ENG 121 WEEK 2 DISCUSSION 2

Sometimes [writing’s] like driving through fog. You can’t really see where you’re going. You have just enough of the road in front of you to know that you’re probably still on the road, and if you drive slowly and keep your headlamps lowered you’ll still get where you were going. . .

And sometimes you come out of the fog into clarity, and you can see just what you’re doing and where you’re going , and you couldn’t see or know any of that five minutes before.

—Neil Gaiman

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Execute a well-structured introduc- tion to a college essay.

2. Organize the body of a college essay.

3. Implement writing tools to create a functional conclusion.

4. Identify paper types and their cor- responding structures.

5. Demonstrate your understanding of the writing process.

5Structuring and Developing a Paper

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

This chapter offers specific guidelines for developing and structuring an essay’s intro- duction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. The purpose of an introduction is not only to capture the reader’s interest but also to discuss the purpose and significance of the topic explored in the paper. This chapter discusses different methods for developing the struc- ture of your paper, from developing an attention-grabbing introduction through writing a strong conclusion. The end of the chapter also offers a discussion of how to structure the different types of paper assignments you will encounter in your academic career. Regard- less of the type of paper you are writing, however, you should always consider the “Five Cs of Academic Writing,” which are the five primary overarching goals of a college paper. When you submit your final paper, it should be:

1. Complete 2. Coherent 3. Clear 4. Concise 5. Correct.

5.1 The Introduction

We will discuss the introduction of the paper first because it is the beginning of the paper. However, just because it is read first does not mean that you will write it first. When we work our way from the topic to the focus, the thesis, the main ideas, and the paper itself, our ideas evolve and change. You may not know exactly what you plan to say until you have written the first draft of the paper. The introduction begins your discussion of the topic and sets the stage for the rest of the paper. A good introduction accomplishes four primary goals. It

1. captures the readers’ attention and interests them in reading more; 2. reveals the purpose of the paper and the topic; 3. presents the thesis statement; and 4. previews the main points covered in the body of the paper.

Visualize the ideas in your introduction as an inverted triangle—you should begin with a broad introduction to the subject and offer context, but as your introduction proceeds, it should become more specific and detail the point of the paper. For instance, with the soccer topic we examined in Chapter 4, the writer began by selecting the broad subject area, “Soccer” (Figure 5.1, Part A). She narrowed that broad area to the more limited topic, “How soccer has shaped my life,” and created a focus (Figure 5.1, Part B). After you’ve narrowed the focus of your paper and come up with a hook, you can begin turning those elements into a strong introduction by adhering to the following principles.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

Figure 5.1: Visualizing your introduction

Capture the Reader’s Attention The first few sentences of a paper are sometimes called the hook because these initial sen- tences should capture readers’ attention and interest them enough that they want to keep reading. Writing in Action: Strategies for Hooking the Reader lists some strategies that you might use to hook your readers and some examples of opening sentences for our soccer paper that use each of these strategies. Regardless of which strategy you choose, make sure that your opening sentences are brief and to the point. Also remember that you must tie the opening sentences to your topic and to your thesis statement later in your introduction.

Soccer Topic

Part A: The Chosen Topic

Narrowed Topic

Part B: The Narrowed Topic and Focus

Soccer

Playing competitive

soccer

Hook

Part C: The Hook

When I first started playing

soccer

Soccer Playing competitive

soccer

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

Writing in Action: Strategies for Hooking the Reader

1. Make a statement that arouses readers’ curiosity. Example: There was a roaring sound in my ears, and the crowd around me was a blur of faces. A teammate yelled my name as my foot connected with the ball, sending it hurtling towards the goal just in time.

2. Use a relevant quotation. (Note: Remember to cite the source of the quotation.) Example: Bill Shankly, Liverpool manager, was once quoted as saying, “Some people believe football is a matter of life and death. I’m very disappointed with that attitude. I can assure you it is much, much more important than that” (SoccerNews Web Site, 2010, para 2). Having played soccer for over 10 years, I can certainly say that soccer has shaped my life in unforget- table ways.

3. Tell a brief story or share a short anecdote. (Note: Your story should be true; if it is not, to be ethical you must tell the reader at some point in the paper that it was an imaginary tale.) Example 1: As far back as I can remember, I have been a tomboy at heart. My early years were spent climbing trees, catching frogs, and building forts with my younger brothers. However, my love of team sports did not begin until I played in my first soccer game.

Example 2: Imagine a newspaper headline that reads, “Senior girls pull off huge win in Califor- nia State soccer championship!” Such a headline can become real only if you dedicate yourself to years of late-night practices, develop complete trust in your teammates, and embrace the adrenaline rush that comes with playing competitive soccer.

4. Make an intriguing, startling, or controversial statement that you intend to prove or disprove later. Example: Soccer is just a hobby. It’s not something that you can build your life around. Young athletes might hear sayings like these often, but they are not necessarily true. The time com- mitment, friendships, and physical strength required by competitive soccer can travel with you wherever you go.

5. Present a problem or dilemma. Example: You want to get in shape, but you don’t want to hang out in the gym with only your iPod for company. Getting involved in a team sport like soccer could be the answer for both your fitness plan and your social life.

6. Explain a concept important to your topic. Example: The World Cup is an international soccer championship that is played every four years. While only national teams can compete in the games, every true soccer fan follows this event, which is essentially the “Olympic games” of the soccer world.

7. Ask a question and immediately answer it. Example: What is the most fulfilling part about playing competitive soccer? Perhaps you guessed winning trophies, adrenaline highs, or staying in great shape. But in my experience, bonding with teammates and learning how to be a true team player tops the list.

8. Ask a question that you will answer later in the paper. Example: What’s so fulfilling about playing a competitive sport like soccer? Read on to hear how what started out as a simple hobby has shaped me into the person I am today.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

As you can see from Writing in Action: Strategies for Hooking the Reader, there are many dif- ferent options for beginning a paper. Choose an opening that seems natural and appealing and that you believe is appropriate for your audience, your topic, and the assignment. Your overall goal is to have a strong, forceful opening. Now that you know some tips about how to compose your hook, here are some warnings on what is not very effective:

• Do not bore your readers with a long story that is only slightly or tangentially related to the assignment.

• Do not begin by announcing your intentions: “The purpose of this paper is . . . ,” “In this paper, I will show . . . ,” or “The topic of this paper is . . . .” Announcing your purpose later in the introduction with a statement such as, “In this paper, I intend to . . . “ is fine. In fact, as we discuss in the next section, you must reveal the purpose and topic of your paper at some point in your introduction. However, do not start your paper with that information. Con- struct a strong hook first.

Writing in Action: Strategies for Hooking the Reader (continued)

9. Ask a rhetorical question (one in which an answer is not expected because it is assumed to be obvious). Example: How would you like to be in peak physical fitness, have over a dozen amazing friends whom you get to see every week, and spend your free time playing outside in the sun? All this can be yours if you join a competitive soccer team.

10. Present an opinion contrary to yours and then refute it. Example: I once overheard a friend say that she would rather play video games than break a sweat any day. Don’t fall into this trap! While video games can be fun, breaking a sweat with a sport like competitive soccer can give you much greater rewards in the long term than an online high-score.

11. Present a surprising statistic. (Note: Make sure that it is accurate and cite your source.) Example: Some 6,000 youth soccer clubs are part of U.S. Youth Soccer, the organization that supports 3.2 million young soccer players all across the United States (SoccerNation Web Site, 2012).

12. Provide interesting historical background. Example: The history of contemporary soccer spans more than 100 years. It all began when the Football Association of England was formed in 1863 (FIFA Web Site, 2013).

13. Create a visual image or appeal to the readers’ senses with your words. Example: Imagine yourself kicking a game-winning ball into the opposing team’s goal in the final moments of the match. As the ball clears the net, your euphoric teammates surround you and the stadium erupts in cheers.

14. Use dialogue to create interest. Example: “This is it, ladies,” the team captain announced, her voice brimming with a mixture of determination and excitement. “The big match we’ve all been working for all season has arrived.” (Note: Make sure that you explain this dialogue later in the paper.)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

• Do not begin with vague generalities such as “From the dawn of time . . .” or “When I was growing up . . . .” Try to be more specific and more creative.

• Do not use an opening strategy just for effect. In other words, do not make a startling statement just because it is startling and will get attention. Your opening statements must tie into your topic and the purpose of your paper in some way, even if that tie-in is not revealed until much later in the paper.

• Do not begin with the definition of a term, especially from a dictionary. Avoid defining terms in the introduction. If you think it is necessary to define a term, do so in a body paragraph, and define the term according to how the text you are writing about uses that term (rather than a dictionary definition).

Reveal the Paper’s Purpose and the Topic The introduction sets the stage for the rest of the paper and prepares readers for what you will cover later in the body of the paper. A common way to think about the function of the introduction is that it “tells readers what you will tell them.” When you introduce the purpose of your paper and the topic, simply explain clearly to your readers what the paper will be about. It is not wrong to state “The purpose of this paper is . . .”; however, it is better to be a bit more creative and weave the purpose and the topic into the introduc- tion in another way.

Suppose you have been asked to write a personal essay. Let us use one of our opening strategies for the soccer paper from Chapter 4 to illustrate how you might continue after the opening statement to reveal the purpose of the paper and the topic:

When I joined the soccer team in middle school, I never imagined how much soccer would affect my life. Years later, I can easily see how playing soccer helped to shape my values and character and helped make me the person I am today.

Crafting the Thesis Statement When you chose your topic, you created a focus for your paper. As you develop your paper, you must make that focus more specific and turn it into a thesis statement. The thesis state- ment is a single sentence that makes an assertion, or a specific statement, about your topic, and it is an argument that is based on your interpretation. You might think of the thesis statement as a recap or brief summary of the scope of your paper. Imagine if someone said to you, “I don’t have time to read your paper. Tell me the main idea or the bottom line in 25 words or less.” Your thesis is a single sentence that responds to that request.

The Controlling Idea Think of the thesis statement as the unifying force of your paper. It helps direct your thinking about the topic in a specific direction, and it helps control the paper and keeps you on track as you write. In fact, the thesis is sometimes referred to as the controlling idea. Do not confuse your topic with your thesis. The topic is the subject of your paper; the thesis is an assertion you make about the topic—a specific statement about the topic that you intend to elaborate on and support. This assertion is usually made in the

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

introduction of the paper, and is typ- ically the last sentence or two of the paragraph. Please bear in mind that you should ask your instructor if he or she would prefer a one-sentence or two-sentence thesis statement. Some assignments, if they are partic- ularly complex, may require a two- sentence thesis.

Your thesis should be an explicit statement about what you intend to argue over the course of the paper. Most thesis statements for exposi- tory, argument, and research papers also include the main points the paper aims to cover. For most assign- ments, a thesis statement with main points is ideal because the point of the thesis is to communicate the architecture of your paper (however, keep in mind that in any kind of personal essay, you may not need to include your main points—always ask your instruc- tor if you are unsure about what kind of thesis the assignment is asking for). You can think of the thesis as a kind of road map for your paper—just by reading the thesis, the reader should have a clear sense of what you will argue and why. A thesis statement may even include an aspect of the opposing viewpoint in order to show that you have consid- ered it. You could formulate the sentence along these lines: “Although it may seem that Proposition X is eco-friendly, it is not in regards to X, Y, and Z points.” Taking into con- sideration the opposition shows that you are fair-minded and will help you strengthen your argument.

One effective way to develop a thesis statement is to form a question and then answer it. For example, after reading a novel in which a fire occurs, you may wonder: “Is the use of fire as a theme in this novel more destructive or creative?” A thesis statement is an answer to an interpretive question. An answer, or tentative thesis statement, could read: “Though the use of fire is typically considered destructive, in this novel it is a creative source or regeneration.” This thesis offers a possible answer to the question. After writing the body paragraphs, one could return to the thesis and elaborate with clear main points.

You might also think of your paper as a discussion you are having with your readers about an issue. In your thesis statement, you take a stand on this issue. The thesis state- ment tells readers what the discussion will be about and informs them of your position on the subject. If your readers remember nothing else about your paper, you want to make sure that they remember the thesis. So, you must make it clear and specific.

Remember that your thesis statement is an assertion that is more specific than your focus and is the major idea that you want to convey to readers. For example, suppose you are writing a paper on small businesses, and you have one major idea: the use of indepen- dent contractors by small businesses. You might ask this question: “What is the relation- ship between independent contractors and small business hiring practices?” When you answer the question, your thesis statement might read as follows: “The use of independent

Eyecandy Images/SuperStock It can be helpful to think of your introduction as a road map, telling your readers where you plan to take them.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

contractors is the most important change in hiring practices for small businesses in this century.” This sentence is your thesis. Remember that your topic or your focus may change as you write your paper. If so, make sure to go back and change your thesis statement as well so that it reflects exactly what you cover in the paper.

Elements of a Strong Thesis Let us look at the elements of a strong thesis. An effective thesis

• expresses one major idea; • names the topic and asserts something specific about it; • is more specific than the focus that you developed earlier; • summarizes the main points in the body of the paper; • is an interpretation about which reasonable people might disagree; • states your position on or opinion about the issue; • includes a rationale that explains why the argument you plan to make is

significant. For instance, if you say “In Martin Luther King’s ‘Letter from Bir- mingham Jail,’ he uses many rhetorical devices” you have not yet stated an argument. You would have to say something about these rhetorical devices such as: “he uses logos, an appeal to reasoning, in order to argue that only unreasonable individuals would disagree with him.” This revision includes a “so what?”

On the other hand, a thesis statement is not a question—think of a thesis as your answer to a question:

• Poor thesis statement: Why do philosophers disagree on what happiness is? • Strong thesis statement: Happiness is not an easily defined state of being;

thus, many philosophers disagree on what happiness is.

A thesis statement is not a statement of fact:

• Poor thesis statement: The philosopher Socrates thought that justice was important.

• Strong thesis statement: In The Republic, Socrates implies that happiness is the result of living a just life.

A thesis statement is not an announcement:

• Poor thesis statement: My thesis statement is about the pros and cons of affir- mative action.

• Strong thesis statement: Affirmative action is a method of promoting equality in light of past injustices, and it can be an effective and fair part of the college admissions process if two potential candidates are equally qualified.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

If you are writing an expository or an argument paper, a thesis statement is not a statement about you:

• Poor thesis statement: I agree with Socrates that justice is important, so he must be correct about it.

• Strong thesis statement: Justice, as Socrates suggests, allows one to not only attain happiness but also to live according to the important human ability to use reason.

If, on the other hand, you have a personal essay to write, it is expected that you use the first person “I.” It may even be the case that the focus of the paper should be your opinion on a particular subject (rather than your interpretation, which means a careful analysis of a text).

To make sure that you have an effective thesis statement, check it against the checklist in Writing in Action: Checklist for an Effective Thesis Statement. If your thesis statement does not meet all these criteria, keep working on it until you can check all boxes in the checklist.

Writing in Action: Checklist for an Effective Thesis Statement

When you have written the thesis statement for your paper, check it against the list below to make sure it meets all the requirements for an effective thesis.

My thesis statement:

ፍ is one complete sentence, not a sentence fragment or a question. ፍ expresses one major idea. ፍ names the topic and asserts something specific about it. ፍ is more specific than the focus statement developed earlier. ፍ summarizes the main points made in the body of the paper. ፍ is an issue about which reasonable people might disagree. ፍ states my position on or opinion about the issue.

Preview the Main Points of the Paper If you have a thesis statement that outlines each of the main points you plan to cover, as in the case of the four main points in our soccer paper thesis, you already have a clear preview. Your thesis statement has done “double duty” by serving as both a thesis and a preview.

If the main points you plan to cover in the body of your paper are not incorporated into the thesis statement, you must construct another sentence or two that becomes the pre- view and informs your readers of what you intend to cover in the paper. For example, in our small business paper, the thesis statement was the following: “The use of independent contractors is the most important change in hiring practices for small businesses in this century.” Now you must create a preview to prepare readers for what they will find in the paper. Do you intend to give readers historical information about hiring practices and

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Introduction

how they have evolved to those of today, or do you want to discuss the benefits of using independent contractors or the duties they can perform? Your preview should provide readers with a road map for the rest of the paper that follows.

Setting Reader Expectations Remember that you must always consider the needs of your audience when you write. If you are presenting a topic that might be new to your readers, for example, you might want to give background information to help them understand the topic. If you are mak- ing suggestions or recommendations, you might anticipate that your audience may ques- tion what qualifies you to make those recommendations. Thus, you may want to present your personal experiences, background, or educational qualifications to lend credibility to your statements. Your essay will also demonstrate your credibility if you use a respectful tone toward other writers. Do not forget to consider the writing situation and the rhetori- cal context when you write.

Remember that the introduction sets the stage for what you are trying to accomplish. To complete the introduction, you may want to elaborate on your thesis statement to prepare the audience for what they will read or what you will or will not cover in the paper. Writing Samples: Sample Soccer Paper Introduction illustrates a complete introduc- tion for the soccer paper, with all elements of the introduction numbered and labeled in Figure 5.2.

Writing Samples: Sample Soccer Paper Introduction

Soccer is just a hobby. It’s not something that you can build your life around. Young athletes might hear sayings like these often, but they are not necessarily true. The time commitment, friendships, and physical strength required by competitive soccer can travel with you wherever you go.1 Think- ing back on my many years playing competitive soccer, I have realized how important the game of soccer has been in developing my values and the person I am today. If you think that physical sports such as soccer are simply about pursuing a hobby or burning calories, this paper should help you to reconsider the ways that playing soccer can impact your life.2 Competitive soccer has not only helped me work out my stress and stay in shape, but it has also taught me key values such as teamwork and time management that translate to other aspects of my life and work.3

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

Figure 5.2: Components of the introduction

It is possible that you may not create your final thesis statement until very late in the writing process. As you write, you will probably find that you get new ideas, and you may change direction more than once before you finalize your paper. Likewise, discussing your ideas with your instructor and classmates is also an important method for strength- ening your ideas. These changes are all part of the writing process. Writing is often a process of ongoing discovery as you develop and revise your work. New ideas and con- nections will emerge if you keep working on and thinking about your paper. See Writing in Action: Creating an Introduction for practice writing an introduction that will set reader’s expectations for the paper.

Completed introduction

Hook1

Purpose and Topic2

Thesis3Completed introduction

Writing in Action: Creating an Introduction

Locate one current scholarly article on stem cell research and human cloning by using Google Scholar or one of your library’s databases. Investigate who wrote the article and make sure that it was written by a medical professional or scientist. Select an article that is between 2–5 pages in length; if it is signifi- cantly longer than 5 pages, it will probably be written for an audience consisting of those in the medical profession. Read the article, and then draft an introduction to your paper with a thesis statement—the thesis should answer the questions “Are there ethical problems with human cloning? Why or why not? If there are ethical problems, to what extent should these problems impact scientific research?” Keep the guidelines in the first section of this chapter in mind to help you develop your introduction.

5.2 The Body of the Paper

The body is the heart of your paper, and it consists of all of the paragraphs of your essay other than your introduction and conclusion. It is where you will fulfill the promises you made in the introduction. If the introduction “tells readers what you will tell them,” the body is where you “tell them.” In the body of the paper, you will explain, describe, argue, explore, or elaborate on the main point or points you presented in your thesis statement, depending on the purpose of the paper. Each main idea you

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

presented in the introduction will become a paragraph or a set of para- graphs in the body of the paper, and the main ideas should be discussed in the same order you presented them in your thesis statement.

You should have somewhere between one and six main points in the body of a paper. Longer papers do not nec- essarily have more main points than shorter papers; they just have more detail and more explanation. Make sure to limit the amount of informa- tion you share in one paper; having too many main points can cause you and your readers to lose focus on the major idea of the paper. Students

often ask, “How much of the paper should be the body, and how much space should be allotted to the introduction and the conclusion?” Again, there is not a specific formula. However, a good rule of thumb is 10/80/10. Remember that the body of your paper is where you discuss the main points you want readers to remember, so it should represent the largest part of your paper. If about 10% of your paper is devoted to the introduction, 80% of the paper to the body, and 10% to the conclusion, you will have a reasonable ratio. As a rough guide, in a three-page paper, about of a page would be devoted to the intro- duction, about 2 pages would be devoted to the body, and about of a page would be devoted to the conclusion. In a much longer essay, you may write a one-page introduction and a one-page conclusion.

Again, let us use our soccer paper as an example. Our thesis statement for that paper is: “Competitive soccer has not only helped me work out my stress and stay in shape, but it has also taught me key values such as teamwork and time management that translate to other aspects of my life and work.” The thesis statement promises that the paper will dis- cuss how soccer has helped the writer deal with stress, stay in shape, learn teamwork, and improve her time management. So, the reader expects to find at least four paragraphs (or four sets of paragraphs) about each of these topics, in the order that they were mentioned in the thesis statement. These topics are the main points of the body paragraphs. See Fig- ure 5.3 for a breakdown of the main points in our soccer paper.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Topic sentences should provide a clear view of the argument to be presented in a given paragraph.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

Figure 5.3: Main points in body paragraphs

Crafting Topic Sentences Each body paragraph should have a topic sentence. Topic sentences are mini-thesis state- ments, and they are typically best placed at the very beginning of each body paragraph so that the argument for that paragraph is as clear as possible. They should present your argument but in a much smaller form—you should state which single point you intend to prove in that paragraph. A strong topic sentence often mirrors some of the language in the thesis by indicating which main point you will cover. The topic sentence should reflect one point from the larger thesis statement that you can adequately prove over the course of a paragraph. Here is an example of a strong topic sentence: “One way in which Kingston relies on tradition in her novel China Men is by adapting tradition to American culture but retaining the tradition’s original meaning.” This topic sentence is offering one point on the depiction of tradition in China Men. For the soccer example above, the topic sentence for the first body paragraph might be, “One of the most significant ways that soccer has helped me is by giving me an outlet to work out stress.”

Supplying Supporting Detail Support the topic sentence’s main point by elaborating on what you mean in the para- graph. Supporting statements can be in the form of a definition, additional detail, fur- ther explanation, or factual evidence (in the case of a more historical or political paper). Include at least one additional supporting sentence that provides detail or elaborates on your topic sentence. Examples are likely to be direct citations from the text you are writ- ing about. However, if you are writing a personal essay, you will also include personal examples. You might only use statistics in a paper that is for a political science or sociol- ogy course, or another course in the sciences. Remember to give credit for any outside sources that you use in your papers. Several sentences of analysis should follow each quote. Analysis involves giving your “reading” or interpretation of a passage, which can include a discussion of how it seems the language is being used, what it suggests, or why it is important to the rest of the text.

Main Point 1

Main Point 2

Main Point 3

Main Point 4

Staying in Shape

Teamwork

Working Out Stress

Time Management

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

Paragraph Cohesion and Transitions In order for a paragraph to be cohesive, it should articulate a clear argument in the topic sentence, supply supporting detail and evidence, and analyze that evidence—all while actively advancing the main idea stated in the topic sentence. Only include additional quotes beyond the first one if it adds to the analysis. Look for an additional piece of evi- dence that is related to your main idea but that covers slightly new ground in comparison with what your first piece of evidence indicated. You can write a truly excellent body paragraph by only using a few quotes in it, and by using most of the paragraph’s space for analyzing what the quotes mean. Also, in order to maintain paragraph cohesion, you should not end a paragraph with a direct quote—your job in a paper is to articulate your argument, so you must explain why you have included a quote and fully interpret it before moving on to the next paragraph. A paragraph needs closing statements from you about how the evidence you have offered supports the idea you suggested in your topic sentence.

Sometimes, one main point requires a few body paragraphs in order to sufficiently prove your point. If that is the case, divide your ideas between a main idea and a subpoint. Some- times, the subpoint naturally emerges when the paragraph stretches beyond a page in length; reread the paragraph and ask yourself whether there is a subpoint, which is related to, but slightly different from, the main point you are discussing. If you can locate a sub- point, make that the start of a new paragraph, and work on reframing this sentence into an appropriate topic sentence for a new paragraph. It is perfectly fine if one of your main points requires two paragraphs but another main point only needs one paragraph—if you sufficiently develop and prove your points, then this structure will be appropriate.

Transitions, also called connectives, are words, phrases, or sentences that let readers know that you are moving from one idea to another or from one section of the paper to another. They act as a bridge to connect ideas and to indicate to readers the relationship between those ideas. You often need transitions to tie together sentences in a paragraph, to tie para- graphs to one another, and to tie sections of the paper together.

Transitions can be categorized into four different types, as shown below. As you revise, remember to insert whatever type of transition you think would be most useful to help readers follow your ideas.

1. Use signal words—transitions consisting of a single word or phrase that sig- nal you are moving from one point to another and indicate the relationship between two ideas (Table 5.1). Example: When I played soccer, I made many new friends I would otherwise never have met. Additionally, I learned essential teamwork skills.

2. Mention both an idea you discussed previously and the new idea. Example: Now that we have discussed the ways in which soccer affected my character, let us turn our attention to how playing soccer helped shape my personal values.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

3. Use advance organizers—words that indicate the structure of the material and let readers know what to expect next. Example: We will now examine two of the most important aspects of my life that playing soccer helped to shape: my character and my values.

4. Include reminders and internal summaries to inform readers of where you are in the paper or what you have covered. Example of a reminder: As we continue our discussion of personal values, let us turn our attention to . . . .

Example of an internal summary: We have now discussed the ways in which playing soccer helped shape my personal values.

Table 5.1: Signal words

Relationship Signal Words To show that an idea is in addition to the idea previously mentioned

again, also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, too, and, next, additionally, likewise, moreover, then, in fact, finally, afterward, after that, another, indeed

To illustrate or expand a point, to give an example, or to show that an idea is similar to another idea

for instance, for example, for one thing, to illustrate, similarly, in the same way, at the same time, along the same lines, by analogy, comparably, analogous, corresponding, parallel to, coinciding with

To link cause and effect as a result, because, therefore, thus, accordingly, consequently, in short, in summary, concurring, agreeing, just as, that is, namely, in fact, in one case, in one situation, akin to, likewise, such as, indeed, in other words, specifically, in conclusion, to conclude, for these reasons, given, then, hence, since, so

To compare two ideas in degree or quantity more, most, fewer, less, greater than, superior, additional, further, added

To contrast two ideas or show how they are different

however, unlike, on the other had, but, yet, still, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, in contrast, by contrast, although, though, nor, albeit, instead, rather, conversely

To show time or sequence at the same time, now, before, when, then, first, second, third, next, during, initially, finally, occasionally, frequently, meanwhile, in the meantime, soon, immediately following, eventually, as soon as, after, at that time, later, after a few hours, presently, while, not long after, at length, again, subsequently, afterward, previously, at last, in the end, currently, later, in the future, formerly, simultaneously

To indicate position or place here, there, where, beyond, next to, nearly, close to, adjacent to, near, opposite, behind, instead

(continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

Relationship Signal Words To show location or relationship of one idea to another

next to, behind, in front of, attached to, adjacent to, previous, prior, preceding, in relationship to

To show that one idea follows another subsequently, ensuing, succeeding, following, next, successive, sequential, consecutive

To concede or acknowledge a point or a different opinion

though, although, nonetheless, nevertheless, still, after all, notwithstanding, even so, even though, no doubt, doubtless, certainly, of course, granted, admittedly, regardless, albeit, whereas, in spite of, at the same time, alternately, alternatively, to be sure

To qualify a statement you made (to modify it or make it less strong)

of course, perhaps, possibly, perchance, maybe, generally, usually, especially, particularly, conceivably, supposedly, if, unless, in case, provided, frequently, occasionally, in general, in particular, often

To summarize or to indicate results or conclusion as a result, resulting, finally, therefore, then, thus, accordingly, hence, consequently, in short, in other words, in sum, ergo, in brief, in summary, to summarize, in conclusion, to conclude, for these reasons, given, wherefore, following, effect, outcome, in closing, as a finale, to end, corollary, ending, completing, terminating, finishing, repercussion, culmination, synopsis, to review, in the final analysis, in essence, on the whole, to sum up, above all, after all, all in all, in the same way, just as, at the same time, along these lines, by analogy, accordingly

Approximate Body Paragraph Balance The information about each main point should be approximately balanced in the body of your paper. In other words, if you have one paragraph about your first main point, then you should have one paragraph or so on each of the other main points. If three or four paragraphs support the first main point, then about three or four paragraphs should also support each of the other main points.

The number of paragraphs for each point does not have to be exactly even; the goal here is balance. If a point is indeed a main point, then it should occupy approximately as much of the reader’s attention as the other points. If you write one paragraph on main point 1 and five paragraphs on main point 2, readers might assume that main point 1 is of lesser importance, and your body paragraphs would not be balanced. When you are writing your paper, if you have very little to say on one of the points, consider eliminating it as a main point or combining it with another point in some way to maintain the balance in your paper.

Table 5.1: Signal words (continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Body of the Paper

Body Paragraph Organization Main ideas that you present in the introduction become paragraphs or sets of paragraphs in the body of the paper, and should be discussed in the body in the same order you pre- sented them in your thesis statement. But what is the best order to present this informa- tion? If you are writing a paper for a political science class, you may want to organize your paper according to cause and effect—what events happened first, and then later, what consequences this led to. On the other hand, if you are analyzing a novel, you likely do not want to use a chronological order. Instead, it may be more appropriate to order your points according to how a concept develops over the course of the novel. You may, for instance, begin with the definition of honesty that is offered toward the end of the novel, but then use a quote from the opening chapters of the novel to show how the definition is different at the novel’s beginning. It is up to you to determine the appropriate order for developing your thoughts.

In other papers, though, the main points require a specific type of organization for the paper to be logical and flow well, and for readers to follow along with your ideas. Remember to consider the organization of main points in your paper and to choose an appropriate organizational structure. Some common structures are listed below. Which- ever organizational method you select, make sure the order of main points is the same in the introduction, the thesis statement, the body of the paper, and later in the conclusion.

• Chronological order. With this type of organization, you present main points in the order they occurred in time, usually from earliest to latest. A chronologi- cal organization is common in narrative writing, where you are telling a story, or in other types of writing where events occur in a sequence.

• Spatial order. With a spatial organization, you arrange main points in a direc- tion, from bottom to top, from up to down, from left to right, or geographi- cally, such as from east to west or north to south. For example, if you were describing an office high-rise building, you might begin at the bottom floor and describe each floor, in order, moving up to the top of the building. If you were describing the United States, it would be more logical to organize your description spatially by discussing states in order from north to south or east to west, rather than simply mentioning them in a random order.

• Priority order. When you organize items or tasks in priority order, you arrange them in order of importance or the sequence in which they must be per- formed. Priority order is often used when you provide instructions and want to be sure steps are followed in a specific sequence. Steps are usually num- bered when a priority order is used, to reinforce the fact that they must be followed consecutively.

• Alphabetical order. An alphabetical order may be useful for organizing lists of random items. For example, if you were preparing a list of items to pack for an emergency kit, an alphabetical order might be the most logical method of arranging the items.

• General-to-specific order. With complex subjects, organizing main ideas from the most general to the most specific can help readers stay on track with what you write. For instance, if you wanted to discuss different types of flow- ers, you might begin by discussing the growing patterns (perennials versus

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.3 The Conclusion

annuals) and then get more specific by breaking down the growing patterns into sun versus shade plants. Then you might discuss whether the plants are grown from seeds or bulbs. Finally, you might cover the specific species of flowers (primroses, pansies, dahlias, daffodils).

• Dramatic order. The dramatic order is described in Chapter 6, under the per- sonal writing pattern of narration. This organizational structure is common for personal papers as well as for fictional writing.

See Writing in Action: Creating Body Paragraphs for practice writing well-organized body paragraphs.

Writing in Action: Creating Body Paragraphs

Return to the introduction you wrote on the ethics of human cloning. Re-read what you have written and then develop two body paragraphs in which you justify and support the argument stated in your thesis. Develop two points or main ideas and address one of these main points in each body para- graph. Include direct citation from the article you have chosen in each body paragraph and analyze the evidence for at least two sentences before you introduce another quote. After you draft your body paragraphs, re-read what you have written and evaluate your topic sentences to make sure they connect to the thesis and make an arguable claim. Keep in mind that if you state something that is simply true or false it is not an argument. Give your interpretation of the issue but connect this interpretation with a main reason or idea. Develop your paragraphs fully enough so that you are offering reasoning and examples. Define your terms carefully, such as the term “ethics.” For one person, ethics may consist of what is best for the most individuals but for others ethics means doing what is best for one particular concept rather than necessarily for society as a whole.

5.3 The Conclusion

If the introduction “tells readers what you will tell them” and the body “tells them,” then the con- clusion “tells them why it matters.” The conclusion brings closure to your paper so it should not restate the the- sis or only summarize the main points covered in the essay. Instead, the con- clusion should offer an explanation of what all of the main points add up to. What do these main points suggest? What larger statement can you make about the significance of this theme or concept you have explored? The con- clusion does not have to be lengthy; it merely has to perform the following three functions:

iStockphoto The conclusion is where you assemble the parts of your paper into a unified whole.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.3 The Conclusion

1. Signal the conclusion of the paper 2. Summarize the main points of the paper 3. End on a strong note

Signal the Conclusion of the Paper The conclusion should provide a signal to the reader that the paper is concluding. After you have discussed your main points in the body of the paper, your readers expect to have some form of closure to finish the paper. Do not leave them hanging by failing to write an effective conclusion. Remember, you can create a signal by using a transition. Writing Samples: Sample Conclusion illustrates a complete conclusion for our soccer paper, with all elements of the conclusion numbered and labeled in Figure 5.4.

Writing Samples: Sample Conclusion

Now that I have shared the various ways that playing competitive soccer has enriched my life experi- ences and impacted my character, I hope that you look at the value of team sports with new eyes.1 Before you dismiss team sports as no more than a simple “hobby,” consider the ways in which a sport like soccer can influence your stress levels, physical fitness, teamwork values, and time management skills.2 Then you can choose to sign up for a fun-filled activity that will make you focused, fit, and dedicated, and maybe rack up some great wins along the way.3

Figure 5.4: Components of the conclusion

Summarize Main Points In some way, reinforce for your readers the main points you made in your paper. Do not simply restate your thesis statement, but rephrase the main points and reinforce them in the readers’ minds. For example, if the thesis for our soccer paper is “Playing soccer helped to shape my values and character and helped make me the person I am today,” the writer of the soccer paper might rephrase this thesis in the conclusion by saying, “Now that I have shared the various ways that playing competitive soccer has enriched my life experiences and impacted my character, I hope that you look at the value of team sports with new eyes.”

Completed Conclusion

Signal the end.1

Summarize.2

Create closure with a strong

final sentence.3

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Structure Across Paper Types

End on a Strong Note Make sure your paper does not just end abruptly after the last main point in the body, simply fade away, or end with a sentence such as “That is all I have to say on this subject.” Use one of the strategies outlined earlier in this chapter for creating effective introduc- tions—such as a quotation, a question, a startling statement, or an anecdote—to conclude your paper. You may also simply use strong, forceful words that craft a powerful ending for your paper. Your conclusion is your final opportunity to connect with your readers; take advantage of it.

After you address the three functions of a conclusion covered above, you can also broaden your conclusion by reflecting on the material you covered and, if appropriate, ask your readers to take action. You might also revisit the introduction and remind readers of com- ments you made there, restate the importance of your topic, or reflect on the implications of what you said in the paper. Generally, you should not include new citations in the conclusion because textual analysis works best in body paragraphs. The purpose of the conclusion is to create closure for the paper and to reinforce your argument. See Writing in Action: Creating a Strong Conclusion for practice ending your paper one a strong note.

Writing in Action: Creating a Strong Conclusion

Return to the essay you have been gradually developing over the course of reading this chapter. Re- read your intro and body paragraphs and reflect on the points you have made so far. Develop a con- clusion in which you return to your thesis and explain what the main points you discussed ultimately add up to. Make connections in respect to your two main points. Include an explanation of why this topic matters and how it is relevant to current concerns.

5.4 Structure Across Paper Types

R emember that most college papers need to be approached by choosing an appropri- ate topic; narrowing and focusing that topic; and developing an effec- tive introduction, body, and conclu- sion for the paper. Each paper type calls for a different structure, so it is important to identify the kind of paper you are being asked to write and structure it accordingly. The sec- tions below will help you determine the appropriate structure for nar- rative, expository, argument, and research papers.iStockphoto

Structure varies among the different types of academic papers depending on what each is meant to accomplish.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Structure Across Paper Types

Structure and the Narrative Essay For a narrative essay, you may not be asked to write argument-driven topic sentences, so the thesis statement for a narrative essay may differ from one you would write for other paper types. Rather than stating a specific claim, the thesis statement in a narrative essay may instead give a minimal amount of information in order to intrigue the reader and it may simply be descriptive in nature.

In body paragraphs, the details offered would be details that you have created for an intriguing storyline, and they might not directly connect to the topic sentence. Some- times the best paragraphs in narrative essays create a reversal of expectations set up at the beginning of the paragraph. Likely, a mixture between this technique and a more standard form of paragraph cohesion—with ideas that develop a main idea—is the best strategy. If every single paragraph tried to surprise the reader by saying the exact opposite at the end, it would no longer be an effective strategy!

The conclusion of a narrative essay often differs from other paper types as well. While most paper types call for a summary paragraph that restates the main points of the paper, a narra- tive essay may instead conclude with a discussion of why the topic of interest is important. For example, the writer may discuss the reasons the topic is important to him or her, or may take a broader approach and discuss why the topic is important to society as a whole.

Structure and the Expository Essay Expository writing shares information or explains a subject to readers. While expository essays do not usually contain an overt argument in the same way that argument and research papers do, the thesis statement should still aim to explain an issue clearly.

Although there may not be a direct thesis statement, body paragraphs should still include topic sentences, which indicate the main points of each paragraph. The body paragraphs of a well-written expository essay should also follow a logical order. Any of the previ- ously discussed organizational structures may work for expository essays. For instance, they can be organized in the sequence in which events occur, the order in which ideas should be considered, or by the priority of the items discussed. The main points of your body paragraphs should be supported by logically ordered facts, explanations, details, or examples in order to fully explain the subject matter and maintain clarity for the reader.

Structure and the Argument Essay This is the type of essay you will write more frequently in your college writing classes. Argumentative essays take an interpretive position and make an arguable claim in the thesis statement. These essays may offer an interpretation about a work of fiction or on a political or social issue. The interpretation is stated in the thesis and includes main points that are then developed into separate body paragraphs.

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CHAPTER 5Chapter Summary

In the body paragraphs of an argument paper, assert each main point in your claim and provide evidence and reasoning to support your points. You can use examples, statistics, or the words of experts to support your statements and aid in your explanations. You may also choose to present counterarguments you think readers might make and give the rea- soning behind the counterarguments as well.

The conclusion of an argument paper should reinforce or restate your thesis statement, point out a solution to the issue, or propose that your readers take some action. Provide strong closure to your argument, using the strategies for an effective conclusion discussed earlier in this chapter.

Structure and the Research Paper Like argumentative essays, research papers articulate an interpretation that is based on some form of evidence, such as citations from a novel. Research papers use a variety of sources and include scholarly articles that extensively research a particular subject. In a research paper, therefore, the primary evidence you use will be citations from schol- arly articles. Research papers must set out a clear organizational structure in the thesis statement and develop the points in clearly articulated paragraphs. Research papers also require an explanation of the historical context of the main source the writer discusses.

Chapter Summary Every writer moves from selecting a topic to producing a polished written document in a unique way. However, good writers recognize that writing is not one task; it is a series of tasks that must be completed in a step-by-step manner. The writing process for college papers can be broken into specific steps, each of which includes specific tasks that must be performed at that particular step. Structurally, college essays consist of an introduction, enough body paragraphs to sufficiently develop an idea, and a conclusion that explains connections that can be drawn in relation to the body paragraphs. However, the nature of these individual components—the introduction, the body paragraphs, and the conclu- sion—varies widely depending on the specific type of essay. Thus, it is crucial to outline your essay and develop a tentative organizational plan.

For argumentative and research papers, introductions should offer context fitting for the topic and present a thesis statement that suggests the outline for the rest of the paper. The body paragraphs should in turn follow the organization laid out in the thesis statement. Narrative and expository essays frequently have introductions that are highly descriptive but they tend not to have a thesis statement. However, they still must develop an organi- zational method appropriate for the essay. For instance, the narrative or expository essay may go out of chronological order to present the ideas in a slightly surprising way.

Narrative, expository, argumentative, and research papers all use some form of evidence, details, or information in every body paragraph in order to develop the paper’s ideas. Conclusions for these papers may synthesize the content of the previous paragraphs, dis- cuss the larger significance of the paper topic, or, in the case of the narrative essay, may instead conclude mysteriously without all points of the storyline tied together. Regardless

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CHAPTER 5Key Terms

of the type of essay you are assigned, your papers should aim to demonstrate a progres- sion of ideas with each new paragraph adding something new to the conversation.

Key Terms body The section of an essay that consists of all of the paragraphs except for the introduction and conclusion. The body of the essay is the place where writers develop the thesis and prove the argument by using evidence.

conclusion The end of your discussion of the topic and the closure to your paper. The conclusion should offer an explanation of what all of the main points add up to.

hook The first few sentences of a paper that should capture readers’ attention and interest them enough that they want to keep reading.

introduction The beginning of your discussion of the topic and the rest of the paper. A good introduction accomplishes four primary goals: captures the readers’ attention and interests them in reading more; reveals the purpose of the paper and the topic; presents the thesis statement; and previews the main points covered in the body of the paper.

rhetorical question A question for which an answer is not expected because it is assumed to be obvious.

topic sentences Types of sentences that are typically placed at the beginning of each paragraph and indicate what the writer will argue or try to prove in that one paragraph.

transitions Words, phrases, or sentences that let readers know that you are mov- ing from one idea to another or from one section of the paper to another. Also called connectives.

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