McDaniel, 2008, p. 130). Neither does it mean that the student’s role is less demanding: “Students come to recognize that the inverse of freedom of choice and thought is actually responsibility. But this awakening comes at various times and places for individual students” (p. 130).

As schools continue to focus on innovating and changing the way they operate, a range of teaching and learning models is being implemented across the country. Each model has as its goal a greater focus on student-centered methods that provide students with opportunities to collaborate with one another, work on authentic problems, engage with their communities, take on greater responsibility for the shape of their own learning, and utilize technology as a tool to seek out and share information.

7.2 The Changing Classroom What if teachers could create a learning environment in which students came to school with a passion for fun and learning every day? What if it were possible for students to engage in part of their learning in the classroom, spending as much—or more—time outside of it? What if teachers engaged students in learning how to use tools that would facilitate the develop- ment of 21st-century skills? Looking for answers to these questions has led to some unique classroom configurations, which implement fresh and innovative ways of learning or teaching approaches from the past that have been updated for the new century. Here, student engage- ment is high, teachers are excited, and the mastery of skills is commonplace.

Students live in an information age with a range of tools to engage them and help them explore the world. Children learn to manipulate iPads or other mobile devices, download apps, watch videos online, and surf the Internet at an early age. Our classrooms should mirror our students’ world as much as possible and prepare them for the world that they will soon inherit. Emerging technologies offer new opportunities for encouraging and motivating students to take a greater interest in their work. For example, the Smartboard is an electronic whiteboard that can greatly enhance classroom learning. The Elmo revolutionizes classroom projection by displaying still and moving objects for the entire class to see. Teaching students of any age to create a class

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

website is also a good way to engage students and teach technology skills at the same time.

The world is also now at students’ fin- gertips. They can chat in real time with people all over the world, develop projects collaboratively, and learn information online that was previously only available via books or DVDs. Blogs, wikis, websites, interac- tive boards, and other tools provide the opportunity for customized learn- ing that is accessible anytime, any- where. While technology is no substi- tute for a teacher, it has the ability to facilitate learning in new and differ- ent ways. In the next sections, we will see how some of these changes are taking place.

Reviewing Traditional Classrooms Traditional classrooms have been dealt with in previous chapters, and here we briefly review their characteristics. Despite their designation as “traditional,” this does not necessarily mean that they are outmoded and applicable only to the past. They are, in fact, no doubt the most commonly found model in American schools today. Teachers in traditional classrooms, like teachers everywhere, do their best to provide an up-to-date and forward-looking education for their students.

In Chapter 3, classroom applications of behaviorist concepts were described as teacher cen- tered. This might be the primary defining element of a traditional classroom. Very few models of education throughout the centuries have been anything but designed with the teacher at the decision-making center of all action. This is true whether we are speaking of academic activities, disciplinary approaches, or general classroom management. Traditionally, the teacher’s choices of teaching methods have had their roots in behaviorism. For example, the class might be given a goal of completing two pages of math problems with an extra recess reward for anyone finished within 20 minutes. This is a type of positive reinforcement. Or per- haps the math problems aren’t being done due to misbehavior. The teacher might then decide to defer recess until the behavior returns to normal. In general, a traditional approach to managing behaviors includes reinforcement (both positive and negative) as a way to increase good behavior and punishment as a way to decrease inappropriate behavior. Over the years, there have been a good number of commercially produced approaches to classroom, or even school-wide, discipline, and these most frequently are based on behaviorist beliefs.

There is nothing about a traditional, teacher-centered classroom that can’t be kept up to date in terms of content coverage, technology, or other newly created materials. The qualities of an effective teacher, as presented in Chapter 1, are as important to a traditional classroom as they are to other models: charisma, compassion, promotion of egalitarianism, provision for

Compassionate Eye Foundation/Chris Ryan/Getty Images Students encounter and master technological tools at an increasingly early age. Our classrooms must both mirror our students’ world and prepare them for the one they will inherit.

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

diverse abilities and needs, sense of humor, creativity, emotional stability, patience, ability to challenge and motivate, and sincere interest in the students. The way these are expressed will, however, differ for the teacher who sees him- or herself as the primary decision maker.

Multiage Classrooms With few exceptions, each school year begins with students entering new classrooms to meet new teachers. Making a fresh start with a teacher who has no preconceived notions or expec- tations of a student provides the opportunity for the student to build a new relationship and begin the year with a clean slate. On the other hand, coming into a classroom where the stu- dent and teacher already have a relationship ensures that less time is spent getting to know one another, and the focus on learning can begin faster. Knowing the academic levels of all students, as well as their styles of learning and social strengths, allows teacher and students to hit the ground running as soon as school begins. Students who stay together from year to year are able to create for themselves a community of learners with relationships that can deepen and flourish.

Grade levels are sometimes combined for reasons of convenience, efficiency, or economy, such as when there are too few students to make up a full class of fifth or sixth graders and the school administrator creates a single classroom that incorporates both. However, there can also be sound academic reasons for such combinations. A classroom model that purpose- fully structures the class setting to include a span of ages (generally no more than two to three grades) and takes advantage of the connection and relationship between the teacher and students is known as the multiage classroom. This model focuses on ensuring the con- tinuity of instructional and interpersonal relations across school years for students, teachers, and parents. Because of the age range, there is an expectation that students’ learning is more individualized and differentiated.

A specific model of multiage learning is known as looping. The term loop simply means that a student progresses with the same teacher, and usually with the same group of students, for two or more school years.

Although looping is a product of late 20th-century public schools, the concept has long been successful in two international models. Both began in Europe, but their popularity has spread to include the United States. In the early 20th century, Italy’s first female doctor, Maria Mon- tessori, expanded her work with cognitively challenged children to include children of all ages and capabilities. The intent was to give older children the opportunity to solidify their learn- ing by helping the younger ones. In addition, the Montessori classroom would be a reflection of real society, with children learning to care for one another and for their environment. In addition, there would often be more than one adult in the room, not only to provide sufficient care, but also, again, as a reflection of real society. The long-term goal would be a democratic society, although for the youngest children, it would be a democracy “in embryo” (Krogh & Slentz, 2011, p. 72).

The second model began in an unlikely place: the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory in Ger- many. The factory owner, impressed with a speech on education given by the philosopher Rudolf Steiner, gave him permission and funding to open a school for the workers’ children. Its goal would be to focus more on students’ individuality and creativity than on training them for a life in factories. From that time and going forward, children in Waldorf schools have

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

stayed with the same teacher from first through eighth grade (Krogh & Slentz, 2011). In com- paring these two models, it can be said that each has an intent to create young citizens who can think and act independently and with confidence. The role of the Montessori teacher, however, is perceived to be more of a non-intrusive guide, while that of the Waldorf teacher is to be more authoritative.

In an American public school that loops today, the role of the teacher and of the student will differ depending on the philosophy of the school and its district. The philosophy will, at times, include a team-teaching model so that the number of students across ages is larger than in the typical classroom, but with two teachers in charge. If the teachers have expertise teaching dif- ferent ages, team teaching gives them an opportunity to provide students with the best possible education. What is the same is that each group of stu- dents generally stays together for 2 to 3 years. The multiage classroom is seen by many to have multiple ben- efits, including

helping to develop students’ social, emotional, and verbal skills and self- esteem; enabling students to learn at their own pace; building a caring child- centered and project-based learning environment; and improving student attitudes toward school and school work, which results in increased atten- dance. (Song, Spradlin, & Plucker, 2009, p. 2)

Additionally, the teacher is not limited to teaching the curriculum of only one grade level, but rather has the ability to meet students directly at their individual levels. This can be especially helpful in a classroom of children who range from those who have difficult challenges to those who easily move ahead of everyone else. If there is any disadvantage to this kind of teaching, it is the same one faced by teachers in the old one-room schoolhouse: the extra work, creativity, and awareness of each child’s needs that is required for success.

Flipped Classrooms One strategy that redefines the meaning of homework―and one that is increasingly being used in classrooms across the United States―is the flipped classroom. In this model, stu- dents watch portions of instruction online at home, in class, or in a lab and then practice these newly learned skills, traditionally regarded as homework, in the classroom.

The intent of flipping the classroom is to actively transfer part of the responsibility and own- ership for learning from teacher to student. The pace of learning, where it takes place, and at what time now becomes a larger responsibility for the student (Bergmann & Sams, 2012). Rather than instructing for a large part of the day, the teacher becomes more of a facilitator,

Stockbroker/Stockbroker/Superstock Montessori schools model miniature democratic societies and focus on mixed-age groups and student freedom within limits.

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

helping students solve questions and assisting them in their learning. Direct instruction still occurs in the classroom, but it looks very different. Because some of the instructional deliv- ery of information is transferred to students to complete on their own time, there is time available in class for individualized and personalized instruction or to remediate or review a topic (Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Dunn, 2011; Ojalvo & Doyne, 2011). Thus, the teacher’s role combines the authority of the traditional model with that of a facilitator. The student’s role involves a combination of looking to the teacher for information and taking responsibility for independent learning. As might be imagined, parents also have a role to play as their children arrive home with assigned study. They must be willing and able to provide any needed sup- port, encouragement, and discipline.

An advantage of the flipped classroom model is that 21st-century skills, such as making edu- cational use of Khan Academy videos, are embedded in the learning process rather than taught in isolation. In other words, students are more active users of information when they watch a lesson via technology, come to class prepared to work with other students, and request specific help from the teacher on anything they don’t understand. When this learning sequence is in place, there is more overall interaction between teacher and students, and more interaction between students and each other (Bergmann & Sams, 2012). Teachers in this model are less likely to come across to students as authoritarians and more as guides. Students become more self-directed in their learning, which is a skill that is needed in 21st- century work and for life in a democratic society. Technology in the flipped classroom becomes a tool that is used for communication and to solve problems rather than solely as a tool to engage students. And most of all, there is a focus on everyone having their needs met—the teacher, the student, and even the parent, who is more aware of what is actually being taught in the classroom.

A potential disadvantage of the flipped classroom model is its reliance on home-based technology. The reality for many students may be that they have no access at home to the online assign- ments they are expected to engage in. If there are multiple children in the home, they will need multiple comput- ers, and this need may cause a prob- lem for many families. Schools must be ready to provide alternative resources, but, of course, that limits the flipped model’s advantage of providing self- directed learning at the time of the student’s choosing. Additionally, while being self-directed is an admirable goal for children, it cannot be assumed that they all come to school with this ability. This is particularly applicable to younger children, and it will be necessary to educate students, no matter what their age, on the responsibilities associated with self-directed home learning before the model can be engaged in fully. This need not be viewed as a negative aspect of flipped education. Rather, it is important to recognize the need

Image Source/Image Source/Superstock A number of recent educational models have students working on an increased amount of learning materials at home, or in a location outside of the classroom.

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

for preparatory steps as part of students’ education. It might be assumed by proponents of the flipped classroom that everyone will arrive each day having viewed the assigned video; however, it may be just as likely that they avoid this activity as much as they would avoid tra- ditional homework. It may also happen that the overnight wait to have questions answered is too long for some children, who forget what their questions were or who become more confused over time.

Hybrid or Blended Classrooms When the term hybrid comes up in conversation, one of the first thoughts that may come to mind is that of hybrid vehicles, which usually combine the latest technology with a car’s more traditional features to achieve better fuel efficiency. Similarly, the education field uses the word hybrid to describe blending teaching and learning techniques with new technology. One model that schools increasingly use has students working a portion of the time online and working at other times in the classroom, face to face with the teacher and classmates. This combination of learning online with learning in the classroom is called the hybrid or blended classroom. This blended learning has been defined as “any time a student learns at least in part at a supervised brick-and-mortar location away from home and at least in part through online delivery with some element of student control over time, place, path, and/or pace” (Horn & Staker, 2012, p. 3).

The hybrid or blended classroom is similar to the flipped and traditional classrooms in that students still attend school and they work directly with the teacher and other students in a classroom. And yet, it is different from both models because students spend a portion of a day or week working online and outside the classroom. In the flipped model, students receive portions of their instruction online and then attend school to complete “homework,” but in the hybrid model, students do not necessarily come to class each and every day. They have the flexibility of learning lessons anywhere during the day, including at home, a computer lab, or a library.

When they do attend class, students in a hybrid classroom are still expected to participate in group discussions and collaborate with their classmates in person (Horn & Staker, 2012). Other collaborations look very different, having a larger emphasis on projects online, in blogs, and via other social media formats. Additionally, the time of the school day is con- sidered “stretched” because students can complete assignments on their own time, turning them in online either during the school day or afterward. This differs from the flipped and traditional classrooms, where students generally must complete assignments and assess- ments during the traditional school hours. Teacher and student roles can also be described as “stretched,” with more time spent in online interactions and requiring a wider array of technical skills.

Advantages and disadvantages of the hybrid model are similar to those of the flipped class- room. The self-direction required of students, for example, can be a strength if it is actu- ally manifested, and a challenge for those children not ready for it. Study projects, achieved through a combination of at-home and at-school work, provide opportunities to explore interesting topics in depth and for students to engage in learning according to their pre- ferred styles or intelligences. For some children, the combination of at-home and at-school learning provides just the right amount of social interaction; others might wish they had daily contact with their friends, while still others would be happiest remaining at home. The

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

use of technology, while it is ever advancing, can be a challenge for some students, particu- larly if families lack needed funding or technological understanding. In the California school described in Case in Point: A Hybrid Classroom in Action, some of the rural students are hin- dered by the substandard Internet connections available to them.

Case in Point: A Hybrid Classroom in Action One elementary school in a small California town offers an example of the way a hybrid approach can work well. The area is rural, and there is no bus service for children who live at the farthest distances. Two days a week, parents manage to provide carpools to the two- room school where children work together on study projects. While each grade has its own homeroom, projects are typically worked on across two or three grades jointly. In addition, assignments are made for independent home study, and work from the previous week is dis- cussed and graded. Once the children are home, they can work independently, sometimes with parental help, turning in work as assigned. The in-school projects can also be extended to the home, with students using Facebook, telephones, and occasionally Skype to discuss their prog- ress and challenges with each other. Because transportation is required only twice a week, the hybrid model offers convenience to parents. Occasional snowstorms in their mountainous region, however, keep students at home when the roads haven’t been cleared.

Questions to Consider

1. What do you see as the advantages of this model to children’s intellectual and social growth?

2. What would be the disadvantages of this model? Are there reasons that a more stan- dard expectation of 5 days a week at school would be more beneficial?

For an interactive version of this case study, visit your e-book.

Virtual Schools Virtual schools go a step beyond hybrid schools in terms of the time students learn online. They are different from the hybrid classroom because they “offer students the opportunity to take an entire diploma online. Students do not attend any site-based school, although the diploma itself may be offered through an affiliated school district” (Lowes, 2009, p. 161). Online enrollments for students in higher education are growing at the rate of 10% every year compared to just 1% growth in the overall higher education brick-and-mortar student population (Allen & Seaman, 2011). In fact, more than 6 million students took at least one online course in 2010, with the number growing each year. Though this information refers to the increasing popularity of online learning at the university level, K–12 education is also seeing a growth in this market. This is occurring, in part, due to the convenience of making courses available to students at their discretion, and the desire by institutions to personalize education.

Although it may appear that this model of education is new and innovative, it actually had its beginnings more than 100 years ago in Baltimore. There, the headmaster of the Calvert Day School convinced a bookstore to help in the packaging of a home program for kindergarten children. Its success with parents led to expansion across all the grades, a popular move with

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

missionary and military families in more than 50 countries. Calvert virtual programs con- tinue today with updated curricula and technology.

Virtual schools offer students the ability to move at their own pace and choose the hours of their schooling; they offer those who may not otherwise be able to attend school opportuni- ties to receive school credit. They focus on personalizing education to meet the specific needs of each student. Virtual schools offer students remediation and acceleration more easily than their traditional counterparts do (Greenway & Vanourek, 2006). Because classes are com-

pletely online, learning is available anytime and anywhere. The school day is bound only by the hours in a day, rather than the seat time in a classroom. Students may have the option of enrolling in a class on any day rather than waiting for the beginning of a new semester or school year. This means that in some instances, students may be able to start a course at any time during a week. The courses are often self- paced so that students can work through them rapidly or at their leisure. The teacher has the ability to work with a larger range of students online than would normally occur in the class- room. Often, students who participate in a vir- tual school are scattered over many geographic areas, which is quite different from having geographic boundaries that determine which public, traditional schools they will attend. Vir- tual schools can also meet the needs of home- schooled students, including those who use commercially produced programs such as Cal- vert (Pugach, 2006).

While public virtual schools are not commonly found everywhere, two schools in particular serve as long-standing models and are worth highlighting, in part because of the volume of students that they have served and because they have helped launch this style of learning at the public school level. The first statewide, Internet-based, public high school, the Florida Virtual School (FLVS), was founded in 1997. This virtual school is free to all students in the state of Florida, and available on a fee basis for out-of-state students. It offers a range of courses that are taken completely online by students who never attend a traditional school. In the 2010–11 school year, FLVS served more than 122,000 students (Florida Virtual High School, 2012). Similarly, the Utah Electronic High School offers courses to all students within the state of Utah. Its mission highlights the multiple roles that a virtual school can play: “to educate, remediate, accelerate, and graduate Utah’s diverse learners” (Utah Electronic High School, 2012, para. 1).

Such an approach can be useful for students who must work part- or full-time, who have ambitions that include full-time study such as in dance or art, or whose families travel extensively.

Jamie Grill/Getty Images While online learning at the college level has been a reality for years, K–12 education is also seeing an increase in virtual classrooms.

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

Added to the advantages supplied to students such as these is, as described previously, the oppor-tunity students have to cultivate 21st-century-style self-motivation. A primary disadvantage can be the lack of social interaction with peers. For many students, what makes school attrac-tive is the opportunity to engage in activities such as sports (either as a participant or as an enthusiastic fan), dances, and clubs. On the other hand, students who have achieved a good level of self-motivation find that they finish their required assignments more quickly and effi-ciently without the distractions that come from so many social activities. There is, of course, less interaction with a teacher as well, at least face to face. The teacher’s role includes sur-mounting this obstacle to provide students with the attention they need.

Standards-Based Mastery Learning Classrooms One model, gaining traction on the national level, groups students based on their individ-ual needs and academic levels rather than on age. Mastery learning provides educational opportunities that benefit both slow and fast learners, through a requirement that everyone “achieve at least minimal curriculum standards, then review and relearn them . . . at ever higher levels of thinking and extended applications” (Gentile & Lalley, 2003, p. 20). Once stu-dents achieve a level of proficiency for a skill, they progress to learning a new skill at their own pace. Mastery learning was introduced in the United States in the early part of the 20th century, but it failed to gain traction then because the lack of technology for efficient track-ing of individual student progress made the process too difficult. Today, technology can solve such problems.

Levels of mastery are determined by standards set by national academic-subject organi-zations (e.g., the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the National Council for the Social Studies, and the International Reading Association). In addition, federal programs such as the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation of the Bush administration and Race to the Top (RTTT) legislation of the Obama administration require the meeting of specific academic competencies, or broad intellectual skills and knowledge. Mastery learning in this environ-ment is termed standards-based mastery learning. Over time, the standards set by academic organizations are updated. Further, the standards set by NCLB and RTTT are also subject to change and repeal. Thus, schools that choose a mastery approach must be constantly aware of the requirements their students must meet.

Frequently, but not necessarily, standards-based mastery learning includes an ungraded classroom. Because students progress according to their achievement of required standards, rather than completion of a year in a specific grade, they can move ahead in an untraditional manner. That is, “in a traditional system, time is the constant and learning is the variable,” while in the ungraded, standards-based, mastery-learning classroom, “learning is the con-stant and time is the variable” (Delorenzo, Battino, Schreiber, & Carrio, 2009, pp. 18–19).

In the United States, students attend school from kindergarten to 12th grade. Traditionally, they earn grades and credits based on the time they attend school. Typically referred to as “seat time,” this basic and historical requirement for a high school diploma is known as the Carnegie unit count. Whether a student learns and masters skills, and the pace at which this occurs, varies greatly in each class, with each teacher, and at every school. Standards offer a different way to make graduation requirements. They can be thought of as

Section 7.2The Changing Classroom

public statements of . . . what students should know and be able to do at cer- tain points in their school experience. Standards describe the ends of educa- tion, the goals, the expectations. . . . Because standards are the destination, any number of paths can get students there. (Barth & Mitchell, 2001, p. 10)

Thus, a standards-based mastery learning environment can group students by skill need, which allows learning to be the priority, rather than seat time.

Although mastery learning has been positively written about, it is not commonly found. Thus, it might well take the form of a traditional, flipped, multiage, or other model. The important element is the fact that achievement is based on mastery of standards. The most well-known case of a district implementing a standards-based mastery learning system is the Chugach School District in Alaska. This rural and geographically large district is spread out across 22,000 miles. In 1995, the district implemented this new way of teaching and learning partly because of the need to connect with students who lived across the state, and also because students were not succeeding (Delorenzo et al., 2009). The dramatic improvement in aca- demic scores across all subjects caused districts in other states to investigate the possibility of adopting the model for themselves.

Assess Yourself 1. The term “21st-century skills” suggests that there is a new set of skills that individu-

als need to possess to be successful as citizens in a democracy and in the workforce. How do these skills compare to the set of skills and knowledge you use in your cur- rent job or in your daily life?

2. Flipped, hybrid, and virtual classrooms all require teachers, but their roles in each case are somewhat different. Could you see yourself teaching in one of these models? Which do you think would offer the greatest job satisfaction? Why?

3. For the foreseeable future, the traditional model of schooling will probably remain most common. If you become a teacher in a traditional school, are there elements from any of the other models you would like to incorporate?

Table 7.1 gives an overview of student and teacher roles across the models discussed in this chapter. As you peruse its contents, reflect on the contributions to skills for democracy you think each one makes—or does not make.

Section 7.3Technology and Learning

Table 7.1: Comparing student and teacher roles within classroom models

Classroom model Student role in learning process Teacher role in learning process

Traditional Passive: Student waits to be told what will be taught and what activities he/ she will participate in. This includes practicing concepts to reinforce learning.

Provide direct instruction to whole class as well as to small groups based on grade-level standards, give directions, assign work and homework, answer student questions, build a community of learners.

Flipped Active: Student expected to come to class prepared with specific ques- tions on concepts and view lessons independently.

Provide direct instruction via use of technology and, as needed, in class, but with greater focus on meeting students at their points of need and focusing on responding to specific questions students have; build a community of learners.

Hybrid/blended Active learning: Student expected to complete portions of work online and come to class with specific needs.

Provide content online and in class, focus on connecting students because of distance learning component while responding to specific questions students have on concepts, build a com- munity of learners.

Virtual Active and self-directed: Self-directed and autonomous. No personal face-to- face contact to motivate.

Provide content, facilitate online learn- ing, inform and give feedback online, ask critical questions and steer learner to stay on track while responding to student needs, build a community of online learners.

Multiage Mixed role: While students still depend on teacher to be told what will be taught, there is greater independence and interdependence between students and teacher to self-direct learning.

Deliver lecture and direct instruction to whole class and groups based on cross- grade level standards, give directions, assign work and homework, answer student questions, build a community of learners.

Standards-based mastery learning

Active and self-directed: Self-directed and autonomous until mastery, with guidance from teacher.

Deliver direct instruction to individuals and small groups based on proficiency levels, give directions, assign work and homework, answer student questions, build a community of learners.

7.3 Technology and Learning Technology and education have been integrated for centuries as new inventions have made their way into the classroom. Historical developments would include blackboards, then green boards, later whiteboards, and later yet interactive whiteboards; overhead projectors and movie projectors, then Windows Movie Maker and iMovie; fountain pens and later ballpoints; slide rules and finally calculators. What is different today is the vast amount of technological change, both in common daily life and in the classroom, and the extent to which the two are integrated.

Section 7.3Technology and Learning

The years between 1950 and the early 1990s have been described as a move from an indus- trial society to an information society. At the beginning of this period, about 17% of the Amer- ican workforce was involved with the information industry, and, at the end, the percentage was 70%. As applied to education, it can be said that the introduction of tools such as ball- point pens and slide rules “emerged gradually and caused only modest changes in the cur- riculum. The current evolution of computer-based technologies is different. Instead of delib- erate and uncomplicated, the development of the computer has been rapid and complex” (Wishnietsky, 2001, pp. 44–45).

All of the technology now available for the classroom offers opportunities to present learning in new or different ways. The potential is also there to help increase students’ motivation to learn and succeed through the use of these innovative tools. Note that the previ- ous two statements refer to learning with technology, rather than simply learning, or learning about, technology. While technology skills are necessary as the basis for learning, they are not an end in and of themselves. Instead, technology can be used to teach the 21st-century skills we have discussed earlier, such as cooperation, collabo- ration, analysis, communication, and even citizenship in a democracy.

Web 2.0 The original design of the World Wide Web, although quite amazing for its time, did not include much interaction capability or user-generated content. The term Web 2.0 is not an official des- ignation for a new model of the Web, but it informally refers to updated capabilities that have evolved in recent years. Web 2.0 provides more dynamic and interconnected features and functionality. Many varieties of online communities are now possible, both within and across classrooms. Web 2.0 continues to evolve and change over time. This can be observed in one of its developments: social media. Different versions and companies rise in popularity and then may or may not remain popular. Eventually, there will no doubt arise a Web 3.0 that cannot at this point be imagined or defined. Following are some examples of ways Web 2.0 currently matters to teachers and students in many classrooms.

Classrooms Without Walls: Connected and Flat Classrooms of this century may not yet have achieved wall-free status, but for the most part, that is the goal. In other words, the rapid growth of technology makes it possible for stu- dents to engage in worldwide learning. This may pertain to the ability to acquire information as well as to the possibilities of interacting with people in distant places. Connected class- rooms are those classrooms that are moving toward being free of walls by using technology

Robert Brook/Getty Images With every advance in information technology, new teaching opportunities are created.

Section 7.3Technology and Learning

to the fullest, providing every student with sufficient opportunities to use digital technology for their learning.

The flat classroom concept comes from Thomas Friedman’s 2005 best-selling book The World Is Flat, in which he contemplated issues related to globalization. In particular, he argued that what makes the world flat is the equal opportunity in this century for any country any- where to participate successfully in commerce. Historical and geographical divisions mean less and less when it comes to globalization. As applied to education, flat classrooms take the connected classroom concept a step further, connecting study projects with students in other sites, even on the other side of the world. Projects are most frequently real-world projects in which students can learn about each other’s cultures, histories, daily lives, and interests.

While such experiences can certainly be undertaken by teachers anywhere, just as global- ized commercial efforts can take place anywhere, there is an international educational effort known as the Flat Classroom Project designed for grades 3 through 12. Created shortly after the publication of, and inspired by, Friedman’s book, the Flat Classroom Project has been the work of two teachers, one from the United States and one from Australia, Vicki Davis and Julie Lindsay. Its purposes include the increase of cultural understanding, learning about and using Web 2.0 technologies, global collaboration, and online learning (Davis & Lindsay, 2007). While Davis remains in rural Georgia, Lindsay has introduced their ideas to schools in countries that include Bangladesh and Qatar, where she currently teaches. The two teachers provide online conferences and workshops for teachers and students that include opportuni- ties for cross-global projects through collaboration.

Blogs and Wikis The term blog is an abbreviation for “Web log,” which is essentially an online journal. Because of the interactive nature of Web 2.0, most blogs contain the capacity for commentary by read- ers (somewhat of a change from the far more private traditional diary with its little brass lock and key!). Blogs are used in classrooms for purposes such as writing for real audiences, creating an online community, giving shy students a voice, allowing students more time to reflect on their ideas before sharing them, and building a classroom community as well as a community with parents if they are included.

A wiki is a website that is not static but allows anyone to add, subtract, or edit information. Links to other related and useful sites can also be added. The word originates from “wiki- wiki,” the Hawaiian word for quick. The largest wiki is the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, known for its democratic approach to contributions by most any reader. While it has also been known for its lack of valid information, in recent years Wikipedia’s research has become more respected. The same approach can be taken in the classroom as groups of students cre- ate informative sites based on their current research.

Online Educational Games One surprising new method of teaching is already a favorite pastime of many students: gam- ing. Video games are now creating an entire generation of students who want to actively par- ticipate, create, and immerse themselves in their own learning environments. Two different gaming styles are emerging in education: immersive games and targeted games. Immersive

Section 7.3Technology and Learning

games allow the student to immerse him- or herself in a story-based online environment and then solve problems to move through the story. Targeted games are the rapid drill-and- practice type of games that give students repeated practice on a targeted subject. This turns rote learning into a timed experience, which improves the response rate and decreases the error rate. There are many educational games available. Some that cover a wide range of ages and grades include Academic Skill Builders, Brain Nook, Bubbabrain, DimensionU, Gamequarium, Magnahigh, Minecraft, PhyFun, Vedoque, and ZooWhiz.

Assistive Technology As the 21st century approached, American technology became increasingly concerned with adapting common, everyday living tools for the needs of almost everyone. In part this was brought on by the aging of the “baby boomers,” that crowded generation born at the end of the Second World War. It also was the result of federal laws and increased attention to people with disabilities. Often, these new technologies and inventions have appeared with- out our taking much notice of them. For example, the circular doorknob has, in recent years, been disappearing in favor of a long, straight bar or lever that simply needs to be moved

downward. This provides welcome convenience for the shopper return- ing home with arms full of groceries as well as for the citizen in a wheelchair. The lever door handle can be use- ful in the school setting as well. Any teacher or student with an armload of books will be happy to simply lean against the handle to open the door as will a student with physical disabili- ties. Technology of this sort goes by the umbrella term assistive technol- ogy. A subset of assistive technology is adaptive technology. Whereas the former is the overall term for objects and formats designed for people with and without physical problems, the latter is created specifically for people who need the technology to be able to function.

The following are a few school-based examples of the ways education life has been made easier in recent years because of assistive technology advances:

• Gabe is a third grader whose cognitive challenges make it impossible for him to read at grade level, yet he wants to read what others are reading. Observing that Gabe hoped that others would see him holding in his hands the same books that his friends were enjoying, his teacher decided that she would help him understand at least parts of the stories he was interested in. She turned to the Internet to see what might easily be available. First, she helped Gabe find synonyms for words that they decided together were important for understanding a story that he was reading.

Xavier Subias/age fotostock/Superstock Assistive technology has made it possible for students with diverse challenges to function in classrooms that had previously been out of reach for them.

Section 7.3Technology and Learning

From each list of synonyms there was generally a word or two that made sense to him, and he kept a list in his reading journal. Next, his teacher discovered that there were often YouTube action videos that provided explanations of words and con- cepts. He then had a few more words to add to his journal. Gabe never did catch up with everyone else, but he could read parts of stories and understand them through basic use of the Internet. His teacher often found him with a big smile on his face as he held up his on-level book for everyone to witness.

• Some students have special needs because they are ahead rather than lagging behind. Students with cognitive gifts or talents deserve to be challenged, to be excited about coming to school knowing that new learning awaits them. As a fifth- grade teacher, Tom was at a loss concerning Melody, a girl whose cognitive abilities in all subjects put her consistently ahead of the class. Easily bored, she was always looking for something new and interesting to do. Tom did not want to simply pile more work on her, knowing that it would do nothing to make her enjoy learning. The answer to this dilemma turned out to be found in her name. Melody’s parents were both musicians, and had named her accordingly, but they had done little to engage her in musical training. Tom discovered an app available on iTunes called Symphony Pro for the iPad. With a built-in virtual piano keyboard on the bottom half of the screen, it contains space on the top for notation. As Melody invented songs on the “piano,” notation appeared on the top and could be saved. In Melody’s case, she found her joy in setting to music several poems she had written. Soon, however, Tom realized that because there was no necessity for language, the app might be useful for two of his English language learners (ELLs). They were both quick students who nevertheless often felt frustrated by their lack of language ability. Now they were able to create music and find more enjoyment in their school day. As the school year progressed, so did the ELLs’ English capabilities, and Melody was put to work teach- ing the two how to write poems and put them to music.

• Another opportunity to use technology to assist an ELL was provided by Educre- ation, an interactive whiteboard. Graciela’s middle school students were, at first, shy about hearing themselves talk when they played back what they had said while writing on the whiteboard. But soon their nervous giggles became giggles of delight as they could hear the improvement in their pronunciation, accompanied by ever- improving written English.

• Students with physical impairments often have needs far more complex than a levered door handle. One first grader in a wheelchair whose challenges had been with him since birth wanted badly to be able to participate in class art projects. Pam, his sympathetic teacher, was able to find crayons and paint brushes that he could hold. But when she perused available catalogs of commercial adaptive technologies, she couldn’t find scissors that would work for his particular difficulties. Eventually, her father-in-law invented a motorized cutting device that worked for most of his projects (the device looked somewhat like a pair of scissors, with a small motor near the handle). Thus, the child could feel as though he looked like everyone else as he went to work. The conclusion Pam came to with this experience: Today’s technology is far ahead of where it was decades ago, even a very few years ago, but there is still more to be done (Krogh & Morehouse, 2014).

In addition to the examples of assistive technology just given, there are, of course, many oth- ers. Here is a brief list:

Section 7.4Issues for Technology and Learning

• Audiotaped or videotaped class sessions • Computers equipped with speech output, which highlights and reads (via screen

reading software and a speech synthesizer) text on the computer screen • Word processing software that includes electronic spelling and grammar checkers,

software with highlighting capabilities, and word prediction software • Talking calculators • Computer assisted instruction (CAI) software for math or computer assisted design

(CAD) software for engineering • The use of email for instructor-student meetings and discussion groups for class

discussions • Computer-based instruction, distance learning, and other options that minimize

travel and classroom-based instruction

This list of technologies and descriptions of others in the examples may seem overwhelming, even intimidating, to readers unfamiliar with them. Fortunately, workshops, conferences, and classes are available―sometimes even required―for teachers. Because technological devel- opment is ongoing, such training is ongoing too.

Assess Yourself 1. Clearly, teachers today must be willing to integrate technology into the curriculum. If

you become a teacher, how will you stay abreast of new technologies?

2. How do you feel about using some of the previously discussed technologies in your classroom? Do you think using video games in a learning environment is a good idea? Why or why not?

3. Would you be willing to attend workshops and in-service trainings to upgrade your technology skills? Which skills in particular would you prioritize learning?

7.4 Issues for Technology and Learning The 21st century offers much that is positive in the way of technological development, includ- ing in its application to education. There are, however, concerns to be had. Two of them are discussed here.

Internet Safety While the Internet might be, for people who did not grow up with it, an almost magical source of rapidly attained information, it is also a source of some concern when it is used by young students. The student who attempted to find information about the planet Venus and ended up with information about a local topless nightclub is a typical example of the kind of inadvertent exploration into forbidden territory that can happen if protections are not securely in place (Wishnietsky, 2001). Other safety concerns are based on the expansion of

Section 7.4Issues for Technology and Learning

cyber-stalking and bullying. Unfortunately, the anonymity provided by many aspects of Internet technology can lead to unwarranted safety for people who have criminal inten- tions. Not only children, but their teachers as well, need to use caution when interacting with social media. School districts often have guidelines and policies in place that should be followed. It is teachers’ responsibility to model and teach appropriate use of online sources for academic learning.

Less evil, but still potentially negative, are the marketing capabilities made possible by the interactive nature of today’s Web 2.0. Some schools deal with these issues by placing all com- puters in a specific location that is closely monitored. Teachers can view the history file on the computers’ browsers and also make sure that any other supervisors know what the students should be accomplishing during their computer time. In addition, there are software programs that deny students access to some Internet locations.

Because there will always be some stu- dents who are able to work their way around whatever system is in place, it has been suggested that schools should develop policies regarding Internet use and the consequences for disobedience. Students and their parents should sign a policy state- ment before Internet use is permitted (Wishnietsky, 2001). A final concern to consider is the potential overuse of computers. It is still the case that virtual reality cannot and should not replace real-world experiences in student learning. Students and teachers alike should be in control of technology, not the other way around.

Digital Divide In the mid-1990s, as the U.S. Department of Commerce began studying the availability of tech- nology, it coined the term digital divide to describe the haves and have-nots who did, or did not, have access to technology, particular high-quality technology. This issue was becoming a matter of national concern as technology’s importance to the economy was becoming highly apparent.

Now it can be said that the digital divide, at least so far as school use is concerned, has nar- rowed considerably over the years. In 1999, more than 90% of schools had Internet access. By 2005, the percentage was close to 100% (Grinager, 2006). Nevertheless, although school access to technology is about the same, students’ ability to access technology, particularly the most up-to-date technology, within some schools may well not be. For example, comput- ers in high-poverty schools are often kept in special rooms under lock and key and provide

Selimakscan/Thinkstock Because students can usually find ways around built-in Internet filters and blocks, most schools have clearly defined policies for Internet use and consequences for student and staff violations.

Section 7.4Issues for Technology and Learning

less time online for their students. Additionally, some research has shown that low-income children and African Americans are more likely to be given drill-and-practice assignments on computers, while white children are more likely to be given problem-solving assignments that require higher-level thought (Barth & Mitchell, 2001). The importance of this situation is demonstrated by the widely held view that non-routine problem solving and non-routine interactive skills are what will be needed by a 21st-century workforce (National Research Council, 2012).

Another problem is that students from poorer homes are less likely to have access to technol- ogy outside school, which may put them at a disadvantage compared to peers who do have access: “Anyone who has both a computer and kids at home has seen how adept young people become by spending hours playing and experimenting with the technology. For many chil- dren, the payoff in expertise is enormous” (Barth & Mitchell, 2001, p. 119).

There is the danger of one other kind of digital divide: one pertaining to teachers. Govern- ment studies have shown that 82% of schools provide in-service technological training for teachers, but that only 62% of teachers feel comfortable using and teaching technology (Gri- nager, 2006). This divide in teachers’ abilities can affect students:

Just incorporating technology into the classroom does not automatically increase learning. . . . It is the classroom teacher who must evaluate the tech- nology to determine if it is well designed and pedagogically sound, if it will strengthen the curriculum, and if and how it should be incorporated. Without this type of teacher involvement, the best-designed technology and software applications will do little to increase learning. (Wishnietsky, 2001, p. 45)

Some helpful suggestions for addressing problems of the digital divide come from Education Week (Harvey, 2014):

• Students can bring to school their personal devices and, if willing, share with others. • Leasing programs are available. Initial costs can be high and there are concerns

about student misuse, but a well-planned program that includes signed parent- student contracts can work.

• Better use of computer labs is often possible. If time in the lab is limited, much plan- ning and preparation can take place in advance. Final wrap-ups can take place back in the classroom.

• There is often a digital divide between teacher and students, the latter more inclined to be digital natives. Students can take leadership roles while teachers need to engage in professional development opportunities.

Building Your Portfolio Future employers will want to know what your technology competencies are and how you plan to incorporate technology into your teaching. Reflect on this chapter’s discussion of edu- cational technology to determine what your interests and strengths will be. Then, write a short statement that would be a good one for you to share with a prospective employing principal.

Summary & Resources

Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary The turn of a century may not herald major changes in education or in any other part of a culture. In the case of the 21st century, however, it may be said that the rapid evolution of technology and globalization does make a case for special commentary—and for an entire chapter in this text. While education may not move as quickly as commerce and technology, classrooms have nevertheless tried to keep up with new models and updates of traditional versions. Some of the best-known models include multiage, flipped, hybrid/blended, virtual, and standard-based/mastery. All of them have elements that are forward looking and technol- ogy oriented. At the same time, it is important to remember that students are being educated, not only for increasing globalization, but also for a long tradition of a culture of democracy.

Technology in this century has become known as Web 2.0 based on its increasing sophistica- tion, particularly in relation to its interactive capabilities. This has made possible connected and flat classrooms that make use of such Web 2.0 elements as blogs, wikis, and even games. Assistive and adaptive technologies make it possible for every student to participate fully in education. While technology provides many positive sources of learning for students at every age, Internet safety is also a consideration. Both teachers and students need appropri- ate awareness as well as to take knowledgeable steps that ensure safety.

Questions for Further Critical Thinking & Reflection

1. Technology has made our world more interconnected and accessible. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of technology enabling students as young as 5 years old to learn online? Do you think anything is lost when a student does not interact face to face with teachers and peers? Is there a certain age at which you feel students might be ready to learn online?

2. What do you think about the focus on providing a more personalized learning environment for students? Do you see any contradiction between this focus and that of 21st-century skills, which places an emphasis on collaboration and working with others?

3. Given the idea that education and teaching in general are undergoing dramatic changes, does any particular teaching model strike you as having the ability to have a significant impact on the academic performance of students? Are there other models you can think of that could ensure student success?

4. Do you see the changing role of the teacher and student as an important step in improving the ways our schools operate and in which learning takes place? Does it give you any pause or raise concerns about the direction in which our education system is heading?

5. Can you foresee a future classroom model that is completely different from, or that improves upon, the models currently in place and under development? If so, describe it to the best of your ability.

6. Students who participate in a flipped classroom work together in class on their “homework.” In flipped classrooms, students watch lectures and learn lessons at home, and do their “homework” in the classroom. This chapter listed advantages and disadvantages of the model. Do you see others?

Summary & Resources

Web Resources The American Library Association. The American Library Association provides suggestions

for Internet safety and ways to combat bullying, with ideas for librarians, teachers, and parents. There are several sites, with this one especially helpful. http://www.ala.org/aasl/parents/internet

Think Tank: Flip-Thinking—The New Buzz Word Sweeping the U.S. This article discusses the flipping of classrooms. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/7996379/Daniel-Pinks-Think-Tank-Flip-thinking- the-new-buzz-word-sweeping-the-US.html

My View: How Flipped Classrooms Give Every Student a Chance to Succeed. This story relates how one principal flipped the entire school and improved student achievement. http://schoolsofthought.blogs.cnn.com/2012/01/18/my-view-f lipped-classrooms- give-every-student-a-chance-to-succeed/

The Clayton Christensen Institute. This institute is devoted to “disruptive innovation,” most specifically by replacing traditional education with student-centered blended approaches to teaching and learning. Useful definitions and explanations are found on this website. http://www.christenseninstitute.org/blended-learning

Going the Distance: Online Education in the United States, 2011. This report discusses the growth of online learning occurring in the United States. http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/going_distance_2011

The Rise of K-12 Blended Learning. This article describes the development of hybrid or blended classrooms. http://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelhorn/2011/01/27/the-rise-of-k-12-blended- learning/

Adams 50 Skips Grades, Lets Kids Be Pacesetters. This article details how the Adams 50 School District uses ungraded classrooms. http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_11280071

Key Terms adaptive technologies A subset of assistive technologies. They are designed specifically for people with disabilities.

assistive technologies Technological inno- vations designed to make physical experi- ences more easily accomplished. They are typically designed both for the general pub- lic and for people with physical disabilities.

blended classroom Another term for hybrid classroom.

connected classrooms A classroom that is moving toward being free of walls by using technology to the fullest, providing every student with sufficient opportunities to use digital technology for their learning.

digital divide The gap between people who have access to funding for the purchase of modern technology and those who do not.

flat classroom A classroom that takes the connected classroom concept a step further,

Summary & Resources

connecting study projects with students in other sites, even on the other side of the world. Projects are most frequently real- world projects in which students can learn about each other’s cultures, histories, daily lives, and interests.

flipped classroom A classroom in which instruction takes place at home via technol- ogy and traditional homework activities take place at school with the teacher’s assistance.

hybrid classroom A classroom in which student time is divided, at least in part, between the campus and home.

looping Keeping students with the same teacher for at least 2 years and possibly throughout all of elementary school.

mastery learning An approach in which students are promoted to higher levels of learning and expectations based on achiev- ing pre-set standards.

multiage classroom A classroom that con- tains students from more than one grade or age group at a time.

ungraded classroom A classroom in which students are given individually determined assignments based on ability rather than on the students’ grades.

virtual school A school in which learning is achieved primarily, or even totally, online.