Can someone do my Week 4 Assignment in Organizational Development?

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Individual Interventions 7

Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe learning and development interventions, including reflective practice; T-groups; training, education, and development; and action learning.

• Identify when management and leadership development is indicated and discuss values clarifi- cation and coaching interventions.

• Distinguish three types of assessments and explain why it is essential that they be adminis- tered by certified professionals, effectively debriefed, and used ethically.

• Discuss various ways individual careers can be supported through performance management, career plan development, assessments, and developmental relationships.

• Explain how jobs can be better developed with the use of job design, job descriptions, and policy development.

fizkes/iStock/Getty Images Plus

Lindsey was laid off from her job in a financial institution during an economic downturn. Although it was difficult for her to be without an income, she had not liked her work; she was often unfulfilled and unchallenged. The layoff gave her an opportunity to think hard about what she wanted to do next. She had no dependents, little debt, and enough savings to cover the tran- sition, so she had some flexibility in her next steps.

To begin exploring her options, Lindsey made an appointment with a consultant, Jennifer, who spe- cialized in career counseling. Prior to their first meeting, the consultant gave her a couple of assess- ments to identify her personality preferences and key interests. During their first meeting, Jennifer shared the results of the assessments and asked Lindsey several challenging questions, such as “Where do you want to be in 5 years?” What excites you?” and “What is your biggest challenge?” They also worked on a values clarification exercise to identify Lindsey’s key values. After each counseling session, Lindsey was given homework that prompted her to explore what opportunities might interest her.

After much soul searching, Lindsey decided to return to school for an accelerated master’s degree in instructional design; this would merge her inter- ests in technology and education. Upon graduation, she was hired by a consumer products company to develop learning and development programs.

When Lindsey started her new position, she under- went an intensive training program that included an orientation and an introduction to the organization’s training and technology platforms. Her direct supervisor worked with her to develop a career plan within the company. Lindsey joined a national professional organization that had a regional chapter in her metropolitan area. She began attending meetings and devel- oped relationships with several of her peers and seniors in her field. She struck up a conversation with the keynote speaker, Jo, at one of the events. Jo was a vice president of learning and develop- ment at a technology company. They continued corresponding after the meeting and developed an informal mentoring relationship.

Jo became a mentor to Lindsey, and she was a good sounding board not only for some of the technical problems she encountered, but also for political issues. Jo recommended books, confer- ences, and other people from whom to seek advice about issues and opportunities. Jo also helped Lindsey make decisions about which opportunities and positions to pursue within her company. Lindsey received high marks during her performance evaluations and continued to evolve her career plan. Eventually, Jo recommended Lindsey to another company, which recruited and hired her into a managerial position.

Wavebreakmedia/Thinkstock Lindsey attends a training session for her new position.

This book has focused on accomplishing OD using the action research model. It has moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This chapter is devoted to profiling several interventions that might be appropriate at the individual level of analysis. For the purposes of this chapter, it is assumed you have followed the action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention in collaboration with the client.

Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in Phase 1 of the action research model. They are implemented in Phase 2, doing or action, and assessed in Phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 defined OD interventions as the actions taken on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start.

The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of the many options available. We could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD inter- ventions are nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, we will present the most common individual interventions with descriptions of their definition, why consultants use them, and how to implement them.

The three intervention chapters in this book have organized interventions according to the levels of individual, group or team, and organization. Although these interventions have been categorized by level for ease of understanding their scope, some interventions, such as leader- ship development interventions, may fall under more than one category. A leadership devel- opment program similar to the one described in the Leadership Academy vignette crosses all three of these levels, because potential leaders receive individual development that affects their interactions with groups and the whole organization.

Another example of interventions that cross all levels would be the implementation of a per- formance management system. Individual development and change is usually affected when performance is appraised, and this in turn affects other people, groups, and the organization itself. See Table 7.1 for examples of interventions according to level of analysis.

Table 7.1: Levels of OD interventions

Individual-level interventions Group-level interventions Organization-level interventions

• Learning and development • Leadership or management

development • Career development • Assessment • Job development

• Group or team process and development

• Diversity and inclusion • Conflict management • Problem solving and

decision making

• Vision and mission development

• Strategic planning • Organization design • Culture • Talent management • Large-scale interactive events

(LSIEs)

The purpose of this chapter is to profile selected interventions according to the individual level. Individual interventions usually accomplish one or more of the following: learning and development, leadership and management development, assessment, career development, and job development (see Table 7.2).

Section 7.1Learning and Development

Table 7.2: Categories of individual OD intervention

Category Intervention

Learning and development • Reflective practice • Laboratory training (T-group) • Training, education, and development • Action learning

Leadership or management development • Values clarification and integration • Coaching

Assessment • Values clarification and integration • Coaching

Career development • Performance management • Career plan development • Assessments • Developmental relationships

Job development • Job design • Job descriptions • Responsibility charting • Policies

7.1 Learning and Development Learning and development interventions ensure organization members have the knowl- edge, skills, and abilities needed to do their jobs effectively and help the organization per- form optimally. These activities affirm not only that employees are fully trained but also that they remain engaged in ongoing learning, which helps create and sustain the organization’s culture, enables the organization to remain competitive, and promotes employee retention. As we have already discussed, learning and change are intricately related, and this category of interventions helps employees implement change. Learning and development interven- tions also help new knowledge be shared throughout the organization. Key interventions in this area include reflective practice; laboratory training, or T-groups; training, education, and development activities; and action learning.

Reflective Practice When was the last time you stopped and gave thoughtful consideration to a decision, experi- ence, or idea? Or had a deep, engaging, and thoughtful conversation with another person? When you engage in these pauses to contemplate, you are engaging in reflective practice.

What Is Reflective Practice? Whenever you think critically about your experiences and actions, you are engaged in reflec- tive practice. Donald Schön introduced reflective practice in his books The Reflective Practi- tioner (1983) and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987). Schön distinguished two types of reflective practice according to when they occur. Lindsey, who lost her job in the vignette, engaged in reflective practice with her career counselor, who asked her to think about what she wanted in the next chapter of her life.

Section 7.1Learning and Development

• Suppose Sarah facilitates a meeting. During the meeting, she might think, “I need to be more pragmatic about keeping everyone focused and on point,” “I didn’t manage the disagreement between team members about the best solution to the problem,” or “Maybe if I restate the issue, we can solve this problem.” These musings about an experience while it is happening are reflection in action. That is, Sarah assesses an experience, her thoughts about the experience, actions she has taken, or actions she might take, in the moment. Perhaps as a result, she adjusts her actions in the moment.

• Once the meeting is finished and Sarah thinks about what happened and imagines how she could have handled things better or what she will do next time, she is engaging in what Schön (1983) called reflection on action. Sarah is using what she learned from the experience to shape future thoughts and actions.

Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Reflective Practice? When OD consultants ask an organization member to change, they are putting that person into a learning situation. A learner’s ability to critically reflect on and in action signals their adeptness at learning. Reflec- tive practice is one of the hallmarks of adult learning (Brookfield, 1987; Merriam & Bier- ema, 2014) and helps individuals adopt change more effectively and permanently.

In the opening vignette, Lindsey engaged in reflective practice activities under the guidance of her career counselor. This helped her assess her situation, interests, and opportunities. Unfortunately, time to reflect is largely lacking in the contempo- rary workplace, because organizations tend to be focused on action at its expense. Your clients may have a difficult time slowing down to reflect; they may feel it is a waste of time. On the contrary, reflection can help clients accept change and be more mindful as they implement it. The more consultants can help their clients think critically, avoid error, and learn from experience, the more effective the intervention.

How Is Reflective Practice Done? Brookfield (1987) pointed out how critical reflection is used in strategic planning, effective decision making, creative problem solving, situational leadership, entrepreneurial risk taking,

Consider This Think about instances when you engaged in reflection in action and reflection on action. How has taking a reflective pause helped you learn and engage with your colleagues?

JGalione/E+/Getty Images Plus Reflection helps us learn from our experiences. How would you encourage reflective practice as an OD consultant?

Section 7.1Learning and Development

research and development activities, and organizational team building. OD consultants who foster reflective practice in their clients on these and other organizational processes will more effectively help them understand the assumptions that underlie their own thoughts and actions.

A key way to get clients to reflect is to help them recognize contradictions between thought and action. For example, a manager may claim to treat all employees fairly but show favorit- ism toward certain people. This behavior is what Argyris and Schön (1974) called espoused theory versus theory in use. The familiar adage “Do as I say, not as I do” aptly captures these kinds of inconsistencies, which are usually rampant in organizations. Helping clients recog- nize these discrepancies is the first step toward helping them make their behavior more con- sistent with their espoused values. See Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise to examine contradictions between what people say and what they do.

OD consultants might ask an individual to reflect on the impending change, a career move, or feedback; they might also build in structured reflection time when planning for other inter- ventions such as training. Consultants can send clients on an individual retreat with reflection assignments. Reflection is also a key component of coaching and T-groups.

Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise Organization theorists Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (1974) developed the left-hand col- umn (LHC) exercise as part of their work in action science (a process of action research that generates useful information about practical problems in organizations, usually by examining contradictions between what people say and what they actually do). Steps to creating an LHC include the following:

1. Pick an important conversation you have recently had. 2. Use the following worksheet to document the conversation. 3. Write down the actual words you and your conversant used in the right-hand column. 4. Write down what you were actually thinking and feeling during the conversation as

the words were being said. 5. Compare both columns. 6. What differences, if any, exist between what you said and what you thought?

a. If there were discrepancies, how can you begin to productively raise some of your left-hand column thoughts?

b. How can you prompt your conversant to be more forthright about some of their left-hand column thoughts?

LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said

I was hoping he wouldn’t notice we were late. YOUR BOSS: Let’s meet this week. We are behind with the budget and we need to get these items finalized. Jim, I’d like to come down there next week. We’re a few weeks behind, and I think we might all benefit from a meeting at your office.

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Section 7.1Learning and Development

Laboratory Training and T-Groups Laboratory training, or T-groups, provides opportunities for individuals to reflect on their own behavior and how it affects the group.

What Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups? We introduced T-groups in Chapter 1. Also known as laboratory training or training groups, T-groups are small groups of organization members that provide in-depth feedback to one another about perceptions and how individual behaviors affect the group. Recall that T-groups stimulated the creation of OD and grew in popularity through the 1960s and 1970s. They are less popular today because of the risk of being unable to maintain amicable work relationships after significant self-disclosure and sharing. Also, their results can be difficult to transfer back to the work context. Frank disclosure may also put employees at risk with their

Assessment: The Left-Hand Column Exercise (continued)

LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said

I need to make it clear that I’m willing to take responsibility for this, but some of this is out of my control.

ME: Yes, the deadlines are of concern. As you know, some of the estimates we need to com- plete the budget have not come in on a timely basis, although we are working as hard as we can to get them. When do you want to meet?

He always seems to offer help after the crisis has already occurred, not when I really need it. Now, it is too late to do anything but wait.

YOUR BOSS: It seems to me that we could have better communication and coordination between the two of us as we establish the bud- get. I might be able to help.

The changes he keeps making to the renovation plans are the real reason we’re late. Getting estimates takes time.

ME: I’m always open to better ways to build the mousetrap. YOUR BOSS: I hope you have some better ideas about what we can do here.

I wish I could just level with him that he’s the reason we are delayed. If we can just get him to hold off a bit longer, we should be able to get the estimates.

ME: If we can push off our meeting until next week, I think we can have the budget by then and also brainstorm improved processes.

Your Turn . . .

Visit your e-book to download an interactive version of this assessment.

LEFT: What I really thought RIGHT: What was really said

Section 7.1Learning and Development

organizations if management were to retaliate. Refer back to Chapter 1 for a full description of T-groups.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Laboratory Training and T-Groups? T-groups are beneficial interventions because they provide fodder for reflective practice, as discussed in the previous section. Specifically, they help group members reflect on their interpersonal interactions and thereby deepen their self-awareness. Often, individuals fail to consider where their assumptions come from or how their behaviors and comments affect others. T-groups provide a platform for reflection and disclosure that leads to deeper levels of consciousness.

How Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups Done? A T-group is rather fluid, usually lacking an explicit agenda beyond enhanced awareness and understanding. The goals of a T-group include increasing members’ self-awareness and improving their understanding of how their individual interactions affect the group. T-groups usually yield useful insights about oneself, others, and the group. T-groups may use the con- versation to solve problems, share feedback, or role-play.

T-groups require eight to 15 participants. The consultant’s role is to guide the group and encourage participants to share emotional reactions (e.g., anger, fear, warmth, or envy) to the other participants’ actions and statements. The group should focus on sharing emotions rather than making judgments or drawing conclusions. The T-group helps participants see how their words and actions trigger emotional responses in the other individuals and ideally makes participants more mindful of how they behave in group settings.

T-groups can be uncomfortable for members because significant self-disclosure and open- ness are required. Moreover, participants’ feelings may be hurt because of the feedback’s highly personal nature. Experienced facilitators help mitigate these risky dynamics.

Training, Education, and Development A key individual intervention is to ensure that employees have the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to effectively do their jobs. Training, education, and development make that possible.

What Are Training, Education, and Development? Training, education, and development are appropriate interventions when new skills, knowl- edge, or attitudes are needed in areas such as new technology implementation, diversity and inclusion initiatives, machine operation, product safety, and new employee orientation. In the opening vignette, Lindsey pursued all three of these. In this text, these three interventions will be referred to as training. You will recall that Lindsey elected to pursue higher education training and then received further training when she joined her new company.

Davis and Davis (1998) offered a comprehensive definition of training. Among their key points are the following:

Section 7.1Learning and Development

• Training is always a process, rather than a program to be completed. • Training develops skills, shares information, and nurtures attitudes. • Training helps the organization. • Training usually contributes to workers’ overall development. • Training helps workers qualify for a job, do the job, or advance to a new job. • Training is essential for enhancing and transforming a job. • Training facilitates learning. • Learning is not only a formal activity; it is also a universal activity, and many types of

people facilitate it formally and informally. • Training should always hold forth the promise of maximizing learning.

Why Do OD Consultants Do Training, Education, and Development? It is easy to associate OD interventions exclusively with training programs, but not all OD problems require a training solution. When training programs are required, it is important that they be well designed and facilitated in ways that meet the intended goals. Training is most effective when it is explicitly linked to organizational strategy and when it targets a problem that can be resolved by training. Thus, training may be used to improve current employee job performance, such as by teaching employees new skills, software, or processes that help them do their jobs with more speed and accuracy. Or it may be a means of orienting new employees to the policies and expectations of the company. In the opening vignette, Lind- sey went through extensive orientation training. Training may also be used to prepare employ- ees for advancement. For instance, leadership training may be offered to develop manage- ment potential, or tuition reimbursement programs may be provided to help employees build technical and administrative skills. See Tips and Wisdom: Resources on Training.

How Are Training, Education, and Development Done? Training, education, and development are achieved through formal knowledge-building efforts (McLean, 2006; Nadler, 1970):

• OD consultants provide or arrange for training via on-site demonstrations, classes, courses, and programs that help employees accrue job-related knowledge. For example, you may have attended computer class or conflict resolution training. New technical and interpersonal skills help you do your job more effectively. Consultants get asked to provide training most often, as it is often selected as an intervention.

Tips and Wisdom: Resources on Training As well as promoting both professional and personal growth, training helps the organization enhance its performance. To learn more about training, see Caffarella and Daffron’s (2013) Planning Programs for Adult Learners: A Practical Guide, Lawson’s (2016) The Trainer’s Hand- book, or Silberman and Biech’s (2015) Active Training: A Handbook of Techniques, Designs, Case Examples, and Tips. You can access multiple training resources by joining the Association for Talent Development (ATD) at the following website: https://www.td.org/.

Section 7.1Learning and Development

• When you learn how to become an analytic problem solver and use reasoning, you are receiving education. Education is not necessarily job related. Learning how to critique classic texts, for example, may not be specific to your job in health care or manufacturing, but it may be helpful in carrying out your job because it sharpens your reasoning and writing skills. Consultants do less work in this area, although they may refer clients to higher education programs or offer programs in their own area of expertise. For example, if a consultant were an expert writer, she might help the client’s employees develop in this area.

• When you cultivate your interests, perhaps by taking martial arts or a cooking course, you are engaged in development. Development is sometimes considered more personal and less job related, but like education, it enhances your ability to do your job and makes you more well rounded. Consultants might recommend develop- ment programs as part of an intervention, especially ones that are focused on organization learning and employee satisfaction.

Action Learning Action learning arose in the 1990s as a reaction to formal learning interventions (such as training) that were viewed as ineffective because of the difficulty of transferring knowledge back to the workplace and their lack of relevance or support to use the new learning.

What Is Action Learning? Action learning deliberately accelerates people’s education about real work problems and/or desired outcomes within the actual work context. It is a continuous cycle of learning by doing, followed by reflecting on the doing. Action learning involves getting relevant people together to work on organizational issues in a fashion that leads to learning throughout the process. For example, suppose a new product is launched and a group of relevant stakeholders comes together to ask questions raised by the launch, reflect on problems and solutions that arise in the launch, share assumptions about the project, make necessary changes, reflect on how the changes worked, and consider the learning that transpired in the launch process. Action learning creates a structure for reflective practice among individuals or groups.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Action Learning? Consultants favor action learning because, rather than taking people to an unnatural location to teach them unnatural acts about abstract concepts (as training often does), it involves the real people working with the real problem in its real setting. In other words, action learning involves getting people who have a particular problem together in the workplace to undergo cycles of learning and action. This makes the process relevant, timely, and completed by the people who own the problem.

Consider This Identify the types of training, education, and development you have experienced. How have they differed? What did you take away from each of these activities?

Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development

Lawrence (1991) observed that action learning not only is learning by doing, but also involves reflection with the explicit goal of learning from experience. According to Lawrence, there are three essential characteristics of action learning:

1. Real work: Suppose a certain scheduling process creates problems for multiple workers—there is too much overlap at times and not enough coverage at others.

2. Questioning process: The team gets together and begins to question how the sched- ule is being made; the team members suggest changes.

3. Implementation: New scheduling procedures are put in place, and the group recon- venes to evaluate how the changes are working and what was learned.

Lawrence (1991) recognized that action learning has the following outcomes: visible progress on solving problems, individual development, and change. Unlike some process-improvement tools, action learning is open ended, dynamic, and fluid. Although the purpose of engaging in action learning may be clear, the results are often unexpected. Action learning helps partici- pants understand their internal decision and action processes and makes them aware of how these patterns affect their environment.

How Is Action Learning Done? Action learning is accomplished by six to eight people who come together to work on a prob- lem. This group is known as an action learning set. There are several variations on steps taken, but generally the process is as follows:

1. Establish an action learning set. 2. Identify a project, task, or problem the set intends to work on. 3. Engage in a process of questioning, reflection, and inquiry into the problem. 4. Decide on and implement a course of action. 5. Reconvene to evaluate whether the action resulted in a satisfactory outcome and to

identify key learning.

Action learning tends to favor asking questions that prompt new thinking, learning, and solu- tions. For more information on action learning, see Marquardt, Banks, Cauweiler, and Choon (2018) or Revans (2017).

7.2 Leadership and Management Development Learning and development interventions are common across all levels of the organization. They affect not only individuals, but also teams and the organization itself. A more specialized type of development is targeted at current and potential leaders and managers of the organi- zation and is therefore known as leadership and management development.

An Overview of Leadership and Management Development Both leaders and managers are needed to effectively run an organization. Different approaches are taken for developing each skill type:

Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development

• Leadership development involves helping people to guide the organization, cre- ate long-term vision, develop strategy, staff the organization, communicate, and motivate people toward the vision (French & Bell, 1999). Leadership development is applicable across levels (McLean, 2006). It is fairly common to send potential lead- ers off to leadership development programs such as those offered by the Center for Creative Leadership (http://www.ccl.org/Leadership).

• Management development involves equipping people to execute day-to-day prac- tices of organizing, staffing, planning, budgeting, controlling, directing, and problem solving. Management development tends to be position specific. For example, the general manager of an automotive company might need to learn very different skills than a city planning manager.

Management and leadership development programs are key ways consultants help individuals and organizations become more effective in day-to-day activities and prob- lem solving. Organizations that lack strong managers and leaders will underperform and have difficulty responding to the chal- lenges that continually arise both inside and outside the organization.

Management and leadership development can be accomplished in multiple ways at lev- els ranging from the individual to the team to the organization. Individual development involves targeting individuals who show management and/or leadership potential or people who are challenged in their cur- rent leadership role. These individuals might be sent to leadership development programs, which are usually offered by consulting firms. Organizations sometimes provide a group of individuals with a more formal leadership development program, similar to the example in the Leadership Academy vignette. The organization may also take on management and lead- ership development on a large scale and roll out various activities across multiple locations. Such activities could include mentoring, formal training programs, and so forth.

Two interventions—values clarification and integration, and executive coaching—are com- mon in management and leadership development. They are discussed in more detail in the following sections.

Values Clarification and Integration Values drive thought and action and influence the decisions people make. Providing individu- als the opportunity to reflect on what they value and why can help them clarify their life and career goals and identify areas of potential conflict with others who might prioritize different values. In the vignette, Lindsey worked with her career counselor to clarify her own values as she planned her next career steps.

fizkes/iStock/Getty Images Plus Leadership and management development programs help individuals take steps to ensure effectiveness in their roles.

Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development

Exercises that help individuals articulate their key values and incorporate them into their thoughts and actions are known as values clarification and integration. Such exercises are helpful at all organizational levels.

Engaging in values clarification can help leaders gain clarity around why they make certain decisions. It can also help them understand why they experience conflict with others whose values differ. Values clarification is particularly helpful for managers and leaders to engage in before they have to communicate the organization vision to employees. It can help them clar- ify what is important about the vision, which makes it easier for them to motivate employees.

Values activities can also help build stronger teams by revealing which values are shared by team members. Values clarification and integration can help tie individual values to organiza- tion values.

Consultants can also help individuals explore mismatches between what they value and what the organization values. For example, if a client highly values autonomy but works in a highly structured environment that has little autonomy, the consultant might help the client explore this contradiction and find ways to cope.

Values clarification can be undertaken with individuals, groups, or organizations. An example is profiled in Assessment: Values Clarification—What Is Important? Visit your e-book to access an interactive version of the assessment.

Assessment: Values Clarification—What Is Important? The following exercise takes 15 minutes to 1 hour to complete, depending on the size of the group and how much discussion the experience yields. The OD consultant should provide a list of values the participant can choose from, as well as spaces for additional values to be added. Time should be built in for the participant to talk about the values identified and why they are significant.

Instructions: Identify your top 10 values. Then narrow them down to five and write them in the right-hand column.

Tip: Cross out the values that do not resonate with you to make narrowing the list easier.

Values Prioritize

1. Accomplishment (mastery and achievement)

2. Advancement (progress up the ladder)

3. Adventure (new and challenging experiences)

4. Competitiveness (winning, taking risks)

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Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development

Executive Coaching Coaching is becoming increasingly popular, not just in organizations, but in multiple facets of life. Although business-related coaching such as executive coaching is relatively well known, there are also career coaches, life coaches, spiritual coaches, health and wellness coaches, transition coaches, grief coaches, renovation coaches, team coaches, and relationship coaches. This section focuses on the business realm and examines executive coaching.

What Is Executive Coaching? Coaching has been defined as “a personal and frequent one-on-one meeting designed to pro- duce specific, positive changes in business behavior within a fixed time frame” (Corbett & Colemon, 2006, p. 1). Roberts (2000) described it as “the act of being directly concerned with the immediate improvement of performance and development of a skill by a form of tutoring or instruction” (p. 159). See Tips and Wisdom: Coaching Programs for more information about coaching competencies and programs.

Why Do OD Consultants Recommend Executive Coaching? OD consultants who work as coaches take on the daunting task of integrating individual and organization goals. That is, they help the coachee connect his or her individual work with that of the broader organization (values clarification can also help make this connection). Consul- tants who are not trained as executive coaches would be responsible for hiring a reputable one.

Corbett and Colemon (2006) identified specific times when individuals might need a coach. These include when (a) a promotion is involved, (b) a job is at stake, or (c) a new perspective is needed. Complete Assessment: Do You Need a Coach? to see if you need a coach.

Assessment: Values Clarification—What Is Important? (continued)

Values Prioritize

5. Contribution (assisting others, improving society)

6. Cooperation (teamwork, getting along)

7. Economic security (steady, adequate income)

8. Family balance (family members are satisfied)

9. Freedom (independence, autonomy) 3.

10. Friendship (close relationships with others)

11. Health (physical and mental well-being)

12. Honesty (truth)

13. Integrity (sincerity, standing up for beliefs) 4.

14. Order (tranquility, stability, conformity)

15. Pleasure (fun, laughter, comfort)

16. Power (control, authority, influence)

17. Recognition (respect from others, status) 5.

18. Spirituality (strong religious or spiritual beliefs)

19. Wealth (making money)

20. Wisdom (understanding life)

Source: Adapted from The Sherpa Guide: Process-Driven Executive Coaching (pp. 96–98), by B. Corbett and J. Colemon, 2006. © Cengage Learning.

After the exercise, ask the client the following questions to stimulate reflection and conversation:

• What did you learn about yourself ? About others? • Was it hard to express disagreement with another person’s values? Why or why not? • Were there times when you felt uncomfortable or unsafe? What helped you stand by

your values at that time? • Were there any times you felt unable to stand up for your values? Why do you think that

was so? • What would support people at times when they feel unable to stand up for a value they

believe in?

Tips and Wisdom: Coaching Programs The International Coach Federation (ICF) started in 1995 as a nonprofit organization to sup- port coaches and grow the profession. The ICF created core coaching competencies and a code of ethics. The ICF also defined curriculum standards to ensure consistency in coach train- ing and developed a credentialing system for coaches. Today, the organization is global, with membership exceeding 25,000. You can find reputable information on coaching programs and much more at the following link: http://www.coachfederation.org.

Assessment: Do You Need a Coach? The following questions can help you (or your client) determine if coaching is the right inter- vention at this time.

I need expert consulting services to help me solve a complicated business problem.

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Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development

Assessment: Values Clarification—What Is Important? (continued)

Values Prioritize

5. Contribution (assisting others, improving society)

6. Cooperation (teamwork, getting along)

7. Economic security (steady, adequate income)

8. Family balance (family members are satisfied)

9. Freedom (independence, autonomy) 3.

10. Friendship (close relationships with others)

11. Health (physical and mental well-being)

12. Honesty (truth)

13. Integrity (sincerity, standing up for beliefs) 4.

14. Order (tranquility, stability, conformity)

15. Pleasure (fun, laughter, comfort)

16. Power (control, authority, influence)

17. Recognition (respect from others, status) 5.

18. Spirituality (strong religious or spiritual beliefs)

19. Wealth (making money)

20. Wisdom (understanding life)

Source: Adapted from The Sherpa Guide: Process-Driven Executive Coaching (pp. 96–98), by B. Corbett and J. Colemon, 2006. © Cengage Learning.

After the exercise, ask the client the following questions to stimulate reflection and conversation:

your values at that time? • Were there any times you felt unable to stand up for your values? Why do you think that

was so? • What would support people at times when they feel unable to stand up for a value they

believe in?

Assessment: Do You Need a Coach? The following questions can help you (or your client) determine if coaching is the right inter- vention at this time.

I need expert consulting services to help me solve a complicated business problem.

(continued on next page)

Section 7.2Leadership and Management Development

How Is Executive Coaching Done? Coaches should be certified by a reputable coaching institution. In addition to having cre- dentials, the coach should also follow a process that has a beginning, middle, and end. It is important to research a coach’s training and process before you hire him or her. You may also want to check references. A reputable coach will do the following:

1. Establish entry. A coach should offer a contract of services that details the cost, num- ber of meetings, and other expectations.

Assessment: Do You Need a Coach? (continued) YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, hire a business consultant.

NO Continue

I need to discuss a deeply personal matter about my sense of well-being.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, locate a licensed psychologist, psychiatrist, or counselor.

NO Continue

I need to discuss the internal politics of my organization and how it affects my career path.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, find a trusted person who is familiar with your organization who is willing to serve as a mentor.

NO Continue

I need to learn and practice specific new skills that I lack.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, find an appropriate skill development course that offers many opportunities to practice the new skills, perhaps using videotaped feedback.

NO Continue

I need to acquire a specific type of knowledge.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, consider your own learning style and purchase the infor- mation in the form of books, tapes, or classes. Set aside time to study and internalize the information.

NO Continue

I need to evaluate whether I am in the right career and explore options for changing my career or profession.

YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, hire an expert in career counseling who can administer apti- tude and interest testing and who will assist you in this transition.

NO Continue

I need structured planning and support to help in the accomplishment of a new way of leading or managing others.

Section 7.3Assessments

2. Set expectations and describe the process initially. The first meeting between a coach and coachee should focus on sharing information about the process, setting expectations, and agreeing on ground rules for the encounters.

3. Establish accountability. If an organization has hired a coach to work with an employee, the coach should regularly communicate with the person’s boss (or other stakeholder, like a mentor) about the areas needed for development and the prog- ress being made. Usually, this contact would occur at the beginning, midpoint, and endpoint. If an individual has hired a coach independently, it is up to the coach and coachee to determine how accountability will be held for progress.

4. Establish a baseline. Coaches need to understand information about their coachees’ behavior, values, interests, and performance. Most coaches use assessments, conduct values clarification, and seek feedback from other organization members in order to get a full picture of their coachee at the beginning of the process.

5. Identify areas to improve. Once the baseline is established, the coach and coachee mutually agree on an area for improvement. The coach helps the coachee develop strategies and new behaviors to make the agreed-upon improvement.

6. Help the coachee solve his or her problems. Effective coaches rarely give advice. Rather, they use questioning and reflection exercises to help their clients solve their own problems and build confidence and capacity in their own skill set.

7. Share blunt and direct feedback. Good coaches do not mince words and will serve as a mirror to reflect the coachees’ behavior and challenge them. Good coaches hold their coachees accountable.

8. End the coaching when the coachee has met the goal. Once the coachee has made the agreed-upon improvements, the coach should move toward ending the coaching engagement and ensure the coachee has the capacity to maintain the change. The coach should remain available for future issues and occasionally check in with the coachee to see that the changes have been maintained.

7.3 Assessments Instruments that measure myriad aspects of individual attributes are known as assessments. Assessments are useful for helping individuals gain new insights about themselves but can also be helpful when working with groups and teams. Assessments have great potential to stimulate individual reflection and change when used appropriately and ethically. There are dozens of assessments available for almost any topic. This section profiles some popular ones and their uses.

Before you use assessments, you should be aware of the research behind them, or if any exists. Many assessments were developed using White male college students in the 1960s and may not be representative of the diverse ways of knowing and being in the world. Others are not validated. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) (https://www.eeoc. gov/policy/docs/factemployment_procedures.html) has provided guidelines for the use of assessments in employment decisions. Finally, you should keep in mind that although useful, assessments have a very narrow focus and the results should not be used to make assump- tions or result in discrimination.

Here is a summary of the guidelines for using assessment from the EEOC:

Section 7.3Assessments

• Assessments should be administered without regard to race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age (40 or older), or disability.

• Employers should ensure that assessments are job related and properly validated for the positions and purposes for which they are used.

• If an assessment screens out a protected group, the employer should determine whether there is an equally effective alternative assessment that has less adverse impact and, if so, adopt the alternative procedure.

• To ensure that an assessment remains predictive of success in a job, employers should keep abreast of changes in job requirements and should update the assess- ment specifications or selection procedures accordingly.

• Employers should ensure that assessments are not adopted casually by managers who know little about these processes.

An assessment attempts to quantify certain aspects of individual personality or behavior, from learning styles to ethical orientation to leadership style. Assessments measure what energizes you, how you behave in certain situations, what your colleagues think of you, how you learn, what side of the brain you favor, and what strengths you possess. Hundreds of assessments exist, as evidenced by the numerous results that appear from an online search for “free personality assessment,” for example.

Consultants juggle multiple variables in their efforts to implement change. Human beings are complex and require different approaches. Assessments yield rich data with regard to how individuals and teams interact. They provide information on how people will engage interpersonally, where they get their drive and motivation, what type of style they employ in multiple situations, how they problem solve and make decisions, how they manage pressure and stress, and how they handle and accept change.

When you ask organization members to learn and change, they need pertinent information. There is nothing more timely and relevant than an assessment to help bridge understand- ing or point out opportunities for learning and growth. That is why consultants reach for them readily.

We have included assessments in every chapter of this book precisely because they provide immediate feedback or insight into preferences, traits, or behaviors in a way that helps people understand themselves in relation to others. Assessments can be taken with pencil and paper, scanned by comput- ers, or completed electronically.

Although assessment tools can help both the client and the consultant develop insights, they should be administered only by a trained or certified professional. In addition, their limitations need to be fully disclosed and their results not taken as a definitive statement on the person. Assessments are

Moodboard/Thinkstock Assessments help individuals gain perspective on a large range of issues, from behavioral style to learning style to conflict style and more.

Section 7.3Assessments

more helpful when used in conjunction with other interventions such as training, feedback, coaching, and leadership development.

This section will profile three commonly used assessments in OD: 360-degree feedback, DiSC (dominant, influential, steady, and conscientious), and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Like all assessments, they have limitations but offer an additional tool that may be useful as you go about the work of OD on an individual level. Additional links to assessments are included at the end of this chapter. In the opening vignette, Lindsey’s career counselor helped her take several assessments.

360-Degree Feedback In simple, geometric terms, 360 degrees means “full circle.” A 360-degree feedback assess- ment, then, is one that seeks input from everyone in the leader’s circle. That includes direct supervisors, mentors, peers, subordinates, customers, suppliers, and any other stakeholders who can provide relevant input.

What Is 360-Degree Feedback? During a 360-degree feedback process, an OD consultant seeks feedback about an individual from multiple sources and levels, such as peers, subordinates, supervisors, self, and customers (McLean, Sytsma, & Kerwin-Ryberg, 1995). The technique is also known as multirater feed- back. The feedback gained is usually used to cultivate an organization’s leaders and managers.

Several companies, such as Hogan Assessments and the Center for Creative Leadership, administer electronic assessments and provide extensive documented feedback to the indi- vidual. These assessments can cost hundreds of dollars. To save money, OD consultants may design their own 360-degree evaluation or find software that runs these analyses, such as 15Five, one of the most highly rated programs of 2019 (https://www.15five.com/).

Why Do OD Consultants Use 360-Degree Feedback? A consultant may use 360-degree feedback because it helps validate what the consultant has already observed and is trying to convey to the client. When feedback is confirmed in multiple ways, it receives greater validity. For example, imagine you are working with a client who does not listen. You repeatedly observe this behavior and share this feedback with the client, who brushes it off. When lack of listening shows up in a 360-degree evaluation and is men- tioned by almost everyone, it usually gives the leader pause and reason to take the feedback more seriously.

How Is 360-Degree Feedback Done? There are at least two approaches to 360-degree feedback. The first is low budget, although it requires time and experience. In this method, the consultant and client identify key infor- mants whom the consultant interviews about the client’s performance. A consultant must be skilled and experienced enough both to identify good interview questions and to manage the interview session so that it yields rich, constructive data. This typically involves identifying

Section 7.3Assessments

three or four people and determining questions in advance that will give the client useful feedback. It is not useful to ask, “What are this person’s main strengths and weaknesses?” Better questions might be, “What is the key thing this person could do to really take it to the next level?” or “How does this person derail?”

The second approach is to use a validated instrument that sends confidential questionnaires to participants identified by the client. The instrument is scored to show how groups—such as subordinates and peers—rate the client. Also, feedback from the client’s boss is identi- fied. To use these instruments, a consultant should be certified, or a certified vendor should be used to provide feedback to ensure that the product is legitimate and that there has been training in how to share feedback. The consultant should be trained in facilitating the session, interpreting the formal feedback, and framing the feedback in a constructive manner. As noted already, the organization may opt for a software program that produces generic 360-degree feedback. Still, the administrator should be trained in and skilled at using such tools.

DiSC The DiSC is a popular assessment that measures behavioral tendencies. It is useful for under- standing how you or others will typically behave.

What Is DiSC? Understanding the motives behind behavior can offer valuable insight into both individuals and teams, improving the ability to work together and resolve conflict. The DiSC assesses a subject’s attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors and identifies a behavioral style as domi- nant, influential, steady, or conscientious.

1. Dominant: Tends to be a direct, driving, demanding, determined, decisive doer. This style is fiercely independent and persistent about tasks. Dominant individuals tend to focus more on the goal or task than the people.

2. Influential: Tends to be relational, interactive, imaginative, energetic, inspiring, and friendly. This style is highly social and relational and can be persuasive. Influential individuals tend to focus more on the people than the task, which can cause them to be poor time managers.

3. Steady: Tends to be submissive, stable, supportive, shy, accommodating, and peace seeking. This style is a helper and will provide listening and support. Steady indi- viduals may sacrifice their wishes for the good of the whole.

4. Conscientious: Tends to be cautious, compliant, careful, contemplative, and a critical thinker. This style prefers logic, facts, and step-by-step procedures. Conscientious individuals are very private and unemotional.

Why Do OD Consultants Use DiSC? The DiSC is appropriate when examining behavior, especially during coaching, leadership development, or team-building exercises. Understanding behavior helps depersonalize reac- tions as individuals or groups go about problem solving, decision making, and implementing change.

Section 7.3Assessments

How Is DiSC Done? You can take the DiSC free here: http://www.123test.com/disc-personality-test. You can also administer a longer, more expensive test or become a certified vendor through Inscape (http://www.internalchange.com), which is a provider of the original instrument.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) The MBTI is a very popular assessment of personality preferences based on Jungian psychol- ogy. It is used worldwide.

What Is MBTI? Understanding personality preferences is useful for self-introspection and interpersonal dynamics. The MBTI measures personality preferences according to four areas, as outlined in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3: MBTI preferences

Description Preference Description

E: Extroversion This preference draws essential stimulation from the environ- ment: the outer world of people and things.

How you accumulate energy I: Introversion This preference draws essential stimulation from within: the inner world of thoughts and reflections.

S: Sensing The sensing function takes in information by way of the five senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell.

How you gather data N: Intuition The intuiting function processes information by way of a “sixth sense” or hunch: a few pieces of data, then, a quantum leap.

T: Thinking The thinking function decides on the basis of logic and objec- tive considerations. Usually dispassionate.

How you make decisions F: Feeling The feeling function decides on the basis of personal, subjective values. Logic is used, but the impact of the decision on others is added.

J: Judging A judging lifestyle is decisive, planned, orderly, and structured, with a strong need for closure.

How you order life P: Perceiving A perceptive lifestyle is flexible, adaptable, and spontaneous. It is free and flowing.

Why Do OD Consultants Use MBTI? Consultants use MBTI to understand how clients prefer to accumulate energy, gather data, make decisions, and order their lives. The MBTI also helps individuals see how they are simi- lar to and different from other colleagues. The MBTI is often used for team building, so it is a common intervention at both individual and team levels.

Section 7.4Career Development

As with any assessment, the administrator should be trained and certified in the use of the MBTI. Clients should also be cautioned about the instrument’s limitations. The MBTI has been widely critiqued. Psychologists question its validity. Another problem with the MBTI is that people tend to read too much into the results and dichotomizing types, rather than stay mind- ful of its limitations and applicability. This is in part due to the MBTI’s use of binaries to type people—that is, identifying someone as either introverted or extroverted. The MBTI has also been critiqued for its use in hiring decisions. This is considered an abuse of the instrument, because it has also been criticized for having a short test–retest interval, meaning that the result of the personality type might change over time, depending on the life circumstances of the test taker. Additionally, it violates the EEOC guidelines presented earlier in this chapter. This misuse would render its application in hiring decisions questionable at best. It can also be inappropriately applied to work teams when types become overused to explain behavior and enforce stereotypes about colleagues (Burnett, 2013).

How Is MBTI Done? There are several versions of the MBTI. Official instruments cost money to administer and will be more thorough and valid. You can access a free assessment at the following link: http:// www.16personalities.com/free-personality-test.

7.4 Career Development Many of the individual interventions dis- cussed in this chapter facilitate clients’ career progress by helping them be more effective in their current job or preparing them for advancement opportunities.

Brown and Lent (2013) defined career development as a process that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood in terms of choices and how a career pro- gresses across the life span as people deter- mine their talents, interests, and values and navigate career challenges, transitions, and ultimately retirement. They suggested that managing one’s career demands both self- awareness and understanding of the occu- pational context. Career development is heavily influenced by values and role models. This influence is visible in how people make career decisions, how they prepare for careers, how their careers unfold, how careers influence identity, and how people integrate their careers with their lives. Career development interventions are intended to help people set career- related goals and make choices. Such interventions might include developing self- and occu- pational awareness, refining job-searching skills, adjusting to occupational choices, and cop- ing with job stress or loss.

People are an organization’s most important resource. Organizations that are not focused on hiring, developing, and retaining a talented work force will have difficulty competing. Career

Andresr/E+/Getty Images Plus Career development involves helping clients be more effective in their current jobs or preparing them for advancement opportunities.

Section 7.4Career Development

development practices help ensure that people in organizations are prepared to perform at high levels. In Career Development Interventions for the 21st Century, Niles and Harris-Bowls- bey (2017) suggested that clients need to develop the following competencies to be most effective at planning for and managing their careers:

1. using both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making; 2. being clear about the importance attached to each life role and the values one seeks

to express through participating in these roles; 3. coping with ambiguity, change, and transition; 4. developing and maintaining self-awareness; 5. developing and maintaining occupational and career awareness; 6. developing and keeping one’s occupationally relevant skills and knowledge current; 7. engaging in lifelong learning; 8. searching for jobs effectively, even when one is not job seeking; 9. providing and receiving career mentoring; and

10. developing and maintaining skills in multicultural awareness and communication.

This section will profile some common career development interventions such as perfor- mance management, career plan development, and developmental relationships.

Performance Management Lipman (2014) reported on a study by Towers Watson, “Tracking People Priorities and Trends in High-Performance Companies,” which explored trends in employee opinions over a 5-year period. The high-performing group, which was a cross-section of diverse industry sectors, included 26 organizations that outperformed peers in “financial performance” and “employee opinion scores.” Lipman described the findings this way:

Loyalty. Long-term career opportunities. Corporate cultures that allow employees to speak their mind. Senior leaders who lead by example. A study of how high-performing companies motivate their people shows that some old values—as in sound management practices—never go out of style. Because they work. (2014, para. 1)

The study showed that four specific areas contributed to these organizations’ success:

1. Career development: Particularly companies that put an emphasis and value on talent development and providing long-term career development opportunities and training

2. Empowerment: Providing open, supportive cultures that cultivate innovation and empower staff

3. Rewards and recognition: Offering compensation packages that satisfy employees, including benefits and nonmonetary recognition. Of high importance was having a supervisor who values employee contributions.

4. Leadership: Delivering leadership that satisfies employees, particularly with regard to communication and making decisions that are consistent with company values

The importance of feedback was underscored in a new study of more than 5,000 profession- als across several industries. The Predictive Index (2018) found that 44% of managers do not

Section 7.4Career Development

give enough feedback. Employees indicated that they valued feedback but were not receiving enough; managers failing to share feedback were rated significantly lower in effectiveness. The study also found that people rated as “bad managers” were viewed as self-centered and lacking in awareness of employee needs by not communicating clear expectations, playing favorites, and lacking concern for career and personal development. Top organizations are high performing on multiple levels, including how they manage and develop people, as shown by these studies.

What Is Performance Management? Performance management is the process of aligning organization resources, systems, and people with business goals and strategy. Performance management can involve parts of the organization, such as departments, people, or even products. This chapter is concerned with performance management as it relates to individuals. It focuses on individual goal setting and performance appraisal systems and how they are aligned with reward systems. For example, an organization that takes a strategic approach to performance management would articulate its key goals and ask employees to identify ways they can link achieving them to their own goals.

Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Performance Management? “Errors in managing people always add to the cost of a product or service” (Daniels, 1985, pp. 225–226), which is why companies use performance management to help identify per- formance problems, determine a baseline, make an intervention, and evaluate results. OD consultants commonly encounter performance issues; helping organizations address them can significantly improve organization outcomes. Aubrey Daniels originated modern perfor- mance management, and his ideas are still relevant today. Current trends in performance management include thinking holistically about employees across their career span using the concept of employee lifetime value, or the total net value an employee brings to the organi- zation across his or her lifetime (Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011). The labor market is currently characterized by low unemployment, which puts pressure on organizations to compete for talent. Organization cultures built around employee engagement—the emotional connec- tion and care workers feel about their work and organization—will be more successful at recruiting and retaining talent (Shuck, 2011). Performance management is becoming more of a continuous, individualized process, instead of an annual discussion about job performance (Deloitte Trends, 2017).

Daniels (1985) observed that performance can be changed when you change the conse- quences of what happens to employees based on their performance. In other words, create penalties when desired performance is not achieved and rewards for when it is. He criticized organizations for too rarely tying performance to consequences that directly affect perfor- mance, such as salary increases, bonuses, promotions, profit sharing, or recognition. Instead, most organizations fall into the trap of giving nonconsequential rewards that may seem related to performance but rarely are. These include cost-of-living adjustments, seniority- based pay and experience, and whims of the boss.

How Is Performance Management Done? Aubrey Daniels is credited with developing the concept of performance management in the 1970s. He wrote that approaches to employee productivity need to answer the following

Section 7.4Career Development

questions: “What should employees be doing? And precisely how can they be motivated to do it?” (Daniels, 1985, p. 225). Performance management has three components: positive rein- forcement, measurement, and feedback (Daniels, 1985).

Positive reinforcement helps employees achieve maximum performance. Daniels (1985) con- sidered it the opposite of the “do it or else” mentality that threatens negative consequences when employees fail to perform, and instead advocated a “do it and else!” philosophy, where the employee performs well and then something “distinctly pleasant” (p. 228) happens to him or her. Positive reinforcement has proved more effective at eliciting high performance than other methods. Organizations need to be clear about what the positive consequences are and ensure they are awarded soon after the positive performance.

Measurement is the second aspect of facilitating performance management. Daniels (1985) believed that any behavior could be measured according to its frequency and quality. A prob- lem with creating behavioral measurements in most organizations is that employees expect negative consequences when they do not make their numbers. Instead, Daniels advocated measurement as a tool “not to justify punishment, but to recognize improvement” (p. 231). Measurement is important, because it is the only accurate way to gauge whether desirable behaviors are occurring.

See Tips and Wisdom: Performance Appraisal Resources.

The third element of performance management is feedback. Feedback provides information about the employee’s performance that helps improve future performance. As Daniels (1985) put it, “The sole purpose of measurement and feedback is to create opportunities for positive reinforcement” (p. 232).

Deming (1982, 1986), father of the total quality management movement discussed in chap- ters 1 and 8, opposed individual performance appraisals, arguing they only encourage short- term goals and undermine teamwork. They also tend to focus on negative reinforcement and fail to account for issues beyond the control of individual employees, such as systemic organi- zation problems (problematic equipment, processes, and management). Performance man- agement offers an alternative to ineffective feedback and appraisal. Read about an example of a performance appraisal process in Case Study: Piloting and Evaluating a New Performance Appraisal Process.

Tips and Wisdom: Performance Appraisal Resources Check out performance appraisal examples and tips at the following website: http://www. businessballs.com/performanceappraisals.htm.

There, you will find a plethora of information on performance appraisals, such as examples and templates of appraisals, tips for making them easier and more effective, resources for engaging in your own self-appraisal, and more.

Section 7.4Career Development

Career Plan Development Plato (trans. 2000) said, “The beginning is the most important part of any work” (p. 365). Indeed, good beginnings usually involve good plans. It is difficult to accomplish big goals if

Case Study: Piloting and Evaluating a New Performance Appraisal Process The Health Defender Insurance Company of Georgia is in trouble. The company’s salespeople spend most of their time fielding complaints about poor customer service. As one sales rep complained, “All we hear about is how slow our claims processing is and how we don’t respond to the customer.” Sales of new contracts have dropped dramatically over the past few years, and something has to be done.

The company’s new president, Julie Goodrow, is distressed at the company’s state. Dwindling accounts, stressed employees, and frustrated management seem to be the norm. She explains the predicament to an OD consultant, Dan Rock, with whom she worked at her former institu- tion. She and Dan work through the action research process to develop an OD intervention. A year later, Health Defender is in a completely different place. Its new contracts are at their highest rate ever, and Health Defender is outperforming every other state division of the com- pany in the United States.

What was behind Health Defender’s turnaround? The company made a fundamental change to how it managed its frontline employees by implementing a performance management process that incorporated Daniels’s (1985) key elements of positive reinforcement, measurement, and feedback. The results were dramatic and included not only new accounts but also higher-qual- ity customer service and a restored corporate image. Internally, the company also improved morale, decreased absenteeism, and improved employee relations.

The intervention involved training 180 managers and 15 executives, including Julie herself, in performance management. The change was met with the skepticism and resistance that most changes induce in organizations. Health Defender had to overcome previous failed productiv- ity improvement initiatives and efforts to measure performance that were viewed as punitive and threatening.

Health Defender spent a year implementing the performance management process by incor- porating regular feedback and positive reinforcement with rewards for improving. It took some time, but eventually this new feedback-driven process became second nature to manag- ers. A walk through their offices reveals graphs of performance data at work stations and a culture that is driven by measurement and healthy competition between departments to see who has the best performance.

Health Defender’s results are impressive. The time to process health claims dropped dramati- cally, backlogged claims dropped by half, and overall productivity increased. Employee atti- tudes and morale also improved. People are happier, more responsive to customers, and more satisfied with their jobs and with management.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What types of positive reinforcement do you think would be effective for Health Defender?

2. How would you manage resistance to a performance management implementation?

Section 7.4Career Development

you do not have a vision of what you want to do or how to get there. Career plans serve this function, and consultants work with clients on an individual level to develop them.

What Is Career Plan Development? A simple yet powerful intervention for individual career development is to ask the client to complete a written plan for his or her immediate, midterm, and long-term career, including developmental needs. This is known as career plan development. Often, it is helpful to work in 5-year increments with shorter or longer increments, depending on the person and his or her role. A typical career plan might include ideal job descriptions, assessments, work loca- tions, and necessary training and higher education requirements.

Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Career Plan Development? Consultants use career paths because they help clients focus on what they want to do and create a road map for how to get there. Career plans are developed by doing a thorough self- assessment, often using some of the assessments we have discussed in this book. It is also use- ful to research various career paths that are desirable. Articulating goals and plans is a very powerful activity that helps clients imagine a desired future and create the steps they need to achieve it. Career goals can also help clients set priorities, identify needed resources, target potential mentors, and make changes in their current positions to become better aligned for the future.

How Is Career Plan Development Done? Here are some steps for writing a career plan:

1. Identify goal(s). 2. Outline key action steps for the immediate and longer term. 3. Determine the developmental requirements needed to meet the goal(s):

a. Skills b. Abilities c. Interests d. Education e. Experiences

4. Update your résumé. 5. Outline next steps.

Once the plan is written, it should be shared with a supervisor or mentor and assessed and revised as necessary.

Have you ever written a career plan? It is a very powerful exercise that helps you visualize your future and determine how to make it a reality.

See Tips and Wisdom: Career Resources.

Section 7.4Career Development

Developmental Relationships The adage “It isn’t what you know; it’s who you know” is often used to describe the way in which opportunities and advancement may be less a function of specialized training and more a matter of networks that connect us to people who can help us advance. These relation- ships are known as developmental relationships.

What Is a Developmental Relationship? A relationship that helps advance someone’s career is likely a developmental relationship. This term encompasses a range of relationships that “contribute to individual growth and career advancement” (Crosby, 1999, p. 7). These include mentoring as well as less intense relationships such as sponsorship, networks, and peer support:

• When a senior person takes inter- est in the learning, advancement, and career development of a junior person, this relationship is mentoring.

• When someone supports you for a particular assignment, recognition, or promotion, this relationship is known as sponsorship.

• When you belong to a group that shares unique challenges—such as women, people of color, or LGBTQ—you belong to a network.

• When you provide mentoring or coaching to a person at your same rank or position, you are offering peer support.

Tips and Wisdom: Career Resources There are dozens of assessments and resources available related to careers. O*NET is a U.S. Department of Labor resource (http://www.onetonline.org) that brings access to current job information, assessments, and salary information together in one place for more than 900 occupations. O*NET provides a valuable resource to both organizations and job seekers and was created to provide the general public broad access to a variety of search options and resources for job searches. O*NET has information on skills, abilities, knowledge, work activi- ties, and interests associated with occupations in one place.

Other assessments that may be useful in career planning include the Strong Interest Inventory, the Skills Confidence Inventory, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Self-Directed Search, and Career Key (Brown, 2007).

Opolja/iStock/Getty Images Plus Mentoring is a developmental relationship in which a senior person helps a more junior person navigate career issues, challenges, and opportunities.

Section 7.4Career Development

If you are in a developmental relationship, how would you classify it?

Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Developmental Relationships? Developmental relationships can be rich opportunities for learning, increased visibility, expo- sure to role models, developmental experiences, and promotional opportunities. Although developmental relationships depend on the right chemistry, consultants can encourage orga- nization members to forge them.

How Are Developmental Relationships Developed? As a consultant, you may not be able to direct people to form developmental relationships, because they depend on timing and chemistry. However, you can help individuals develop skills to build effective developmental relationships. In seeking a developmental relationship, you will want to follow these steps:

• Observe how your colleagues and superiors interact and learn from them. a. What do they do well? b. How could they improve? c. What do you want to emulate? d. With whom do you want to build a relationship?

• Talk about your career plan with your supervisor, colleagues, and others with whom you might like to develop a developmental relationship.

• Ask past and present colleagues, supervisors, professional contacts, mentors, coaches, family, or friends for feedback on your key strengths and growth areas.

• Reach out to people with whom you would like to build a developmental relation- ship. Share your career aspirations and ask for their help.

• Join professional associations and get involved. • Thank the people who help you and pay it forward.

Tips for being in the more senior role in a developmental relationship include the following:

• Be a positive role model. Conduct yourself in ways you want to see your protégés emulate—they are watching you.

• Show genuine interest and learn about your protégé. This means following through on your commitment to provide support and guidance when needed and making time for the person.

• Share your experiences, insights, and mistakes, and model reflective practice. • Listen. Be patient. • Be open-minded and compassionate. • Ask questions and avoid giving answers. • Provide a fresh, objective perspective. • Give constructive feedback and positive reinforcement. • Help your protégé network. • Celebrate your protégé’s achievements and give public recognition. • Continue to seek mentoring yourself to keep your edge. • Comentor with a peer—mentor each other.

Section 7.5Job Development

You can see from this section that Lindsey, in the opening vignette, underwent several career development interventions, beginning with her career counselor. She also had training and experience (via higher education and corporate-sponsored programs) that boosted her career. She had a developmental relationship through her mentor, while her new work supervisor encouraged her to write a career plan and gave her feedback through performance appraisal.

7.5 Job Development Sometimes, the intervention is less about the individual and more about the job. For example, key responsibilities of a secretary once included tasks such as taking dictation, composing correspondence, and scheduling meetings. Today, technology makes it possible for most of us to do these things ourselves. Thus, the secretary of yesteryear is today’s administrative professional, whose duties have dramatically changed to roles such as partner, leader, facilita- tor, spokesperson, and advisor, an extension of the executive team with key insights into how the business works (International Association of Administrative Professionals, 2019). The evolution of the administrative professional role is but one example of how a job has changed. Organizations have the challenge of helping employees evolve with the changing needs of the job. This can be particularly challenging for workers who have been in a job for many years.

When we make interventions that are job specific, we are undertaking job development. The interventions that may be used include redesigning jobs, writing job descriptions, and creat- ing policy.

Consultants make job development interventions when certain jobs no longer meet the needs of the organization and must be restructured to better respond to organization needs, market shifts, or customer demands. For example, airport check-in areas today are peppered with self-service kiosks. Employees working the registration area need to be able to help custom- ers troubleshoot as they check in for their flights.

Job development can be accomplished through job redesign, job description writing, and pol- icy development.

Redesigning a Job A job design is the way a job is organized in terms of its tasks or overall purpose (McLean, 2006). Redesigning a job requires identifying the tasks of the job, how to do them, how many to do, and in what order. More broadly, it involves assessing the current work practices, con- ducting a task analysis, designing or redesigning the job, implementing the new design gradu- ally, and evaluating the design on a regular basis (McLean, 2006).

OD consultants are frequently hired to redesign jobs in order to “heighten skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback from the job” (French & Bell, 1999, p. 236). Another common reason for job redesign is to accommodate advances in or problems arising from technology. The traditional secretarial job, for example, was redesigned to keep pace with advances in communication and information technology. A manufacturing process may be changed when repetitive hand movements begin to cause physical problems for workers, such as carpal tunnel syndrome.

Section 7.5Job Development

McLean (2006) noted that a job redesign is more likely to succeed when the plan consid- ers not only the individual job but also how it interacts within the complex context of the organization. If we return to the example of airline registration employees, they are required not just to help customers learn how to use the self-service kiosks, but also to negotiate an increasingly global, diverse traveling population and help travelers with any problems they encounter. Job redesign was also imperative as the work of secretaries shifted to that of administrative professionals. Steps for redesign of this entire profession occurred not just on an individual and organization level, but across the entire field.

Steps in job redesign include the following:

1. Assess the needs in terms of the job skills, abilities, and knowledge. 2. Design the job to conform to the needed skills, abilities, and knowledge. 3. Pilot the new job design. 4. Implement the job redesign broadly. 5. Evaluate the redesign and adjust accordingly.

Like any change, job redesign will be most effective when employees participate in the pro- cess. Employees know the precise details of the job as well as its challenges and stressors, making them best equipped to identify new designs.

Job Descriptions Job development can also be aided by having a clear, current job description, which is a document identifying the key aspects of the position. Essential elements of a job description include these:

• Job title • Start date • Job location • Contact information • Number of available positions • Number of hours per week • Required years of experience • Required education • Required license, certificate, or registration • Starting salary • Benefits (McLean, 2006, pp. 146–147)

Job descriptions exist in most organizations, although their quality and accuracy depend on the human resource function that is usually responsible for overseeing them. Accurate job

Consider This How would you follow the steps to redesign your job or a role you think needs to change with the times?

Section 7.5Job Development

descriptions serve several purposes. First, they identify the job’s key responsibilities and qualifications. Prospective employees need this information to gauge whether they want to apply. Job descriptions can help managers set expectations for employees and determine key measures of performance. Job descriptions are also useful when evaluating employee per- formance. They help determine equity across positions in large organizations because they allow job characteristics and requirements to be compared. See Figure 7.1 for an example of a job description and check out Tips and Wisdom: Job Description Resources.

Figure 7.1: Job description and job specification

A job description details key aspects of a position, such as its title, grade, payroll status, and expectations. Visit your e-book for a PDF of this job description.

GROCERIES FOR LESS

Job Description

Job Identification Job title: Store Manager Job grade: 5 Status: Exempt Department: Operations Reports to: Operations Manager Supervises: Grade 6–8

Job Summary Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all store staff, resources, and operations to ensure efficiency, safety, and quality customer service

Tasks, Duties, and Responsibilities • Supervises shift supervisors, customer service managers and representatives,

cashiers, cleaning crew, and other personnel • Performs inventory controls, including working closely with suppliers and

stocking staff to ensure timely restocking and replacement of perishables, and maintaining physical controls to minimize spoilage and shrinkage

• Designs, coordinates, and communicates schedules on a weekly basis to ensure adequate staffing of all shifts

• Works with head office personnel to plan and implement marketing strategies, advertising campaigns, weekly sales, seasonal specials, and other store functions

• Leads the process of staffing and training all store personnel • Conducts annual performance reviews for all store personnel, and makes salary

and promotion recommendations

• Investigates and resolves customer complaints brought to his or her attention • Enforces sanitary practices for food handling and general store cleanliness

• Complies with all health and safety regulations • Reports accurate and timely store-level financial statements • Performs other duties as assigned by management

Job Specification

Minimum Qualifications • Bachelor ’s degree in Business Administration or related field • Three years of managerial experience, preferably in retail • Excellent communication, organization, leadership, time- and

conflict-management skills • Ability to multitask, work independently, and operate under pressure

Section 7.5Job Development

Policies Policies are rules according to which an organization and its members act. Corporate policy statements offer the organization a blueprint for operating. Many companies have policy statements that describe legal obligations, compensation, work rules, grievance procedures, and leave guidelines, to name a few. OD consultants might be hired to update policy state- ments when they are out of date, the company merges with another, or they do not exist. Most companies will involve legal counsel in this process to ensure they are in compliance with the law.

Policy can influence organizational culture, so it deserves ongoing attention. For example, an organization’s maternity/paternity policy can offer some insight into how supportive the organization is of parents and families. Organizations can also signal how inclusive and equi- table they are by the types of policies they keep around governance and access to promotional opportunities. As we have discussed throughout this book, employees should be involved in policy development or change to promote buy-in.

Employee handbooks usually have information on the following organization policies:

• Nondisclosure agreements and conflict of interest statements • Antidiscrimination policies in compliance with the equal employment opportunity

laws prohibiting discrimination and harassment (e.g., the Americans with Disabili- ties Act)

• Compensation, including required deductions for federal and state taxes and any voluntary deductions for the company’s benefits programs. Other compensation issues include a. Overtime pay b. Pay schedules c. Performance reviews d. Salary increases e. Timekeeping records f. Breaks g. Bonuses

• Wage and hour laws • Employment taxes • Workers’ compensation • Work schedules

Tips and Wisdom: Job Description Resources There are several resources for writing effective job descriptions. Check out the following two:

U.S. Small Business Administration: Writing Effective Job Descriptions: https://www.sba.gov/ node/2764

O*NET OnLine (Occupational Network): http://www.onetonline.org

You can also easily find multiple examples and tips by searching for “writing job descriptions” in your computer browser.

Summary and Resources

• Standards of conduct • General employment information

a. Employment eligibility b. Job classifications c. Employee referrals d. Employee records e. Job postings f. Probationary periods g. Termination and resignation procedures h. Transfers and relocation i. Union information, if applicable

• Grievance procedures • Employment and labor laws • Foreign workers, immigration, and employee eligibility • Performing preemployment background checks • Terminating employees • Unions • Safety and security • Computers and technology • Media relations • Employee benefits • Leave policies

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

• Reflective practice helps clients reflect critically on their thoughts and actions by considering reflection in action, reflection on action, and espoused theory versus theory in use.

• T-groups are small groups in which individuals receive feedback on how their behav- ior affected the other members of the group. When done effectively, T-groups facili- tate deep critical reflection and self-awareness.

• Training, education, and development help individual employees get the requisite knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform their jobs.

• Action learning engages employees in cycles of reflection and action about real prob- lems they encounter in their real workplace.

• Leadership and management development targets current and potential lead- ers to ensure they have the core skills to help the organization reach levels of high performance.

• Values clarification and integration helps leaders and managers articulate their key values and integrate them into the daily behaviors as they manage and lead employees.

• Coaching is an intense relationship between a coach and coachee that seeks to create positive changes in business behavior.

• Assessments help individuals gain insight and self-awareness, when used with clear objectives, trained facilitators, and legal, ethical administration.

• A 360-degree feedback approach provides the individual with full-circle feedback from supervisors, subordinates, peers, and other stakeholders.

Summary and Resources

• The DiSC measures behavioral tendencies according to dominance, influence, steadi- ness, or conscientiousness.

• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assesses personality preferences accord- ing to how individuals prefer to accumulate energy, gather data, make decisions, and order their lives.

• Career development is a process of lifelong learning that influences individual career choices according to psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical factors.

• Performance management involves elements of positive reinforcement, measure- ments, and feedback to achieve optimal organization performance.

• Career plan development is the process of helping the client document career goals, values, and a road map for the immediate present and near- and long-term future.

• Developmental relationships are ones that help individuals advance their careers, such as mentoring, sponsorship, networking, peer support, or coaching.

• Job development makes interventions related to job redesign, job descriptions, and policy development.

• Job redesign is the reordering of the overall purpose or tasks of a job to ensure it meets the needs of the organization.

• Job descriptions document key aspects of a job in terms of its responsibilities and qualifications.

• Policies ensure that organizations have a blueprint for operating that detail legal obligations, compensation, work rules, grievance procedures, leave guidelines, and so forth.

Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning

1. Pick an assessment presented in this chapter (or book) and take it. What new insights did you gain? Are there contradictions? Confirmations? What implications do they have for your career?

2. When was the last time you sat down and deeply reflected on where you are in your career and where you are going? Make some time for yourself to do some careful thinking and determine if you are on track.

3. Have you been involved in a developmental relationship? How would you classify it? How helpful was it?

4. Review the tips for building developmental relationships. What do you need to work on to find a mentor or sponsor? How can you be a better mentor or sponsor?

Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life

1. The chapter began with a vignette about Lindsey, who was in a career transition. Have you ever been in a career transition or known someone who was? What types of interventions were applied?

2. Write a career plan as outlined in this chapter. 3. Identify a position that you aspire to. Do some research and document these aspects:

a. the education and training required b. salary c. a city you prefer to live in, in terms of cost of living, environment, and so forth

4. Talk with people in the position you aspire to and get their advice.

Summary and Resources

5. What training, education, and development have you done in the past year? Write down an inventory and see how well your learning has aligned with your career plan.

6. Review the policies for your organization and note key likes and dislikes. 7. Review or write a job description for your position or desired positions. 8. Write or revise your résumé.

Additional Resources Media

• 360-Degree Feedback Humor https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXJkP13xACg

Web Links Learning, Training, and Development

• The Association for Talent Development, a professional association of learning and development resources:

https://www.td.org/

• Training, Development, and Education for Employees, a page that offers employee development resources, including on-the-job training, training transfer, internal training, and more:

https://www.thebalancecareers.com/employee-training-4161676

• International Foundation for Action Learning, a charity that supports a network of action learning practitioners and enthusiasts:

http://ifal.org.uk

• Action Science, which aims to accurately describe and efficiently demonstrate the theory and practice of action science and to connect individuals and groups inter- ested in working with action science. Read about the science behind action science:

http://infed.org/mobi/chris-argyris-theories-of-action-double-loop-learning-and -organizational-learning/

Leadership Development

• Performance, Learning, Leadership, and Knowledge, a window into learning, train- ing, leadership, design, and all matters related to improving human performance:

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/index.html

• Coaching tips to make you a more efficient coach: https://www.thebalancecareers.com/tips-for-effective-coaching-1917836

Career Development

• National Career Development Association, which offers professional development, resources, standards, scientific research, and advocacy:

http://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/home_page

Summary and Resources

Job Development

• A free online course on job design: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/

job-design-and-motivation/

Key Terms 360-degree feedback An assessment method in which performance feedback is solicited from multiple sources at the levels surrounding the individual (self, subordi- nate, peers, and supervisor). This is also known as multirater feedback.

action learning set A group of six to eight people who come together to work on a problem using action learning.

assessments Instruments that measure myriad aspects of individual attributes such as personality, learning style, or cultural awareness.

career development The lifelong process of balancing psychological, social, educa- tional, economic, and physical variables in making career decisions.

career plan development A written plan that identifies immediate, midterm, and long-term career goals and developmental needs.

coaching A one-on-one helping relation- ship focused on replacing the client’s inef- fective business behaviors with positive ones.

development The cultivation of interests, not necessarily related to work.

developmental relationship A relation- ship that helps advance an individual’s career, such as mentoring, sponsoring, or networks.

education The cultivation of reasoning and analytical problem solving.

employee lifetime value The total net value an employee brings to the organiza- tion across his or her lifetime.

espoused theory versus theory in use Inconsistency between your actions and what you profess you will do.

job description A document that details the key aspects of a position.

job design The way a job is organized.

job development Job-specific interventions.

leadership development Helping people guide the organization, create long-term vision, develop strategy, staff the organiza- tion, communicate, and motivate people toward the vision.

management development Equipping people to execute day-to-day practices of organizing, staffing, planning, budgeting, controlling, directing, and problem solving.

mentoring A helping relationship where a more senior individual provides career advice and support to a less senior individual.

peer support Mentoring and sponsorship provided to a person of similar rank.

performance management The process of aligning individual employee perfor- mance with organization goals and strategy.

reflection in action Reflective practice about an experience and potential actions during the experience.

Summary and Resources

reflection on action Reflective practice about an experience and potential actions after the experience.

sponsorship Supporting and recommend- ing individuals for career advancement experiences and opportunities.

training The accrual of job-related knowledge.

values clarification and integration Exer- cises that help individuals articulate their key values and incorporate them into their thoughts and actions.