Information Technology & Data Analytics
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06-Lesson_06.pdf
Lesson 6: Systems Development
Information Technology & Data Analytics
November 8, 2020
Information Technology & Data Analytics
Systems Development: Phases, Tools and Techniques
Chapter 6
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CAMERAS USE FILM?
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➢ The preceding slide – Kodak 35mm film sales dropped from $7 billion in 2004 to an estimated $1.9 billion in 2010
➢ Many retailers no longer process 35mm film
➢ Pictures are digitally uploaded to different services
CAMERAS USE FILM?
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1. Do you own a 35mm camera? Last time you had 35mm film processed?
2. Will smartphones spell the end of digital cameras?
3. Do you know someone who owns a 35mm camera? What do they use it for?
CAMERAS USE FILM?
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Kodak Fujifilm
Foresaw the digital era, developed the
first digital camera
Foresaw the digital era
Continued to profit from film Continued to profit from film
Decided to acquire new industries, but
did not integrate them fast enough
Developed in-house expertise in new
businesses
Partnered to offer print kiosks Owner print kiosks
Was not able to adapt nor manage its
acquisitions
Used its chemicals expertise to use it in
cosmetics, LCD screens, optical,
industrial and medication
Latest gross profit $91 million Latest gross profit $2 billion
vs.
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➢ Western Union:
• From telegraphs to money transfer services
➢ Wipro:
• From vegetable oil to IT services
➢ Apple:
• From Macintosh to the iPod, iPhone, iPad, and iTunes
➢ Nintendo:
• From playing cards to video games
Other Transformations
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➢ Shell:
• From decorative shells to import/export to oil
➢ Hasbro:
• From textiles to toys
➢ Tiffany:
• From stationary to jewelry
➢ What other examples do you know about?
Other Transformations
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Introduction
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➢ Information systems are the support structure for meeting the company’s strategies and goals
➢ New systems are created because employees request them
➢ New systems are created to obtain a competitive advantage
INTRODUCTION
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➢ When developing a new system, you have 3 “who” choices:
1. Insourcing
– IT specialists inside your organization
2. Selfsourcing
– do-it-yourself approach many end users take with little or no help from IT specialists
3. Outsourcing
– a third-party organization (i.e., let someone do the work and pay them for it)
INTRODUCTION
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Insourcing and the SDLC
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➢ Systems development life cycle (SDLC) - a structured step-by-step approach for developing information systems
➢ 7 distinct phases
➢ Also called a waterfall methodology.
• Why?
obecause each phase of the SDLC is followed by another, from planning through implementation
INSOURCING AND THE SDLC
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SDLC Phases & Major Activities
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SDLC as a Waterfall Methodology
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➢ Planning phase
• create a solid plan for developing your information system
➢ Three primary planning activities:
1. Define the system to be developed
o You can’t build every system, so you make choices based on your organization’s priorities, which may be expressed as critical success factors
o Critical success factor (CSF)
▪ a factor simply critical to your organization’s success
Phase 1: Planning
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2. Set the project scope
o Project scope ▪ clearly defines the high-level system requirements
o Scope creep ▪ occurs when the scope of the project increases
o Feature creep ▪ occurs when developers add extra features that were not
part of the initial requirements
o Project scope document ▪ a written definition of the project scope and is usually no
longer than a paragraph
Phase 1: Planning
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3. Develop the project plan including tasks, resources, and timeframes
o Project plan ▪ defines the what, when, and who questions of system
development
o Project manager ▪ an individual who is an expert in project planning and
management, defines and develops the project plan and tracks the plan to ensure all key project milestones are completed on time
o Project milestones ▪ represent key dates for which you need a certain group of
activities performed
Phase 1: Planning
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Phase 1: Planning
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Sample Project Plan
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➢ Analysis phase
• involves end users and IT specialists working together to gather, understand, and document the business requirements for the proposed system
Phase 2: Analysis
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➢ Two primary analysis activities:
1. Gather the business requirements
o Business requirements ▪ the detailed set of knowledge worker requests that the
system must meet in order to be successful
o Business requirements address the “why” and “what” of your development activities
o Joint application development (JAD) - knowledge workers and IT specialists meet, sometimes for several days, to define or review the business requirements for the system
Phase 2: Analysis
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2. Prioritize the requirements
o Requirements definition document ▪ prioritizes the business requirements and places them
in a formal comprehensive document
o Most likely, you cannot do everything, so prioritizing is important
o Users sign off on this document which clearly sets the scope for the project
Phase 2: Analysis
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Phase 2: Analysis
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Take time during analysis to get the business requirements correct. If you find errors, fix them immediately. The cost to fix an error in the early stages of the SDLC is relatively small. In later stages, the
cost is huge.
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➢ Design phase
• build a technical blueprint of how the proposed system will work
➢ Starting with design, you take on less of an active participation role and act more as a “quality control” function, ensuring that the IT people are designing a system to meet your needs
Phase 3: Design
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➢ Two primary design activities:
1. Design the technical architecture
o Technical architecture - defines the hardware, software, and telecommunications equipment required to run the system
2. Design system models
o This includes GUI screens that users will interface with, database designs (see XLM/C), report formats, software steps, etc.
Phase 3: Design
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➢ Development phase
• take all of your detailed design documents from the design phase and transform them into an actual system
➢ Two primary development activities:
1. Build the technical architecture
2. Build the database and programs
o Both of these activities are mostly performed by IT specialists
Phase 4: Development
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➢ Testing phase
• verifies that the system works and meets all of the business requirements defined in the analysis phase
➢ Two primary testing activities:
1. Write the test conditions
o Test conditions - the detailed steps the system must perform along with the expected results of each step
Phase 5: Testing
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2. Perform the testing of the system
o Unit testing ▪ tests individual units of code
o System testing ▪ verifies that the units of code function correctly when
integrated
o Integration testing ▪ verifies that separate systems work together
o User acceptance testing (UAT) ▪ determines if the system satisfies the business
requirements
Phase 5: Testing
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➢ Implementation phase
• distribute the system to all of the knowledge workers and they begin using the system to perform their everyday jobs
Phase 6: Implementation
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➢ Two primary implementation activities
1. Write detailed user documentation
o User documentation - highlights how to use the system
2. Provide training for the system users
o Online training - runs over the Internet or off a CD-ROM
o Workshop training - is held in a classroom environment and lead by an instructor
➢ Get the buy in from the end users!
Phase 6: Implementation
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➢ Choose the right implementation method
• Parallel implementation o use both the old and new system simultaneously
• Plunge implementation o discard the old system completely and use the new
• Pilot implementation o start with small groups of people on the new system and
gradually add more users
• Phased implementation o implement the new system in phases
Phase 6: Implementation
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➢ Maintenance phase
• monitor and support the new system to ensure it continues to meet the business goals
➢ Two primary maintenance activities:
1. Build a help desk to support the system users
o Help desk - a group of people who responds to knowledge workers’ questions
2. Provide an environment to support system changes
Phase 7: Maintenance
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Component-Based Development
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➢ The SDLC focuses only on the project at hand
➢ Component-based development (CBD) • focuses on building small self-contained blocks of code
(components) that can be reused across a variety of applications 1. Using already-developed components 2. Building new components as needed
➢ Focuses more on adaptability than predictability
➢ Based on iterations
➢ Main difference is testing at every stage
COMPONENT-BASED DEVELOPMENT
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➢ Rapid application development (RAD)
➢ Extreme programming (XP)
➢ Agile methodology
Component-Based Development Methodologies
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➢ Rapid application development (RAD) (also called rapid prototyping) • emphasizes extensive user involvement in the rapid and
evolutionary construction of working prototypes of a system to accelerate systems development
• Prototypes are models of software
• The development team continually designs, develops, and tests the component prototypes until they are finished
• Usually uses object-oriented programming
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
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Rapid Application Development (RAD)
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Build new software
components
Use already- existing software
components
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➢ Extreme programming (XP)
• breaks a project into tiny phases and developers cannot continue on to the next phase until the first phase is complete
Extreme Programming (XP)
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➢ Delivers software as it is needed
➢ Teamwork is essential; and the customer is an essential team member
➢ Internet Explorer and Netscape communicator were built this way
➢ Values: • Communication • Simplicity • Feedback • Respect • Courage
Extreme Programming (XP)
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➢ Rules:
• Planning
• Managing
• Designing
• Coding
• Testing
Extreme Programming (XP)
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➢ Agile • a form of XP, aims for customer satisfaction through early and
continuous delivery of useful software components • Iterative and people-centric approach
➢ Is NOT a methodology, but a set of values and principles
➢ It looks to: • Adapt to business needs • Create better teamwork • Be fast and efficient • Lower costs • Shorten the life of projects • Make sure documentation is just barely good enough (JBGE)
Agile
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➢ Created in 2001
➢ Values:
• Individuals and Interactions over processes and tools
• Working Software over comprehensive documentation
• Customer Collaboration over contract negotiation
• Responding to Change over following a plan
Agile Manifesto
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1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness change for the customer's competitive advantage.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.
4. Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the project.
Agile: Twelve Principles
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5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support they need, and trust them to get the job done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a development team is face-to-face conversation.
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors, developers, and users should be able to maintain a constant pace indefinitely.
Agile: Twelve Principles
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9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility.
10. Simplicity--the art of maximizing the amount of work not done--is essential.
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-organizing teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.
Agile: Twelve Principles
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➢ Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
➢ Agile Modeling
➢ Disciplined Agile Delivery
➢ Extreme Programming (XP)
➢ Rapid Application Development (RAD)
➢ Scrum • Product owner • Development team • Scrum master
Agile: SW Development Methods
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➢ Scrum Team
• Product owner
• Development team
• Scrum master
Agile: Scrum
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➢ Scrum Artifacts • Product backlog • Sprint backlog • Increment
oPotentially Shippable Increment (PSI)
➢ Events
• The sprint
• Sprint planning
• The daily stand-up
• The sprint review
• The retrospective
CPRIMEVERSIONONE
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➢ Product Owner
• Sets the direction, makes sure user stories are in the product backlog
• Defines DONE
➢ Scrum master
• Makes sure the sprints are progressing
• Makes sure all members have the right tools to deliver
➢ Development team
• Developers, testers
Scrum Team
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➢ Product backlog • Collection of user stories (features) • Determines stories to be tackled and in what order
➢ Sprint backlog • Tasks to address the user stories to be completed during the
sprint • Progress tracked in hours or days
➢ Increment • Per scrum.org, it is the “sum of all the Product Backlog items
completed during a Spring and the value of the increments of all previous sprints”
• A release is software that is deployable
Scrum Artifacts
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• Measure the amount of work remaining
• Burndown velocity: average of productivity
Burndown Chart
61Burndown Chart
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➢ Sequential
➢ Plan ahead
➢ Requirements set early on
➢ Baseline determined right away
• Scope
• Cost
• Time
➢ Change is difficult
➢ A lot of documentation
➢ Scope creep
➢ Validation until the end
Waterfall
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Pros Cons
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➢ Fail fast!
➢ Simple design
➢ Short interactions
➢ Plenty of feedback
➢ Welcomes change (pivoting)
➢ Hard to set the right requirements right away
➢ Inexperience with the values and principles
➢ Lack of upper management support
Agile
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Pros Cons
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➢ Scrum.org
➢ Scrum Alliance
Learn and Certify on Scrum
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➢ Service-oriented architecture (SoA) • perspective that focuses on the development, use, and reuse of
small self-contained blocks of code (called services) to meet all application software needs
• All CBD methodologies adhere to an SoA
• Services are the same as components, which are the same as small self-contained blocks of code
➢ Current examples are SaaS and Cloud
SoA – An Architecture Perspective
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Selfsourcing
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➢ Selfsourcing (end-user development)
• the development and support of IT systems by end users with little or no help from IT specialists
➢ Do-it-yourself systems development approach
➢ Can relieve IT specialists of the burden of developing many smaller systems
SELFSOURCING
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➢ Is similar to traditional SDLC
➢ Big exception is that design, development, testing, and implementation are replaced by the process of prototyping
➢ Prototyping is the process of building models, and – in this case – continually refining those models until they become the final system
Selfsourcing Approach
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Selfsourcing Approach
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➢ Planning
• Define system goals in light of organizational goals
• Create a project plan
• Identify any systems that require an interface
• Determine what type of external support you will require
➢ Analysis • Study and model the current
system • Understand the interfaces in
detail • Define and prioritize your
requirements
➢ Support • Completely document the
system • Provide ongoing support
Selfsourcing: Key Tasks
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➢ Improves requirements determination
➢ Increases end user participation and sense of ownership
➢ Increases speed of development
➢ Reduces invisible backlog
• Invisible backlog o list of all systems that an organization needs to develop but
never get funded because of the lack of organizational resources
Selfsourcing Advantages
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➢ Inadequate end user expertise leads to inadequately developed systems
➢ Lack of organizational focus creates “privatized” IT systems
➢ Insufficient analysis of design alternatives leads to subpar IT systems
➢ Lack of documentation and external support leads to short-lived systems
Selfsourcing Disadvantages
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➢ End users must have development tools that:
• Are easy to use
• Support multiple platforms
• Offer low cost of ownership
• Support a wide range of data types
The Right Tool for the Job
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Prototyping
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➢ Prototype
• a model of a proposed product, service, or system
➢ Prototyping
• the process of building a model that demonstrates the features of a proposed product, service, or system
• Proof-of-concept prototype
o prove the technical feasibility of a proposed system
• Selling prototype
o used to convince people of the worth of a proposed system
PROTOTYPING
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➢ The prototyping process involves four steps:
1. Identify basic requirements
2. Develop initial prototype
3. User review
4. Revise and enhance the prototype
The Prototyping Process
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The Prototyping Process
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➢ Encourages active user participation
➢ Helps resolve discrepancies among users
➢ Gives users a feel for the final system
➢ Helps determine technical feasibility
➢ Helps sell the idea of a proposed system
Advantages of Prototyping
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➢ Leads people to believe the final system will follow
➢ Gives no indication of performance under operational conditions
➢ Leads the project team to forgo proper testing and documentation
Disadvantages of Prototyping
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Outsourcing
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➢ Outsourcing
• the delegation of specified work to a third party for a specified length of time, at a specified cost, and at a specified level of service
➢ The third “who” option of systems development, after insourcing and selfsourcing
OUTSOURCING
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➢ The main reasons behind the rapid growth of the outsourcing industry include the following:
• Globalization
• The Internet
• Growing economy and low unemployment rate
• Technology
• Deregulation
OUTSOURCING
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➢ IT outsourcing for software development can take one of four forms:
1. Purchase existing software
2. Purchase existing software and pay the publisher to make certain modifications
3. Purchase existing software and pay the publisher for the right to make modifications yourself
4. Outsource the development of an entirely new and unique system for which no software exists
Outsourcing Options
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Outsourcing Options
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➢ Like selfsourcing, the outsourcing process looks similar to the traditional SDLC
➢ Big exception here is that you “outsource” most of the work to another company
Outsourcing Process
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Outsourcing Process
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When outsourcing, you’ll develop two vitally important documents – a request for proposal and a service level agreement
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➢ Request for proposal (RFP)
• formal document that describes in excruciating detail your logical requirements for a proposed system and invites outsourcing organizations to submit bids for its development
• In outsourcing, you must tell another organization what you want developed; you do that with an RFP
• Therefore, the RFP must be very detailed
• Some RFPs can take years to develop
Outsourcing – RFP
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➢ Service level agreement (SLA)
• formal contractually obligated agreement between two parties
• In outsourcing, it is the legal agreement between you and the vendor and specifically identifies what the vendor is going to do (and by when) and how much you’re going to pay
• Supporting SLA documents
o service level specifications
o service level objectives
▪ These contain very detailed numbers and metrics
Outsourcing – SLA
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➢ There are three different forms of outsourcing:
1. Onshore outsourcing
o the process of engaging another company within the same country for services
2. Nearshore outsourcing
o contracting an outsourcing arrangement with a company in a nearby country
3. Offshore outsourcing
o contracting with a company that is geographically far away
Outsourcing Options
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➢ Primary outsourcing countries are:
• India
• China
• Eastern Europe (including Russia)
• Ireland
• Israel
• Philippines
Offshore Outsourcing
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➢ Advantages:
• Focus on unique core competencies <- Make sure these are real
• Exploit the intellect of another organization
• Better predict future costs
• Acquire leading-edge technology
• Reduce costs
• Improve performance accountability
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Outsourcing
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➢ Disadvantages:
• Reduces technical know-how for future innovation
• Reduces degree of control
• Increases vulnerability of your strategic information
• Increases dependency on other organizations
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The Advantages and Disadvantages of Outsourcing
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Do not forget about crowdsourcing!
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Information Technology Infrastructure Library
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➢ It is a public framework published as a source of good practice in service management
➢ It provides a robust framework for identifying, planning, delivering and supporting IT services that can be adapted and applied to all business and organizational environments
➢ It is descriptive (best practices library), not prescriptive (standard)
➢ It was developed in the late 1980s by the UK Office Of Government Commerce. Current version is 2011
➢ Mapped in ISO 20000; this is an auditable standard for information technology service management (ITSM) systems
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ITIL
Axelos
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ITIL: Stages
Image Obtained from Axis Technical
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ITIL: Processes and Operations
Image Obtained from Axis Technical
Service Strategy
Financial Management
Service Portfolio Management
Business Relationship Management
Demand Management
Strategy Generation
Service Design
Service Level Management
Availability Management
Capacity Management
IT Service Continuity Management
Service Catalog Management
Information Security Management
Supplier Management
Design Coordination
Requirements Engineering
Data & Information Management
Service Transition
Change Management
Service Asset & Configuration Management
Release and Deployment Management
Transition Planning and Support
Service Validation and Testing
Change Evaluation
Knowledge Management
Service Operation
Incident Management
Problem Management
Request Fulfilment
Access Management
Event Management
Operational Activities in other Lifecycle Phases
Technical Management
IT Operations Management
Applications Management
Service Desk
Continual Service
Improvement
Service Improvement
Service Measurement
Service Reporting
Questions?
Thank you!
