HELP WITH FINAL DUE IN 20 HOURS

combs

06CH_Warrick_Leadership1.pdf

Home >Business & Finance homework help >Management homework help >HELP WITH FINAL DUE IN 20 HOURS

6 Motivating Today’s Workforce

Fuse/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand the important role motivation plays in effective leadership. • Analyze content- or need-based theories of motivation. • Apply the ideas present in process theories of motivation. • Use the principles present in reinforcement theory to motivate followers. • Recognize the value of employee empowerment.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 171 3/3/16 11:30 AM

Introduction

The most successful entrepreneurial ventures begin with a great idea but only last when an individual becomes the driving force that leads the new firm to growth and vitality over time. Sir Richard Branson clearly fits this mold. His series of companies operating under the Virgin label has grown into a worldwide phenomenon. There are now more than 100 Virgin com- panies around the globe, employing approximately 60,000 people in more than 50 countries (Virgin, 2015).

Branson began Virgin as a mail order record retailer. In 1970, he created Virgin Records and opened a shop in London. Then he built a recording studio. The company eventually signed many big name musical groups, including the Sex Pistols and the Rolling Stones, which made the company the biggest independent label in the world. In 1984, Branson established Virgin Atlantic as a leading global airline, and soon many other businesses followed.

One key to his massive success has been the ability to motivate those in the various Virgin companies. “If you really want to grow as an entrepreneur, you’ve got to learn to delegate. When my friends and I started up Virgin, I knew that I was lacking vital knowledge on some subjects, and so I started learning this skill very early on in my career,” Branson (2015a, para. 3) wrote. He adds,

As Virgin grew, our “serious fun” approach became a driving force for our enterprise. We took our passion for our work and our idea that we could upend “business as usual” to change things for the better and applied them to creating better banks, trains, telecoms and airliners, plus a multitude of other diverse ventures around the world. We are often asked how we have maintained this culture across the more than 300 companies that Virgin has started up. The answer: We make sure that every new company that joins the Virgin family fits within the brand’s ethos and personality, which includes a commitment to making a positive difference for the wider community and the planet. Remember that a fun and inclusive atmosphere will make this journey you’re embarking on more enjoyable—and much more likely to be successful. (Branson, 2015b, para. 5–6)

Sir Richard is more than willing to share his ideas. He has more than 11.5 million followers across five social networks. He has also written six books. He set up the Virgin Earth Chal- lenge in 2007—a $25 million prize for scalable and sustainable ways of removing greenhouse gases from the air. In 2004 he established nonprofit foundation Virgin Unite to tackle tough social and environmental problems, and he strives to make business a force for good. Branson was awarded a knighthood in 1999 for services to entrepreneurship.

Understanding motivation contributes mightily to effective leadership. On an individual level, leaders have to be motivated to be successful (Cuban, 2013). Further, motivating others is also essential to their success (Yukl, 2012). If they aspire to become excellent leaders, they need to know how to motivate followers to go beyond their own self-interests to perform beyond what they thought was possible (Grant & Patil, 2012). For organizations, the ability to develop a highly motivated workforce provides a significant competitive advantage, as their workers are more productive and satisfied and their profits are higher than the typical organization

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 172 3/3/16 11:30 AM

Section 6.1 The Role of Motivation in Leadership Activities

(Steers & Porter, 1983; Grant, 1998; Steers, Porter, & Bigley, 1996). A Gallup Organization study revealed that when an organization’s employees are highly motivated, turnover drops by 70%, profits increase by 40%, and customers are 70% more loyal (Coffman & Gonzales- Molina, 2007).

This chapter offers ideas regarding motivation challenges facing organizations. It is designed to educate leaders on what motivation is, how it works, and how leaders can be skilled moti- vators of people. It contains a description of motivation and presentations regarding the many theories devoted to the topic. It also provides implications for effective leadership.

6.1 The Role of Motivation in Leadership Activities

Pinder (2008) and Kanfer (1990) define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort in obtaining a goal (in this case, a work-related goal). In this context, intensity implies or suggests a level of effort; direction sig- nifies that the level of effort is devoted to a specific goal or outcome; and persistence indicates the level of time a person will give to achieving the goal in a sustained fashion. Organizational behavior literature and textbooks widely accept such a definition.

In addition to understanding what motivation is, leaders should work to understand various views and theories regarding motivational processes. They can then use an understanding of these ideas to monitor and guide their own activ- ities and to assess what motivates others. They can also provide insights into the significant impact leaders can have on the lives and careers of people by helping peo- ple satisfy their motivation needs or by frustrating their motivation needs.

The CEO and top-level leaders are in the best position to design organizations to enhance motivational levels of employees. Organizational leaders at all ranks are able to influence the motivation in one-on-one interactions with followers. Leaders can shape the climate in which people work as well as the jobs they have, the clarity they have about what is expected of them, how they are treated on the job, and the satisfaction they experience in the job. A leader can achieve this outcome by applying concepts from the vari- ous theories regarding motivational processes. Table 6.1 outlines the more notable of these theories, using the categories of content, process, reinforcement, and other theories. Each adds to our understanding of the ways in which people may be driven to give increased effort (intensity) aimed at specific goals (direction) over extended periods of time (persistence).

iStock/Thinkstock

Top-level leaders are in the best position to design organizations in ways that enhance the motivation of employees.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 173 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.1 The Role of Motivation in Leadership Activities

Table 6.1: Motivation theories

Theory Central Idea Application

Content Theories Focus is on identifying and satisfying employee needs

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy The ability to satisfy needs is a strong motivator. Frustrated needs can be strong de-motivators.

Leaders need to create work situations that satisfy rather than frustrate the needs of their people.

Herzberg’s Motivation/ Hygiene Theory

Hygiene factors (job surround- ings) when sufficient free people to focus more on motivation fac- tors (factors in the job) that are the most motivating to people.

Leaders need to pay attention to both job hygiene and motiva- tion factors to motivate people to perform at their best.

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation

People are motivated by their needs for achievement (goal oriented), power (influencing others), and affiliation (close relationships).

Leaders should focus on provid- ing challenging work, opportu- nities for responsibility, and a team-oriented environment.

Process Theories Focus is on how employees choose behaviors to meet their needs

Adam’s Equity Theory It is important to make efforts and rewards equitable and to treat people fairly.

Leaders should make clear what is expected, explain why they do what they do, and treat people fairly and equitably.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory People are motivated when they can expect that the rewards for doing something are worth the effort and can be de-motivated when they are not.

Leaders need to make expecta- tions clear and the tangible and intangible rewards for doing something motivating.

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory Specific, challenging, and achiev- able goals are strong motivators.

One of the best ways for leaders to motivate people is to involve them in achieving compelling goals.

Reinforcement Theory Focus is on motivating people by influencing the consequences of behavior

Positive Reinforcement Any time that you positively rein- force a behavior, you increase the probability the behavior will be repeated.

Leaders should look for ways to genuinely and positively rein- force and encourage desirable behaviors.

Negative Reinforcement Escaping or avoiding a nega- tive event by exhibiting and/or repeating a behavior.

Meeting a deadline in order to avoid a reprimand; “talking down” an angry supervisor by telling a funny joke that changes his/her demeanor toward you.

Punishment Punishment occurs when clearly punitive consequences are administered for undesirable behaviors.

Punishment should be reason- able and designed to correct the undesirable behavior and teach principles.

(continued)

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 174 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.2 Content Theories of Motivation

In general, the ability to motivate has often defined great leaders. This skill covers a wide spectrum of organizations and activities, from serving as a general in the military to succeed- ing as a coach in amateur or professional sports, to invigorating the population as a politi- cal leader, to taking charge of a business organization. Clearly leadership and motivation are closely related topics and undertakings.

Theory Central Idea Application

Extinction If no reward is given, the behav- ior might stop. If punishment stops, an unwanted behavior might return.

Continue to reward desired behaviors; continue to punish dangerous or toxic behaviors.

Other Theories

Empowerment Giving people more power and authority to govern their behav- ior and make decisions.

Empowerment requires far more than delegating more respon- sibility. People and the orga- nization must be prepared for empowerment.

Adding Meaning to Work Making work more meaningful by helping people understand their impact is a powerful motivator.

Leaders should be innovative in finding ways to make individual and group efforts meaningful.

Self-Reflection Questions

1. The word “motivation” is derived from the Latin term movere, which means “to move.” Explain how this concept would apply to intensity, direction, and persistence as words used to define motivation.

2. In general, which factor can a leader use to motivate employees most fre- quently? Defend your answer.

6.2 Content Theories of Motivation

Content theories of motivation focus on identifying and satisfying employee needs. These theories are designed to explain the needs of people and how they relate to effort and activi- ties. They may provide leaders with insights about what they can do that motivates and sat- isfies the needs of employees and what they may be doing that frustrates or inhibits need- fulfillment by employees that might decrease levels of motivation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s need hierarchy is well known. He proposed a model in which peoples’ needs can be assigned into a hierarchy of categories, ranging from the most basic physical needs to higher

Table 6.1: Motivation theories (continued)

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 175 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Belongingness Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-Actualization Needs

Section 6.2 Content Theories of Motivation

order psychological desires. His model suggests that an individual will not be motivated to satisfy a need at the next level until the current need level is at least minimally satisfied. The need hierarchy consists of the items displayed in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Needs in Maslow’s hierarchy

Based on Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396.

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Belongingness Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-Actualization Needs

Note that it is possible that instead of having to satisfy one level of needs before moving upward to another level, people might be involved in some level of satisfaction and dissatis- faction on many, if not all, levels of the hierarchy simultaneously. For instance, a person may have accomplished important things in challenging circumstances while many of his or her lower-level needs were being frustrated.

Maslow’s theory offers several implications for leaders. Although actual empirical support for the theory is weak, it does help make leaders aware of the needs of employees and the importance of helping satisfy those needs. Such an approach also suggests the importance of not frustrating employee needs.

Many practicing managers believe that effective leaders and their organizations should focus on providing sufficient pay and benefits (physiological needs); offering as much job security as is possible (safety needs); making people feel valued and paying attention to social needs (belongingness needs); giving people meaningful work to do and recognizing their efforts (esteem needs); and creating opportunities for growth and utilizing one’s potential (self- actualization needs).

Herzberg’s Motivation/Hygiene Theory

In the 1950s, Frederick Herzberg developed the motivation/hygiene theory of motivation, which also commonly goes by the title of Two Factor Theory (Herzberg, 1967). Herzberg, a social psychologist, developed the ideas based on surveys administered to accountants and engineers in which he asked them to describe when they felt good or bad about their jobs. He

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 176 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.2 Content Theories of Motivation

found that one set of job factors created negative or neutral feelings and another generated positive feelings. He called the factors that created negative or neutral feelings hygiene factors and the ones that created positive feelings motivators.

Herzberg called the negative or neutral factors hygiene or maintenance factors because they included job surroundings that resulted in employees being dissatisfied if they were absent or inadequate. At the same time, if they were adequate, while removing the dissatisfaction, these factors did little if anything to motivate people because they are largely extrinsic in nature—that is, given by others. Herzberg believed that by providing adequate hygiene fac- tors, leaders can prevent job dissatisfaction but cannot count on them to motivate employees. The hygiene factors include things such as the items identified in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Herzberg’s satisfiers and dissatisfiers

Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers) Motivators (Satisfiers)

Pay or salary A sense of achievement

Working conditions Meaningful work

Supervision and one’s relationship with a supervisor

Recognition for what you do

Job security Opportunities for advancement

Organizational policies and procedures Opportunities to learn and grow

Interpersonal relations with peers Increased responsibility

Herzberg found that what satisfies and motivates people the most is what they do. Some lead- ers assume that if you pay people well and take care of most of the hygiene factors, people should be motivated. In contrast, Herzberg’s research indicated that leaders should pay far more attention to the jobs that people do and how those positions can be designed to appeal to a person’s higher needs because these motives are more intrinsic, or internal to a person’s psyche. You can see the primary job motivators in Table 6.2.

In Herzberg’s original research, money was on the borderline of being a hygiene factor or motivator. Does money motivate? It can when a clear cause-and-effect relationship exists between what a person does and what the individual receives, only when the money is suf- ficient enough to matter or make a difference in the person’s mind. The reason that money is listed as a hygiene factor, however, is that when an individual perceives pay to be inequitable, it can be a major dissatisfier. Also, even when pay is adequate, it may not be enough to inspire extra effort.

The major implication of the motivation/hygiene theory for leaders is to pay close attention to both hygiene and motivator factors in working with employees and to realize that a great deal of motivation can come from the design of individual jobs (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Dunham, 1977). One such approach, job enrichment, provides a way to make jobs more moti- vating because it adds work-specific motivators and seeks to match a person’s skill set with his or her job requirements.

The Edward Jones company demonstrates how two-factor theory can be applied to a business organization. The company’s pay and benefit program removes any problems associated with

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 177 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.2 Content Theories of Motivation

hygiene factors and dissatisfaction. The use of group bonus incentives as well as individual incentives for performance builds achievement and recognition into the job, which includes friendly interactions with customers and coworkers plus the challenge of creating financial portfolios that serve individual needs. The opportunity to become a limited partner in the firm adds the chance for growth into the mix. It should not be surprising, then, that the com- pany has a satisfied and motivated workforce.

Critics have challenged some aspects of two-factor theory. First, the terms “motivation” and “satisfaction” are being used interchangeably, when they may not explain the same outcome. A person can state he or she is satisfied because “I don’t have to do anything—just collect a check.” In other words, “I’m satisfied because I don’t have to be motivated.” Another individual might report extreme dissatisfaction and motivation as the result, as in, “I hate working third shift (working conditions), so I’m going to try extra hard to get promoted so I can work days.” The bottom line is that even though other combinations are possible, two-factor theory only accounts for circumstances in which individuals are satisfied and motivated or dissatisfied and unmotivated as a consequence.

Second, note that accountants and engineers are not necessarily representative of every occu- pation. These individuals tend to earn higher incomes and hold jobs that are more interesting. Interviews of sales clerks in a department store or the janitorial staff might result in different answers regarding workplace satisfaction and motivation, as would answers of employees from other countries and cultures.

In spite of these criticisms, many leaders believe the theory helps explain workplace dissat- isfaction. One of the strengths of two-factor theory is that the research was conducted in a work environment and was directed toward employment-related, rather than more general, motives. Further, the concept of making jobs more interesting and challenging resonates with managers, employees, and the academic community. As a result, two-factor theory continues to be a popular method for examining the workplace environment.

James Sinegal: Workplace Quality

When a leader has a positive reputation with those asked to follow, word gets around. One such individual, James Sinegal, co-founded and directed Costco as the chain grew and became a legend in the retail world. Even during the 2008 recession, Costco earned a profit of nearly $1.3 billion (Ruggeri, 2009). How did that happen?

Sinegal’s leadership style began with a vision. His objective was to always make money by keeping prices low so that other stores find it hard to compete. Costco’s legendary low markups on inventory have contributed to customer satisfaction; however, that is only part of the story. After all, to shop at Costco involves paying an annual membership fee. What else is going on?

Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images

James Sinegal walks through Costco store in New York.

(continued)

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 178 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Goal oriented, quick to take responsibility, like challenges, take

calculated risk

Seek close relationships with others, enjoy social

activities, building relationships is a high

priority

Take-charge attitude, high concern for

influencing others, seek positions of

authority

PowerAffiliationAchievement

Section 6.2 Content Theories of Motivation

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

David McClelland’s theory is known as achievement theory or acquired needs theory (1961). His approach suggests that the desire to satisfy needs motivates behavior and that those needs are based on one’s unique personality and are acquired through interaction with the environment. In his theory, McClelland concluded that all people possess three needs to vary- ing degrees that drive motivation, as you can see in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: McClelland’s theory of needs

McClelland concluded that all people possess three needs to varying degrees: achievement, affiliation, and power.

McClelland, David (1961). The achieving society. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold and McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisi- tion, American Psychologist, May, 321–333. American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission of the American Psychological Association.

Goal oriented, quick to take responsibility, like challenges, take

calculated risk

Seek close relationships with others, enjoy social

activities, building relationships is a high

priority

Take-charge attitude, high concern for

influencing others, seek positions of

authority

PowerAffiliationAchievement

James Sinegal: Workplace Quality (continued)

Sinegal and Costco’s leadership team emphasize taking excellent care of employees. In 2008, 86% of workers received healthcare insurance and benefits, even though half were part- timers. Even then the average wage granted reached $19 an hour. Costco did not have layoffs during the recession. Why such generosity?

“It’s really pretty simple. It’s good business. When you hire good people, and you provide good jobs and good wages and a career, good things are going to happen,” Sinegal says (Ruggeri, 2009, para. 5). “We try to give a message of quality in everything that we do, and we think that that starts with the people. It doesn’t do much good to have a quality image, whether it’s with the facility or whether it’s with the merchandise, if you don’t have real quality people taking care of your customers.”

CEO Sinegal was legendary for touring individual stores and providing praise to managers and employees alike. His goal was to make the shopping experience enjoyable for everyone in the store, including employees. Clearly the approach has worked.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 179 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

McClelland’s motivation theory can be useful in understanding that people have different needs and that the three need profiles provide leaders with insights regarding what moti- vates various individuals. Much of McClelland’s subsequent work focused on persons with high needs for achievement. As employees, such individuals tend to work best in occupations featuring attainable tasks and clearly outlined goals. As leaders, people with high achieve- ment needs should resist the temptation to focuses solely on personal accomplishments and learn to achieve by helping others succeed.

Those with low needs for achievement are inclined to create self-fulfilling prophecies of fail- ure. They tend to lack confidence and avoid challenges. Some evidence suggests that the need for achievement can be taught or enhanced through training which incrementally creates suc- cesses that inspire the willingness to tackle more difficult challenges (McClelland, 1965).

Individuals with a need for power may be best motivated with autonomy, opportunities to lead projects, and inclusion in making decisions. For people with high affiliation needs, it seems logical to place them in jobs that involve others and in groups where teamwork and collaboration are needed and, further, to offer praise for their successful efforts.

In summary, each of these theories focuses on need fulfillment as a primary motivating factor. When needs go unfulfilled, motivation declines or does not exist. Leaders are advised to try to understand the needs of their employees and work to make sure mechanisms are in place to meet those needs.

Self-Reflection Questions

1. Describe motivation levels in workers who are young and just starting out, using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a guide. Then, describe the motives of senior-level employees who are about to retire using the same theory. Explain your reasoning.

2. Does money motivate? If so how? If not, why not, or when does it not? 3. McClelland’s work focuses on individuals with high achievement needs. At

the other end of the spectrum, how would you lead someone with very low needs for achievement? Do you believe that such personality characteristics (low and high needs for achievement) may become relatively fixed at an early age? Why or why not?

6.3 Process Theories

Process theories of motivation focus on how to evaluate various situations and then respond with either higher or lower levels of effort and motivation. Some might suggest that process theories are more complex than the content theories and therefore will be challenging for leaders to apply. They can be helpful to leaders in terms of understanding the thought pro- cesses that people go through as they encounter various organizational circumstances. They may also assist in setting motivating goals and making policy decisions that are equitable and meet the expectations of employees.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 180 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

Adam’s Equity Theory

Have you ever worked in a job where things just didn’t seem fair? If so, equity theory, as devel- oped by J. Stacy Adams, and concepts regarding organizational justice might explain how you would react in such a situation. These feelings often take place after observing what happens to you and to others.

We can describe the essence of equity theory as follows: When people perceive their situation at work as being fair or equitable, they are more likely to remain motivated at the level they have always given. When they perceive their situation as unfair or inequi- table, they are prone to dissatis- faction and there will be an impact on their levels of motivation. In simple terms, equity theory pro- poses that an important part of the motivation process involves considering if what you do and the rewards you get are equitable and if you are receiving fair treatment in comparison to others. Adams

says that people are motivated to seek equity in the rewards they receive (outputs) for their performance (inputs) (1963). A more in-depth description of the theory follows.

Inputs and Outputs At work, people exchange inputs for outputs. Inputs include everything an employee trades to an organization, expecting something in return. Examples of inputs include education, experi- ence, special skills, levels of effort and productivity, helpfulness to others, creativity or sug- gestions, and even personal appearance.

Outputs are the things the organization trades in exchange for inputs. Outcomes include pay, praise, chances to be promoted, status symbols (corner office; reserved parking space), com- pany benefits, job assignments, recognition, job security, and being included in organization plans and decisions.

Presence of a Referent Other A referent other is a person an employee chooses for purposes of making social comparisons. In other words, you are likely to single out someone at work or in some other organization for the purpose of examining inputs and outcomes. Most of the time, a referent other is someone who was hired at about the same time and performs the same or a comparable job. In other circumstances, different forms of referents are selected, as Table 6.3 displays.

Fuse/Thinkstock

Equity theory says that when people perceive their work situation as fair, they are more likely to remain motivated.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 181 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

The Comparison Each employee makes a comparison of input-outcome ratios with his or her referent other. In essence, “give-get” relationships, or, “what I give and get versus what my referent other gives and gets,” as we’ll see next:

Personal outcomes versus

Referent other outcomes

Personal inputs Referent other inputs

Equity Perceptions Equity occurs when one perceives that the ratio comparison is in balance, or fair. When such a sense of equity or equilibrium exists, behavior is maintained. That is, a sense that things are equitable or fair means an employee will keep working at the same pace and with the same levels of intensity, direction, and persistence.

Perceptions of Inequity Many times, a review of personal and referent other inputs and outcomes leads to the per- ception that the formula is not in balance. This circumstance—inequity, or disequilibrium— results in a strong motivational force to restore equilibrium. In other words, the individual feels compelled to somehow adjust the components in the input-output ratio. Table 6.4 rep- resents the types of reactions that are possible.

The first set of adjustments involves the following perception, a feeling described as “positive inequity.”

Personal outcomes �

Referent other outcomes

Personal inputs Referent other inputs

Table 6.3: Forms of referents

Potential Referent Other Comparisons

Self inside the company The employee compares a new position or job to a previous position or job in the same company

Self outside the company The employee compares a current position or job to a previous position in a different company

Other inside the company The employee compares a current job or position with another person or group within the same company

Other outside the company The employee compares a current job or posi- tion with another person or group in a different company

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 182 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

This formula suggests that the person involved has reached the conclusion that he or she is overpaid. Using the potential responses noted in Table 6.4, a person who felt overpaid could: (1) try harder and produce more to justify the difference, (2) change comparisons to referent other who earns more, or (3) rationalize that the pay difference was based on seniority or some other factor not previously considered.

Table 6.4: Reactions to perceptions of inequity

Activity Example

Change personal output Ask for a pay raise

Change personal inputs Try harder; reduce effort

Influence referent other output Encourage referent other to ask for a raise

Influence referent other inputs Encourage referent other to try harder; reduce effort

Change referent other Look at outputs and inputs of someone different

Rationalize Add elements to the formula, such as time horizon

Leave the field Quit the job

The other form of disequilibrium, sometimes called “negative inequity,” would be:

Personal outcomes �

Referent other outcomes

Personal inputs Referent other inputs

This situation reflects feeling underpaid. A person who believes he or she is underpaid could: (1) ask for a pay raise, (2) reduce inputs, (3) conclude that although they are currently expe- riencing a raw deal management will eventually make things right through a promotion or some other future adjustment to outcomes, or (4) make plans to leave and quit.

Equity theory enjoys significant theoretical support. First, the concept of exchanging inputs for outcomes has a basis in the concept of a psychological contract (Schein, 1980). Psychologi- cal contracts are socially and mentally constructed sets of exchanges, such as the division of housework between two spouses or partners, or the level of work in exchange for the level of pay on the job. When psychological contracts are violated, negative reactions occur. Second, the idea that people compare themselves to one another is based on the strongly established social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). Third, the tendency to act on disequilibrium has its basis in concepts of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957). Cognitive dissonance, or men- tal disharmony, creates a mental force seeking to resolve the discord or dissonance. Cognitive dissonance leads to the reactions displayed in Table 6.4.

The basic premise that inequity exists when input-outcome ratios differ is founded in the principles established by the theory of distributive justice, which states that people should receive in proportion to what they give in society (Greenberg, 1996), and which applies to the allocation and amount of outcomes. Further, concepts regarding procedural justice, or evaluations of the fairness of a process, such as a performance appraisal or pay raise system, influence perceptions of equity.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 183 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

Implications for Leaders Equity theory principles offer guidance to leaders. First, a leader can make certain that the equity comparisons made by top performers receive the most attention. Doing so can go beyond pay and benefits. Top performers can receive preferential treatment in terms of scheduling breaks during the work day, vacations, and other nonfinancial signals that indicate the leader’s perceptions of their worth, including asking them first for opinions when an issue or decision arises.

At the same time, every employee should believe that the reward system is fair and not simply based on personal preferences of the manager. Through on-the-job feedback and the perfor- mance appraisal system, workers can understand who the top, middle, and low performers are in a department. Second, leaders can employ equity theory to understand why workers become dissatisfied and seek to leave a company. In essence, this provides a framework for understanding how employees react to all sorts of situations.

The added dimension is that inputs and outputs are considered in terms of perceived equity with other relevant people. Many things that may or may not be accurate can influence per- ceptions. Perceptions are important because they can affect performance, morale, feelings, attitudes, commitment, cooperation, and many other things (Trevor, Reilly, & Gerhart, 2012) and can even be used to justify unethical and inappropriate behaviors (Leavitt, Reynolds, Barnes, Schilpzan, & Hannah, 2012).

Ann Alba: Clear Expectations Produce Great Results

Ann Alba is the resident manager of the Broadmoor hotel and resort located at the foot of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The hotel has 2,400 employees and includes three world-class golf courses, endless activities and amenities, and highly rated service.

Ann grew up in the restaurant business. She learned from her father to always have a good handshake and to make eye contact, to call people by name, to never be too proud to serve, to make guests feel special, and to treat people honestly. Twenty-nine years ago Ann was hired at the historic hotel where she started as a server, rose through numerous management positions, and has been the resident manager since 2000. Ann knows many if not most of the employees at the Broadmoor and they know what she expects of them. She has at least six principles she tries to instill in all employees:

1. Every position is important to the success of the hotel. 2. Never be too proud to do any job. 3. Always be available. If you make others feel like they can’t ask you for help, they

won’t. 4. People will work with you and follow you when they trust that you will do the right

thing in whatever direction you are going. 5. Never let procedures stand in the way of service. 6. You must love what you do. (It becomes evident when you don’t!)

Because of Ann’s clear expectations as a leader, the employees who work at the Broadmoor have a high level of motivation and dedication to providing superior service.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 184 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory is a second cognitive approach to motivation that analyzes the process by which a person becomes more or less willing to give intense effort toward a specific task or goal (Vroom, 1969). Three factors make up the essence of the theory.

Expectancy represents an individual’s belief that a given level of effort will result in the suc- cessful performance of a task. A sales representative who confidently believes calling on 10 new customers will result in two new purchases and will lead to a higher commission feels a high level of expectancy. A second salesperson who believes no level of effort or new sales calls will result in the desired outcome experiences a low level of expectancy. Expectancy can be summarized as:

Effort � Performance

Instrumentality reflects an individual’s belief that successful performance of a task will result in a specific outcome or reward. A salesperson who knows that winning a sales contest will result in a desired prize (vacation, bonus, new high-definition television) holds a high instrumentality score. A salesperson who believes the company has reneged on giving out prizes in the past, even when a clear winner emerged, has an instrumentality score that is low or even zero. Instrumentality may be expressed as this linkage:

Performance � Reward

Valence is an evaluation of the attractiveness of a reward, and it consists of two components. The first is the value of the reward to the person. If the prize in a production contest is a free trip to the home office in Hawaii, complete with some vacation time, and all of the entrants would love such a trip, the valence of the prize will be high. On the other hand, if the prize is two tickets to the county fair, and no one cares about going to the event, the valence of the outcome will be low or zero. The second component of valance is the value associated with achieving a goal or successfully completing a task. Winning the contest provides a valence associated with doing the best job during a specific time period on a given task.

Note that several combinations of these variables have been presented in previous literature. One simple approach is the multiplicative model, as follows:

Motivational force (Intention to give effort) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

We can than assign values to each variable. We may rate expectancy from zero to 1 or zero to 100%. A score of zero means the individual believes no linkage between effort and per- formance exists, or “No matter how hard I try, I can’t do it.” A score of 0.5 or 50% indicates the person believes he or she has a 50–50 chance of success, given a specific level of effort. A rating of 1 or 100% indicates the person has complete confidence that given a certain level of personal effort, the individual can complete the task or achieve the goal.

The same formulation applies to instrumentality. A score of zero means the person does not believe a reward will be delivered for successful performance. A score of 50% suggests the individual is uncertain about whether the reward will be delivered. A value of 100% means

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 185 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

the person expresses complete confidence that achieving a goal or successful performance will be rewarded.

Assigning values to valence is problematic. We can use scales to indicate the value of a reward from 1 = no value to 7 = great value, or sets can be used to indicate “low,” “medium,” and “high” degrees of valence. The point is to note that some valences are more powerful than others.

Using this approach, it is possible to see differences in the degree of motivational force and make predictions about the level of effort that someone will give. Expectancy theory then explains the following:

The highest level of effort would be expected when the individual believes he or she can successfully complete a task (high expectancy), that successful completion of the task will result in a reward (high instrumentality), and that the reward itself has value (high valence).

Under any other circumstance, the degree of motivation diminishes. If a score of zero is assigned to any of the three variables, the resulting level of motivation will also be zero.

Analysis of Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory has been well respected as an approach to understanding motivation in the business world for several decades. Several reasons for its acceptance exist. First, the the- ory examines workplace motivation rather than motivation in other circumstances. It applies to specific employment activities, goals, and rewards.

Second, expectancy theory explains circumstances in which employees will be motivated as well as situations in which they will not be motivated. A company that has not given pay raises or any other incentives for performance over the past 3 years should not be surprised by the low levels of effort exhibited by employees. When employees can identify no link between effort and performance, their motivational levels will decline. Also, leaders who fail to identify the outputs that employees value may be offering rewards that have no meaning.

Third, the concept that value exists in successfully completing a task or achieving a goal sug- gests the role that intrinsic valences play in motivation. An intrinsic valence is the reward you give yourself for achieving a goal, such as a feeling of pride, accomplishment, or self- efficacy. Intrinsic valences accompany the extrinsic valences, or the strength of the rewards given by others (Porter & Lawler, 1968). For example, a writer prepares a book he really likes. One self-reward comes from simply finishing the manuscript. Then, if an editor reads the book and agrees to publish it, valence is present. One valence is intrinsic in nature—that an expert deemed the manuscript to have value. Should the book make money and appear on a bestseller list, an extrinsic valence has been awarded (money) along the intrinsic reward of knowing other people like the work. Managers should never underestimate the importance of intrinsic valences.

Fourth, expectancy theory enjoys consistent research support (Donovan, 2001; van Eerde & Thierry, 1996). Although some criticism of the research methods exists (Mitchell & Daniels, 2003), many leaders believe that the theory offers down-to-earth, concrete methods for seek- ing to improve employee effort and levels of motivation.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 186 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.3 Process Theories

Implications for Leaders In essence, applying expectancy theory involves three things: (1) work to make sure employ- ees can complete assigned tasks, (2) link performance to the reward system, and (3) make sure employees are rewarded with the things they value. This means that leaders should make objectives, expectations, and outcomes as clear as possible. They should create as many cause-and-effect linkages between performance and tangible and intangible rewards as they can find. Leaders also need to know their followers well so they understand their capabilities, what they feel competent in doing, and what kinds of rewards they value. Believing in employ- ees and having high expectations can create a Pygmalion effect (a self-fulfilling prophecy).

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

Goal-setting theory proposes that specific, challenging, and achievable goals are strong moti- vators. The extensive research conducted by Edwin Locke and others on goal setting as a motivator has led Locke to conclude that goal setting is the most valid approach to motivating people (Locke, 2004). Almost anyone can relate to this simple but powerful concept. Com- pelling and challenging goals motivate and energize people and give them a strong sense of purpose and commitment to getting important things accomplished (Latham, 2004; Dufresne & Offstein, 2012). Lou Holtz, ESPN college football analyst, former coach of national champion University of Notre Dame and the University of South Carolina, and motivational speaker, said, “Of all my experiences in managing people, the power of goal setting is the most incred- ible” (Rickets, 2006, p. 2).

After evaluating almost 400 motivation studies involving more than 40,000 individuals, groups, and organizations in eight countries, Locke and Latham identified five consistent aspects of effective goal setting, as displayed in Table 6.5 (Locke & Latham, 1990; Latham, 2003).

The goal-setting approach to motivation makes sense and is easy to understand. It has been extensively researched. We should keep in mind, however, that goal setting alone is not all that leaders need to understand about motivation. The other theories also make valuable contributions to our knowledge about motivation.

Table 6.5: Goal-setting principles

Goals should be specific and easy to understand. General goals and goals that are stated in complex or lofty ways are not likely to be attractive to people.

Goals should be relevant. Goals need to be perceived to be relevant, compelling, and within the control of those carrying them out. Trying to engage people in accomplishing goals that do not make sense or that are not perceived to be important is difficult to do.

Goals should be challenging. Goals need to be compelling and somewhat difficult to achieve.

Commitment to goals is critical. Leaders should take the time necessary to build a strong commitment to accomplishing goals either through their own communicative and persuasive efforts or by involving others in the goal-setting process. Participation in goal setting, when appropriate, typically creates a higher com- mitment to accomplishing goals.

Goals accompanied by feedback motivate the greatest effort. Feedback on progress toward achieving goals increases the motivation to pursue goals.

Based on Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Latham, G.P. (2003). Goal setting: A five step approach to behavior change. Organizational Dynamics, 32, 3, 309-318.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 187 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Behavior Response Reinforcement

Section 6.4 Reinforcement Theory

In summary, the cognitive process models of motivation explain worker reactions to organi- zational conditions. Equity theory is based on evaluations employees make with regard to the treatment of other employees that lead to responses including increased or decreased effort, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, and the desire to leave or stay at a company. Expectancy theory explains the conditions under which various motives do or do not achieve desired increases in effort or productivity. Goal setting adds a method for linking incentives to rewards in mean- ingful ways, thereby increasing motivational levels.

Self-Reflection Questions

1. Explain how feelings of inequity can lead to either giving up on a job and not trying very hard or to giving maximum effort.

2. Which do you think are more powerful motivators: intrinsic or extrinsic rewards? Defend your choice.

3. What kinds of goals would lead to decreased, rather than increased, levels of effort? Explain your answer.

6.4 Reinforcement Theory

In framing his theory of reinforcement as a motivator, B. F. Skinner proposed that chang- ing behaviors does not mean it is necessary to identify and understand needs or to under- stand how to process information. Instead, what we need is to understand the relationships between behaviors and their consequences, both those that are desired and those that are undesirable (Skinner, 1971).

Reinforcement theory is also known as operant conditioning and behavior modification. Researchers conducted early reinforcement experiments using mice and rats as subjects. The concepts have been successful in training animals. At the same time, while the concepts can be effective in training people, employees are much more complex and they are likely to be suspect of efforts used to shape and direct their behaviors if the efforts are not done openly and with the right motives.

Figure 6.3 shows the basic model underlying operant conditioning.

Figure 6.3: Operant conditioning (reinforcement theory) model

When a behavior is reinforced, it is more likely to occur again.

Behavior Response Reinforcement

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 188 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.4 Reinforcement Theory

In other words, after a person performs a behavior, it meets with a consequence or reinforce- ment. These consequences then shape future behaviors.

Types of Reinforcement

Four types of reinforcement are possible following an individual’s act or behavior. Two of the four increase the likelihood that the individual will repeat the behavior. They include positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Two additional consequences decrease the likelihood that an individual will exhibit a behavior again. They are punishment and extinction.

Factors That Increase Behaviors Positive reinforcement is anything that one perceives as pleasant or rewarding following a behavior. At work, positive reinforcement could include, for example, being praised for a specific act, skill, or a job well done. It could include encouragement, satisfaction from doing something well, or a bonus for outstanding performance on a project. Research regarding pos- itive reinforcement indicates that it can be a powerful motivator and that intangible rewards such as positive feedback can be just as effective as tangible financial rewards (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997; Luthan & Stajkovic, 1999).

Negative reinforcement, the second consequence that increases or strengthens behaviors, may be the most misunderstood concept in organizational behavior. Negative reinforcement can only occur when an aversive or negative factor appears. Two responses are possible. First, a behavior will occur in order to terminate the aversive or negative event that is occur- ring. To demonstrate this reinforcer, consider a lab rat that has been wired so that the animal can be continuously shocked. The only way to stop the shock is for the rat to touch a small metal bar in one corner of the cage. Doing so breaks the circuit and the pain stops. After a few episodes, you will have a paranoid rat standing beside the bar, waiting for the next shock to begin. The behavior (bar hitting) has been strengthened and increased. Negative reinforce- ment occurs when someone takes medicine to reduce ongoing discomfort, such as an antacid for a stomachache or an aspirin for a headache. On the job, joking to break up the tension of an overly serious meeting, if it works, may become a more regular negative reinforcement behavior.

Second, negative reinforcement takes place when a person repeats a behavior in order to pre- vent something aversive from happening. This phenomenon, known as avoidance behavior, includes an instance when a person moves away from an item that might be carrying current, and thus would shock the individual if he/she touched it. When someone says, “I’m going to finish this job on time so I don’t get into trouble,” the person exhibits a behavior generated by negative reinforcement. The worker performs a behavior (getting finished) in order to avoid an aversive situation (getting in trouble).

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 189 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.4 Reinforcement Theory

Factors That Decrease Behaviors Punishment represents an unpleasant consequence linked to a behavior. Such a behavior will quickly disappear. Being yelled at by a supervisor, having one’s pay docked, receiving a reprimand, and being passed over for a choice assignment or promotion due to a misdeed are examples of punishments at work.

Punishment is often confused with negative reinforcement. Two key differences exist. First, punishment is an unpleasant consequence that follows the performance of a behavior; nega- tive reinforcement is an unpleasant event (or the perception that an unpleasant event will take place) that precedes the performance of a behavior. In the simplest of terms, yelling at an employee who is trying to leave work early is punishment; telling the same employee, “You can’t go home until this job is done” is setting up negative reinforcement.

Overuse of Punishment Skinner believed that punishment creates a trap for parents, teachers, and any leader who over-relies on it. Punishment has several disadvantages. For one, it focuses attention on unwanted behaviors rather than on desired behaviors. In practically any situation it makes sense to point out the behaviors you hope to encourage (trying hard, staying on task) than on the ones you do not (goofing around, wandering away).

At work, leaders tend to punish for three reasons: (1) doing so is quick and easy, (2) it was what they observed while training to become a leader, and (3) it displays personal power (“I can punish you; I have power”). Effective leaders save punishment for extreme circumstances, such as safety rules violations and clearly inappropriate behaviors. The rest of the time, posi- tive reinforcement offers the better alternative. To paraphrase the popular 1980s book, The One-Minute Manager: “Help people reach their potential: Catch someone doing something right” rather than look for someone doing something wrong to punish (Blanchard & Johnson, 1981).

Extinction can take place in two ways. The first occurs when someone has exhibited a behav- ior with no consequence, positive or negative. Over time, such a behavior likely will disappear. Someone who uses a word or makes a gesture that others do not understand and receives no reaction as a consequence will eventually abandon the word or gesture.

The second form of extinction involves removing consequences that appeared previously, either by stopping the use of positive reinforcement or punishment. For example, consider an employee who has consistently been praised for being customer-friendly and helpful but then stops receiving that positive attention. Over time, the employee may become more com- placent about helping customers. A second employee is punished for chewing gum on the job by being sent home early, losing most of a night’s pay. At first, gum-chewing will disappear. If the employee forgets, chews gum on the job, and then does not receive punishment, over time gum-chewing likely will begin again (Skinner, 1974).

Table 6.6 provides examples of workplace reinforcements. These consequences can be deliv- ered in a variety of ways to shape employee behaviors. In essence, they can help guide or motivate the employee to achieve at higher levels (Skinner, 1978).

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 190 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.4 Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Schedules

Leaders can deliver the various forms of reinforcement in several ways. Shaping programs seek to increase certain target behaviors, on the job or elsewhere. To achieve these goals, reinforcements are delivered using various schedules. Continuous reinforcement means the reinforcer will be delivered every time a behavior occurs. The approach is difficult to admin- ister because it requires constant monitoring, watching for the desired or target behavior. It is a powerful approach, however, due to the constant positive impact of receiving a reward or punishment.

Intermittent reinforcement involves delivering reinforcements for some, but not every, instance of a desired or target behavior being exhibited. Intermittent reinforcement pro- grams routinely take place in works sites, such as those you see in Table 6.7.

The first two programs involve maintaining a behavior over time. Fixed interval reinforce- ments are distributed at uniform time periods, so long as the behavior continues. Variable interval reinforcements are distributed over random time periods, again as long as the behav- ior continues.

The second two programs grant reinforcements based on behavioral occurrences. Fixed ratio reinforcement is on a fixed number of behaviors, such as every third instance or every fifth occurrence. Variable ratio reinforcement varies the number of behavioral occurrences.

Table 6.7: Reinforcement schedules

Behavior Maintenance Example at Work

Fixed interval Weekly, monthly pay check

Variable interval Promotion for continuous high performance; pay raises for high perfor- mance granted on random timetables

Behavior Occurrence

Fixed ratio Commission per sale; piece rate pay per item produced; prize for coming to work on time five days in a row

Variable ratio Praise and compliments for good work randomly delivered; prize for com- ing to work on time more regularly than all others (prize delivered to the most on-time arrivals); contests with elements of gaming in them

Table 6.6: Operant consequences at work

Positive reinforcement Pay, praise, promotion, benefits, inclusion in high-status groups or teams, prizes in contests

Negative reinforcement Meeting deadlines (filing tax forms on time)

Punishment Discipline, being chewed out, termination, unwanted transfer, unpleas- ant task assignment, being removed from a task force or committee for inappropriate behavior

Extinction Ignoring an unwanted behavior; removing a previously granted reward such as praise or bonuses; ceasing punishment for behaviors, such as punishing someone for not wearing proper attire

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 191 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.4 Reinforcement Theory

Implications for Leaders

Reinforcement theory is important for leaders to understand. Knowing the value of positive reinforcement, the need for clear, simple, and reasonable rules, policies, and standards, and having fair and reasonable consequences for inappropriate behaviors should be part of the motivators available to leaders. Three concepts add value to a leader’s thinking about rein- forcement theory.

First, reinforcements should be natural, simple, and transparent. Second, leaders should undertake reinforcing behavior with a right heart and with the right motives. Without strong values linked to the theory, reinforcement theory can be misused to manipulate people and shape their behaviors without their knowledge. Third, reinforcements should be accompa- nied by teaching principles. Leaders should teach principles, not just reinforce behaviors. In other words, leaders can discuss the desired behaviors and explain the principles behind them. Otherwise, there is the possibility of reinforcing behaviors that will only continue while they are being reinforced because the principles behind the behaviors have not been under- stood or internalized.

In understanding the power of reinforcement as a motivator, consider that a leader who posi- tively reinforces followers for getting results, having a good attitude, being straightforward, and being team players increases the probability of having followers act in this manner. It is also important to understand that whether purposeful or not, rewarding undesirable behav- iors like telling the boss what he or she wants to hear, looking out for yourself rather than being a team player, and manipulating and bending the rules to make yourself look good also increases the probability these behaviors will be repeated. In other words, leaders need to be aware of what they are reinforcing.

With regard to punishment, remember that leaders can also use it appropriately or inappro- priately. Creating fair and reasonable consequences for undesirable behaviors can be helpful to the employee. When followers believe that negative sanctions have been fairly delivered and are equivalent to the misdeed, punishment systems are most effective.

In his studies, Skinner noted two additional elements of the connections between reinforce- ment and the acquisition of behaviors. The principle of immediate reinforcement suggests that the closer in time a reinforcer appears following a behavior, the more powerful the reinforcer will be. Immediately delivered rewards and punishments are more powerful than those deliv- ered following a delay. Also, response discrimination means that a behavior must be shaped to a specific form in order to gain a reinforcer. When teaching a person how to bow appro- priately in Japan, for example, several less precise versions may first take place. Positive rein- forcement should not be delivered until the bow meets the needs of the social setting.

It is worth noting that Skinner might frown on the use of the term “motivation” because the word is a construct, or “convenient fiction” used to describe an unobservable process. You cannot observe a “motivation”—you can observe changes in behavior. Managers should con- centrate on the behaviors rather than words used to describe them (Skinner, 1977).

In summary, the principles present in reinforcement theory add another tool or skill for lead- ers to master in order to perform effectively on the job. Leaders should take due care to avoid the misuse of these principles, as the consequences can then be dire.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 192 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.5 Other Motivation Theories

6.5 Other Motivation Theories

There are additional theories regarding what motivates people. Two theories warrant spe- cial attention: empowerment and positive meaning. Empowerment is becoming increasingly important, as smart organizations are looking for ways to create a highly motivated work- force, and all organizations worldwide are struggling to find ways to motivate employees to do more with less while boosting performance and commitment (Grant, 2007). Positive meaning merits special attention because of the wealth of research that clearly indicates that making work meaningful is a strong motivator that can give a competitive advantage (Anita, Liu, Chiu, & Fellows, 2007).

Empowerment

Empowerment is the process of: (1) preparing leaders to empower employees; (2) build- ing an organizational culture that supports empowerment; (3) equipping people with the knowledge, skills, and authority necessary to be empowered; and (4) delegating leadership and decision making to the lowest level possible. The first two steps in empowerment suggest that leaders and organizations need to be prepared to empower employees, and the last two steps show what is involved in empowering employees.

Empowerment is a popular term used for motivating employees. Unfortunately, leaders often misunderstand it. Some think it simply means delegating more responsibility to employees. Others believe it means encouraging employees to be more entrepreneurial. Still others see empowerment as meaning that leaders need to encourage employees to take more initia- tive and that the leaders need to be more tolerant of mistakes. Empowerment is certainly all of these things and much more. You can’t just wave a magic wand and suddenly empower employees. Empowering employees without preparing the organization for empowerment will likely multiply any chaos that may already exist. For the program to succeed, organiza- tions must carefully follow the process.

Preparing Leaders At a minimum, leaders should be trained to understand empowerment, its implications for their own roles, methods to empower employees, and the changes that need to be made in

Self-Reflection Questions

1. Which is more powerful in making an impression on an employee: a reward or a punishment? Defend your choice.

2. Evaluate this phrase: “Extinction takes time—time I don’t have.” 3. One of the four positive reinforcement schedules is most resistant to extinc-

tion. This means the employee will continue to exhibit a behavior even though no reward is being given. Which schedule best resists extinction, and why?

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 193 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.5 Other Motivation Theories

an organization to successfully empower people. Asking leaders to be empowered and to empower employees is a formula for disaster if they are not prepared to do so. For some lead- ers, empowerment is what they already do. For others, sharing power and trusting employees to be much more self-directing is a whole new way of leading. Only those who are properly informed and trained will be ready to move on to the next step of the process.

Building the Organization’s Culture The company’s culture must support empowerment. Leaders who have been trained to feel empowered and those who know how to empower employees need to be involved in making any necessary changes in the organization culture and practices to support empowerment. Empowerment requires a culture that supports employees being self-directing and trusted to make decisions without being micro-managed (Fisher, 1997; Anders, 2004). The Ritz-Carlton provides an example of an organization that has created a culture for empowerment. In that organization, all employees have at their discretion up to $1,000 to create a great experience for customers (Izzo, 2012).

Equipping People Employees at all levels require the knowledge, skills, and authority necessary to be empow- ered. They also need to have the authority to make reasonable decisions. Telling people that they are empowered and having unreasonable restrictions on the decisions they can make undermines empowerment. Research on empowerment recommends that the four dimen- sions you see in Table 6.8 need to be addressed in empowering people (Spreitzer, 1995).

Table 6.8: Principles for empowering people

Self-determination Empowered employees need to feel that they have the discretion to make choices regarding their work activities.

Meaning Empowered employees need to have meaningful things to do and to believe that their work is important.

Competence Empowered employees need to have or be trained in the skills they need to be confident that they can succeed at what they are doing.

Impact Empowered employees need to feel that what they do makes a difference.

Based on Spreitzer, Gretchen M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, October, 1442-1465.

Delegating Leadership and Decision Making Empowerment becomes a reality when leadership and decision-making responsibilities are actually delegated to the lowest levels possible. When empowerment is done effectively in a culture that supports empowerment, employees are likely to be more motivated, productive, and satisfied, and the organization will be able to get things done much more quickly (Block, 1987; Howard, 1998).

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 194 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.5 Other Motivation Theories

Note that there can be potential costs to empowerment, especially if it is not effectively implemented (Baloff & Doherty, 1989; Bowen & Lawler, 1992). For example, there can be higher labor costs for attracting skilled workers, higher training costs to prepare leaders and employees for empowerment, bad decisions made by empowered employees, leaders who feel threatened by empowered employees, and conflicts over what empowerment means in different situations.

Effective leaders overcome any potential problems associated with empowerment programs. They do so by remaining in constant communication with all parties involved, including those of both lower and higher ranks. They make sure the reward system does not penalize but instead favors those who assume the responsibility of empowerment. And finally, they cham- pion the entire system publically, both within and outside of the organization.

Adding Meaning to Work

Making work more meaningful is a simple motivational concept that is reasonably easy to apply and yet can be a significant motivator. To understand the concept, consider that many people do their jobs with little understanding of the overall contribution they may be mak- ing or how their job makes a difference. This certainly happens at middle to lower levels of an organization and especially where work is routine. In contrast, consider the motivation of someone who has a sense of purpose for what they do and is aware of the impact their work is having, whether they are the CEO or a server in a fast food restaurant. Research on adding meaning to work shows that when people find work meaningful, it increases commitment, effort, engagement, and satisfaction, and it reduces stress, turnover, absenteeism, and cyni- cism (Grant, Campbell, Chen, Cottone, Lapedis, & Lee, 2007; Grant, Dutton, & Russo, 2007).

In making work meaningful, start with the fundamentals of making clear and meaningful the vision, mission, core values, goals, and structure of the organization and in making sure that a person’s job responsibilities, expectations, and goals are clear as well. Remember that it is the special attention given to making a person’s specific job, or the jobs of those in similar positions, meaningful that makes the most difference. This means spending time discussing why jobs are important, the impact they may be having, and the contributions they make to the success of the organization.

As an example, educating people in the sanitation industry (garbage collection and disposal) about how what they do and how they do it can affect the lives of people and the environment can give new meaning to their jobs. It can add new meaning to teaching when teachers see films or information regarding the influence they are having on the lives and careers of their students. It can be particularly impactful to use visual images such as slides or films or per- sonal contact to bring to life the importance of what a person does. For example, it is common practice in the mining industry to take people from all levels and types of jobs to the mines for a day to experience what goes on and how their work contributes to the success of the mining operation. Kim Cameron, in his book Positive Leadership, identifies four key attributes that make jobs meaningful, as displayed in Table 6.9 (2012).

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 195 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.6 Integrating the Motivation Theories

We have focused primarily on making individual jobs more meaningful. However, making work more meaningful is something that can be done with groups and whole organizations as well. Leaders should look for innovative ways to use group meetings and a variety of other communication alternatives to point out the value of what groups or whole organizations are doing that makes a difference and the impact they have.

6.6 Integrating the Motivation Theories

Motivation theories offer leaders many alternatives for bringing out the best in people and achieving a high level of performance and job satisfaction. However, it can also be overwhelm- ing to consider all of the variables and options involved. The motivation integration model shown in Figure 6.4 simplifies the theories and makes them motivating by showing the inter- action between individual motivators and what organizations can do to motivate people.

The left side of the Figure 6.4 model shows an adaptation of Maslow’s need hierarchy and the needs that motivate people including physiological, security, social, esteem, and self- actualization needs. Although people are likely experiencing some degree of motivation to satisfy needs at most levels, as a general principle, being reasonably satisfied at one level makes it more possible to focus more on higher-level needs. The greatest motivation and pro- ductivity comes from doing a reasonable job of satisfying physiological, security, and social needs and freeing people to focus primarily on the higher-level esteem and self-actualization needs. However, if lower-level needs and social needs are being frustrated, people will devote more attention to those needs and productivity and satisfaction will likely suffer.

It is easy to relate to these principles. When our lower-level needs are relatively well satisfied, it is easier to focus on satisfying higher-level needs. However, when we are concerned about job security and having the resources to pay our bills and meet our obligations, it is difficult to stay motivated at a high level.

Table 6.9: Creating meaningful work

The work has an important positive impact on the well-being of people. Work is made more meaningful when people can see the effects of their work on others or they are made aware of how their contributions are benefitting others.

The work is associated with an important virtue or personal value. Work is made more meaningful when what people do fulfills a personal virtue or value, such as desiring to contribute to the welfare of others or to improving the environment.

The work has a long-term impact or creates a ripple effect. Work is made more meaningful when people believe that they are doing something that has a long-term benefit to others, the society, or to something that is important to them.

The work builds supportive relationships or a sense of community. Work is made more meaningful when people work together and build relationships in making contributions toward common goals.

Based on Cameron, K. (2012). Positive Leadership. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 93-100.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 196 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Safety needs • Security • Safety & protection • Fair treatment • Order • Harmony • Structure • Stability • Clear direction

Physiological needs • Survival • Air • Food • Drink • Clothing • Shelter • Rest • Avoidance of pain

Esteem and self-actualization

needs are primarily satisfied by job characteristics

Social needs are primarily satisfied by

job relationships

Safety and physiological needs

are primarily satisfied by job surroundings

Individual motivators • Sense of achievement & accomplishment • Challenging, interesting, meaningful, & rewarding work • Recognition & positive reinforcement for talents & efforts • Responsibility • Power • Opportunity for growth, advancement, autonomy, creativity, & independence • Opportunity to utilize one’s potential • Important job, title, & status • Rewards equivalent to efforts

Group motivators • Orientation into organization • Relationship with boss • Relationship with peers • Relationship with employees • Opportunities for socialization • Opportunities for involvement • Teamwork • Extracurricular activities

Organization Motivators • Competent leadership • Company policies, organization, & administration • Pay and benefits • Working conditions • Job security • Clear responsibilities & goals • Work climate • Fair treatment • Organizational stability

Self-actualization needs • Utilize one’s potential • Self-fulfillment • Meaningful purpose & direction • Personal growth • Spiritual growth • Help others

Esteem needs • Achievement & accomplishment • Valued & respected by others • Self-esteem • Power • Freedom & independence • Status • Maturity • Recognition • Control • Feedback • Responsibility • Fair rewards

Social needs • Love & affection • Belonging • Acceptance • Friendship • Socialization

Section 6.6 Integrating the Motivation Theories

Figure 6.4: Motivation integration model

Evaluating individual needs can help satisfy and motivate workers.

Safety needs • Security • Safety & protection • Fair treatment • Order • Harmony • Structure • Stability • Clear direction

Physiological needs • Survival • Air • Food • Drink • Clothing • Shelter • Rest • Avoidance of pain

Esteem and self-actualization

needs are primarily satisfied by job characteristics

Social needs are primarily satisfied by

job relationships

Safety and physiological needs

are primarily satisfied by job surroundings

Self-actualization needs • Utilize one’s potential • Self-fulfillment • Meaningful purpose & direction • Personal growth • Spiritual growth • Help others

Social needs • Love & affection • Belonging • Acceptance • Friendship • Socialization

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 197 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Section 6.6 Integrating the Motivation Theories

On the right side of the Figure 6.4 model, we see how organizations can satisfy or frustrate worker needs. Lower-level physiological and security needs are met by organizational moti- vators such as pay and benefits; working conditions; job security; competent leaders; fair treatment; and company policies, structure, and administration. Leaders who do not under- stand the importance of organizational motivators and consequently do not do a good job of addressing physiological and security needs will likely experience low motivation and com- mitment, high turnover, and difficulty attracting and retaining top-level talent.

Social needs are met by group motivators such as hiring and orientation practices; efforts to build relationships with others such as one’s boss, peers, followers, and other key people; and through creating opportunities for teamwork, involvement, and socialization. Particu- larly important are processes used to orient people to the organization and to the groups they work with and efforts to build good relationships with one’s boss and team members. Lead- ers need to recognize that people have strong needs to belong and feel like they are part of a team, and they need to create opportunities for people to be involved and build relationships.

Esteem and self-actualization needs are met by individual motivators such as having mean- ingful and challenging work, having a sense of achievement, being valued and recognized for one’s efforts, having opportunities to learn and grow, receiving equitable tangible and intan- gible rewards, and working in a culture that brings out the best in people.

This suggests that leaders need to pay close attention to working with people to design jobs that are meaningful, challenging, and rewarding. We should mention that culture affects orga- nizational, group, and individual motivators. However, it is included under individual motiva- tors because of the close link between culture and job performance and satisfaction.

What the motivation integration model should help leaders understand are three key moti- vating principles that will lead to more motivated individuals, more productive teams, and therefore more successful organizations.

1. Leaders have a significant influence on the motivation of their workers. Leaders can influence the culture in which people work as well as the jobs they have, the clarity they have about what is expected of them, how they are treated on the job, and the satisfaction they experience in their job.

2. Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation. While negative moti- vation may be necessary in the appropriate circumstances, in most cases, positive motivation is a much more effective way to motivate people (Cameron, 2012). Nega- tive motivation tends to at best get short-term results, and it often creates unwanted long-term consequences (Lussier & Achua, 2016).

3. Leaders should design organizations and create organizational cultures and environ- ments that induce motivation. Well-run organizations that excel at taking excellent care of their people and getting excellent results will meet most of the fundamental motivation needs of employees, as illustrated in Figure 6.4. One study of more than 4,000 employees found that the three main areas that affect employee motivation are: (1) organizational issues such as pay, benefits, career opportunities, and company reputation; (2) job issues such as knowing what is expected, opportunities to learn new skills, challenging and meaningful work, and work schedules; and (3) leader issues such as whether their leaders/supervisors are trustworthy, good motivators and coaches, and easy to solve problems with (Taylor, 2003). Another research study has found that in motivating employees, it is important to have: (1) reward systems

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 198 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Chapter Summary

that clearly tie rewards to performance and give the best people opportunities for advancement; (2) strong cultures that foster camaraderie, teamwork, collaboration, and openness; (3) well-designed jobs that are meaningful, interesting, and challeng- ing; and (4) performance management and allocation processes that are fair, trust- worthy, and transparent (Nohria, Groysberg, & Lee, 2008).

Chapter Summary

The Role of Motivation in Leadership Activities Motivation consists of the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort in obtaining an organizational goal. Company leaders at all ranks are able to influence the motivation in one-on-one interactions with followers. Leaders can shape the climate in which people work as well as the jobs they have, the clarity they have about what is expected, how they are treated on the job, and the satisfaction they experience in the job.

Content Theories of Motivation Content theories of motivation focus on identifying and satisfying employee needs. Three such theories include:

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs—featuring physical safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization;

• Frederick Herzberg’s motivation/hygiene theory—focusing on reducing hygiene/ dissatifiers and emphasizing motivators/satisfiers; and

• David McClelland’s achievement motivation theory—or the study of the need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

Process Theories Process theories of motivation focus on how to evaluate various situations and then respond with either higher or lower levels of effort and motivation. Stacy Adam’s equity theory examines personal inputs and outputs as they relate to those observed in a referent other. If the comparison indicated equity, behavior is maintained. If inequity exists, a strong motiva- tional force emerges to restore equilibrium.

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory analyzes three components:

• Expectancy represents an individual’s belief that a given level of effort will result in the successful performance of a task.

• Instrumentality reflects an individual’s belief that successful performance of a task will result in a specific outcome or reward.

• Valence is an evaluation of the attractiveness of a reward, in terms of its intrinsic and extrinsic properties.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 199 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Key Terms

When all three variables have high values, motivation will be at its peak. In other circum- stances motivation will be reduced.

Edwin Locke’s goal-setting theory proposes that specific, challenging, and achievable goals are strong motivators.

Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory, which is also known as operant conditioning and behavior modifica- tion, examines what is needed to understand the relationships between behaviors and their consequences—both those that are desired and those that are undesirable. Two rein- forcements increase behaviors (positive and negative reinforcement). Two consequences decrease behaviors (punishment and extinction). Leaders can work with these factors to increase motivational levels among employees.

Other Motivation Theories Two additional theories regarding what motivates people include empowerment and positive meaning. Empowerment is the process of: (1) preparing leaders to empower employees; (2) building an organizational culture that supports empowerment; (3) equip- ping people with the knowledge, skills, and authority necessary to be empowered; and (4) delegating leadership and decision making to the lowest level possible. Making work more meaningful is a simple motivational concept that is reasonably easy to apply and yet can be a significant motivator.

Integrating the Motivation Theories

• Leaders should take a big picture perspective of motivation, considering organiza- tional, group, and individual motivators.

• Practicing the fundamentals of good leadership will take care of most of the motiva- tors needed to produce a highly productive workforce.

• By understanding individual needs and what organizations can do to satisfy the needs, leaders can better motivate employees and create more productive teams and more successful organizations.

Key Terms content theories Theories that focus on identifying and satisfying employee needs.

empowerment The process of: (1) pre- paring leaders to empower employees; (2) building an organizational culture that sup- ports empowerment; (3) equipping people with the knowledge, skills, and authority necessary to be empowered; and (4) del- egating leadership and decision making to the lowest level possible.

expectancy Part of a cognitive approach to motivation; represents an individual’s belief that a given level of effort will result in the successful performance of a task.

extinction The disappearance of a behavior due to either receiving no consequence at all or to removing consequences that appeared previously.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 200 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Leadership Applications and Tools

extrinsic valence The strength of rewards given by others.

instrumentality Part of a cognitive approach to motivation; reflects an indi- vidual’s belief that successful performance of a task will result in a specific outcome or reward.

intrinsic valence The reward you give yourself for achieving a goal, such as a feeling of pride, accomplishment, or self-efficacy.

motivation The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and per- sistence of effort in obtaining a goal (in this case, a work-related goal).

negative reinforcement Concept in which a behavior occurs either to stop a negative event or to prevent something averse from happening.

positive reinforcement Anything that is perceived as pleasant or rewarding follow- ing a behavior.

process theories Theories that focus on how to evaluate various situations and then respond with either higher or lower levels of effort and motivation.

punishment Represents an unpleasant consequence linked to a behavior; a conse- quence that follows the performance of a behavior (not to be confused with negative reinforcement).

valence An evaluation of the attractiveness of a reward in terms of a cognitive approach to motivation.

Leadership Applications and Tools

Leadership Exercises

1. Richard Branson once said, “When you are ready to make your first hires, look for people who understand your passion, want to add to your ideas and can envision ways to make improvements. Keep in mind that you do not want yes-men or clones: you want people on board who have strong views on how to scale up the business over the long term, along with the skills and presence of mind to push the company forward in the short term and the ability to manage crucial day-to-day tasks. Delegating to these people will free you to plan for the future and find new ways to develop your company.”

Which motivation theory best supports this statement? Defend your response.

How would a leader utilize the ideas present in this statement? 2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explains a process known as satisfaction–progres-

sion, which means that once a need has been routinely met, the individual moves on (progresses) to a higher level. Clayton Alderfer argues that a second process frustra- tion–regression takes place when a person cannot achieve the next level need. Instead, the individual reverts to the earlier stage or need and feels that need more strongly. Explain how frustration–regression might apply to the workplace. Explain how a leader might deal with such a situation.

3. Antoine came from a disadvantaged background. He currently has a job as a “floater” in a manufacturing plant. He has been assigned everything from filling in on the assembly line, to cleaning bathrooms, to counting inventory in the storeroom and helping load

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 201 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Leadership Applications and Tools

delivery trucks. His hours vary by company needs. Sometimes he works nights and weekends; other times he takes the regular 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. shift. When asked about his job, Antoine says, “I love it, man. I’m taking care of myself and my family. We get health insurance, and I have a regular paycheck.”

• Which motivation theory explains why Antoine is motivated? • Which motivation theory would argue that Antione will not be motivated but is

not unmotivated? • How would you explain Antoine’s situation? Expand on your answer. • What should Antoine’s leader do in response to his situation?

4. You are a traditional college student taking 15 hours of classes. A friend, who is the night manager at a local pizza parlor, asks if you would like to earn some extra money as Christmastime approaches by working part time for a wage of $8.25 per hour. Your only responsibilities will be to make pizzas and wait on customers who buy takeout orders. Your friend makes $13.00 per hour and is responsible for hiring/firing; inven- tory control; counting the money; and filling out daily report sheets, making bank deposits, and other managerial activities.

• Explain how you could feel content, even though your pay is lower. • What would happen if you found out that another person makes $9.15 per hour

for doing exactly the same job as you? What would Stacy Adams predict to be your potential responses?

5. One management expert believes that expectancy theory holds the greatest promise for leaders because the term “valence” could be used to explain the following:

• satisfying an unfulfilled need; • receiving positive or negative reinforcement; and • believing equity exists.

But the theory explains more, due to the presence of the instrumentality and expec- tancy variables. Explain the reasoning involved in this assessment. How would a leader be able to take advantage of these ideas?

6. A bully says, “Give me your lunch money, or I will beat you up.” What type of reinforce- ment is this, in the words of B. F. Skinner?

7. Examine all of the motivational theories in this chapter. Which do you think best applies to the following leadership situations?

• Top-level management • Middle-level manager directing the production department • Middle-level manager directing the research and development department • First-line supervisor in an advertising agency • First-line supervisor in a manufacturing plant

8. Defend your answer for each situation.

Applications and Tools This final section contains three different checklists you can use to help build and sustain motivation among individuals, teams, and organizations. The applications are patterned after the motivation integration model and are drawn from the theories presented in this chapter. Refer to them frequently to help you boost motivation when it’s lagging or when you need to get even more productivity out of an already productive group!

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 202 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Leadership Applications and Tools

Individual Motivators

Role Clarification

• Assure that the job responsibilities, goals, and expectations are clear, and as much as possible, involve people in the process.

Reinforcement

• Positively recognize and reinforce desired behaviors and results. Positive rein- forcement increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated.

• Have fair and reasonable consequences for undesirable behaviors.

Job Design and Redesign

• Job enrichment: Enrich jobs by making them more challenging, interesting, rewarding, and involving, and by increasing responsibility and opportunities for growth and advancement.

• Job enlargement: Expand a job to include more tasks and responsibilities so the job will be more challenging.

• Job rotation: Rotate a person from task to task to add variety and interest to jobs that might otherwise be too routine or boring.

• Job engineering: Involve employees in making decisions on physical facilities and layouts, operations and performance procedures, standards, and measure- ment, equipment purchases and design, work methods and flows, and job duties.

Involvement and Ownership

• Keep employees informed about the organization’s mission, philosophy, goals, and other useful information, and involve them more in developing goals, con- tributing to important decisions, and looking for improvement.

Money

• Money can be a strong motivator if it is significant enough to be an inducement to work hard and if there is a significant cause and effect between what you do and how much you get.

Incentive Programs

• Incentive programs such as merit raises, suggestion programs with rewards for quality suggestions, bonus programs, profit sharing, recognition programs, gain sharing, and other special inducements can be motivating if they are kept simple, fair, and are not overused. However, they should not be introduced if they cannot be removed without becoming significant de-motivators.

Alternative Work Schedules

• Flexible work schedules can be a motivator. Examples are flextime, compressed work weeks, job sharing, and working from home.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 203 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Leadership Applications and Tools

Career Development

• Taking an interest in a person’s career through mentoring, coaching, providing career developing opportunities and experiences, and career counseling can be very motivating.

Training and Development

• Constant training and development and efforts to create a rich learning environ- ment by presenting films, sharing ideas, assigning people to keep up to date in various areas and share what they are learning with others can be motivating and can be a useful alternative to keep people motivated during slack or difficult times.

Constructive Criticism

• Constructive criticism shared with a genuine attempt to be helpful can fill in needed blind spots and serve as a significant motivator.

Positive Discipline

• Continued noncompliance with desired performance, behaviors, or attitudes should be confronted. If there are no consequences for continued noncompli- ance, the noncompliance will continue and morale problems are sure to fol- low. Consequences should be fair and reasonable and designed to help people improve.

Group Motivators

Team Building

• Activities designed to improve teamwork, team performance, team processes, and team morale and plan for the future.

Action Teams

• Task teams put together to solve problems, develop ideas, reduce costs, or accomplish other designated tasks.

Intergroup Problem Solving

• Using team-building methods to improve relations and solve problems between groups and departments.

Group Recognition

• Recognition of group efforts by the group leader, top management, other depart- ments, etc.

• Celebration of significant group achievements.

Group Incentives

• Profit sharing or bonuses based on group performance.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 204 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Leadership Applications and Tools

Group Socialization and Cohesiveness-Building Activities

• New member orientation.

• Staff meetings.

• Outside activities (sports, social, etc.).

• Educational and idea-sharing meetings.

• Committee work.

Organizational Motivators

Dynamic Leadership

• The leaders of the organization provide vision (purpose), direction (clear goals and philosophies), and inspiration (encouragement, motivation, and an example of excellence for others to follow).

Structured for Results

The organization is:

• designed for results with the right people in the right places.

• aligned to value and reward the right behaviors and to be consistent with the mission, philosophy, and goals.

• streamlined to work effectively and efficiently with minimal bureaucracy and red tape and to respond quickly to opportunities and needed change.

Quality Work Life

• Competitive wages and benefits.

• Quality facilities (attractive, functional, etc.).

• Resources and up-to-date equipment needed to do quality work.

• Supportive work culture that values people and excellence and encourages inno- vation, constant improvement, and openness.

• Wellness program for employees.

• Emphasis on training and development and good educational benefits.

• Equal opportunities for all employees based on competence.

Organization Extras

• Good location.

• Health club or health club privileges.

• Cafeteria benefits.

• Daycare provisions.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 205 3/3/16 11:31 AM

Leadership Applications and Tools

• Relaxed dress code.

• Sabbaticals.

• Generous vacation policies.

• State-of-the-art training.

• Carpool services.

• Organization newsletter.

war82476_06_c06_171-206.indd 206 3/3/16 11:31 AM