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5Assessment for Learning

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Assessment for learning, when done well, is one of the most powerful, high- leverage strategies for improving student learning that we know of.

—Michael Fullan

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

ሁ Differentiate the central ideas between assessment of learning and assessment for learning. ሁ Determine how and when formative assessments may be used in the classroom. ሁ Determine how and when summative assessments may be used in the classroom. ሁ Analyze the benefits of using common assessments with your grade-level/subject-area peers in professional learning communities (PLCs).

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Section 5.1 Defining Assessment for Learning

Introduction Chapter 4 introduced you to the significance of the backward design process, which empha- sizes planning with the end goal in mind. Another way to say this idea is that the entire plan- ning process needs to be informed and led by the assessment goals—what you intend for the students to know, understand, and do (KUD). Chapter 4 presented two critical phases of assess- ment, formative and summative, and you learned that the method does not determine whether the assessment is summative or formative, but rather, how the results are used does. Formative assessments are those that teachers and students use to gather evidence for the purpose of improving learning. Summative assessments, on the other hand, provide confirmation of stu- dent achievement for the purpose of making a judgment regarding student competence or pro- gram effectiveness. This chapter will help you gain knowledge of, and competence in, both formative and summative assessments by introducing specific classroom strategies to maxi- mize learning for all students. However, first we would like to discuss the distinction between assessment of learning and assessment for learning because that distinction will effectively frame the following dialogue of which assessment strategies are appropriate for your unique classroom. See the feature box InTASC Teaching Standards Addressed in Chapter 5.

5.1 Defining Assessment for Learning

I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 5

Standard #6: Assessment. The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assess- ment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s decision making.

2 1 S T C E N T U R Y F R A M E W O R K E L E M E N T S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 5

21st Century Curriculum and Instruction Content Knowledge. Use curriculum-embedded, performance-based assessments. Design and implement curriculum-embedded, performance-based assessments that are integrated and aligned with the state accountabilit y system.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Before you begin exploring newer assessment models, using your own experiences as a student, jot down some advantages and disadvantages to being tested in the traditional way (using multiple choice, true/false, etc.).

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Section 5.1 Defining Assessment for Learning

A 21st century paradigm shift has occurred in how we view student assessment. Stiggins (2009) has made a distinction between assessment of learning and assessment for learning. Assessment of learning is the traditional way we have always viewed assessment. We gain knowledge of how much learning has or has not occurred. However, assessment for learning “turns the classroom assessment process and its results into an instructional intervention designed to increase, not merely monitor, student learning” (Stiggins, 2005, p. 1). In other words, students should feel that the assessments are being done “with” them and “for” them rather than “to” them. The goal in assessment for learning is to assist teachers in enhancing their knowledge about learner needs. To accomplish this purpose, teachers need to:

1. Become competent masters, themselves, of each of the standards their students are to master.

2. Understand how those standards transform into the curriculum that forms the scaf- folding students will climb on their journey up to each standard.

3. Transform classroom-level achievement targets into student-friendly versions. 4. Transform the classroom targets into high-quality classroom assessments capable of

accurately reflecting student achievement. 5. Use those assessments over time in collaboration with their students to help motivate

them to keep learning. (Stiggins, 2005, p. 1)

While assessment of student learning is certainly a necessary component in the overall assessment process, both teachers and learners reap tremendous benefits when assess- ment for learning is expertly and continuously implemented. Student achievement can dra- matically improve when assessment for learning practices become routine in classrooms (Chappuis, Commodore, & Stiggins, 2010). For example, Bloom (1984), in his examination of mastery learning protocols, found that when assessment supported learning, students gained one to two standard deviations on tests. Similarly, Meisels, Atkins-Burnett, Xue, and Bickel (2003), using performance assessments, found gains of over one-and-a-half standard deviations on subsequent tests.

Even with this level of research support, experts believe that most preservice teachers have not been given the opportunity to acquire critical principles of sound assessment practices, especially of assessment for learning (Crooks, 1988; Shepard et al., 2005; Stiggins, 1999).

So what does assessment for learning look like? Anyone who has had even minimal schooling no doubt has experienced considerable assessment for learning, even if they did not recog- nize it as such. Think of the times you may have read aloud to a teacher, worked a math prob- lem at the board, or offered an opinion about the reasons behind an historical event. If the teacher took any kind of record of your responses (as well as those of your classmates), and adjusted instruction accordingly, you most likely were experiencing assessment for learning. Assessment for learning is a classroom instructional strategy that gives the teacher informa- tion about learners so that changes can be made; the strategy tells the teacher who knows or can do the concept, who does not, who may need more practice or clarification, and who may need to move ahead. Assessment for learning is time sensitive—it relates to current task or learning objective. For example, if students miss a spelling word on a weekly test, that word may be added to the next week’s list. If several student comments indicate misconcep- tions about reasons for observations in a water-cycle experiment, the teacher will address that topic again, perhaps reconsidering an explanation or demonstration. The key to assess- ment for learning is an analysis of student responses and a resulting action that changes (or confirms) either the teacher’s instruction or the techniques the student uses. In contrast,

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Section 5.1 Defining Assessment for Learning

assessment of learning, also a valuable instructional tool, measures learning after the teacher has provided instruction. It is not used as a tool to inform ongoing instruction. Most of us have experienced assessment of learning firsthand in the form of semester exams, entrance exams, proficiency exams, and the like, all of which yield a grade or score. We usually accept the summative results of this assessment as an indicator of the next step (such as advancing to the next semester or grade, or admission into a program), but we do not usually analyze the results with a desire for improvement.

Try It!

Categorize the following assessment activities as: (a) assessment for learning, (b) assessment of learning, (c) neither assessment for nor of learning, or (d) potentially both assessment of learning and for learning.

Assessment A

(FOR) B

(OF) C

(Neither)

D

(Both)

Using the term Find it! in a second-grade classroom to communicate the technology standard “students apply digital tools to gather, evaluate, and use information.”

Results of a psychological test

Grades for conduct and effort

Weekly spelling test

Drawing a model to explain third-grade students’ ice cream preferences

Recognizing and naming all lower- and uppercase letters of the alphabet

Retelling a story with four details in the correct order

Semester exam in history

The ACT college admission test

Advanced Placement exam in Physics I

Applying rubrics to weekly written work

Portfolio of student work

Daily warm-up exercises

Classroom debate

Reading aloud

(continued)

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Section 5.1 Defining Assessment for Learning

Assessment A

(FOR) B

(OF) C

(Neither)

D

(Both)

Writing a business letter

Producing an essay in final format for a grade

Drafts of essays or research paper sections

Answering questions in class

Performing error analysis of a math problem

Answers:

Assessment A

(FOR) B

(OF) C

(Neither)

D

(Both)

Using the term Find it! in a second-grade classroom to communicate the technology standard “students apply digital tools to gather, evaluate, and use information.”

X

Results of a psychological test X

Grades for conduct and effort X

Weekly spelling test X

Drawing a model to explain third-grade students’ ice cream preferences last week

X

Recognizing and naming all lower- and uppercase letters of the alphabet

X

Retelling a story with four details in the correct order

X

Semester exam in history X

The ACT college admission test X

Advanced Placement exam in Physics I X

Applying rubrics applied to weekly written work

X

Portfolio of student work X

Daily warm-up exercises X

Classroom debate X

Try It! (continued)

(continued)

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Section 5.2 Formative Assessment

5.2 Formative Assessment As we have noted previously, educators have become keenly interested in the entire formative-assessment process. Buczynski and Hansen (2014) assert “formative assessments are changing the entire assessment paradigm in 21st century schools” (p. 310). To review, in Chapter 4, you learned that formative assessment guides teachers in making decisions about future instruction. The Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO, 2008) defined formative assessment as “a process used by teachers and students during instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to improve students’ achievement of intended outcomes” (p. 3).

There has always been a procedure for helping teachers determine next steps in lessons. The main difference between these earlier attempts and newer formative assessments is the teacher’s ability to capture the data, integrate it, and provide almost instant feedback to the learner to redirect the thinking process. Whether making quick notes or coding feedback more elaborately, in formative assessment, teachers must be able to record data on student learning as it is happening. The essential functions of formative assessment were summarized in the 2001 report of the National Research Council:

As instruction is occurring, teachers need information to evaluate whether their teaching strategies are working. They also need information about their current understanding of individual students and groups of students so they can identify the most appropriate next steps for instruction. Moreover, stu- dents need feedback to monitor their own success in learning and know how to improve. (Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001, pp. 225–226)

Formative assessment has been noted as the most powerful type of assessment for improv- ing student understanding and performance. This conclusion is supported by Black and Wiliam’s (1998) seminal review of research on formative-assessment practices. They

Figure 5.1: The formative- assessment cycle

ሁ The goal for a formative assessment is to provide immediate feedback to both the teacher and the learner.

Implement interventions

Plan interventions

Analyze student

learning data

Formative Assessment

Gather evidence of

student learning

Assessment A

(FOR) B

(OF) C

(Neither)

D

(Both)

Reading aloud X

Writing a business letter X

Producing an essay in final format for a grade

X

Drafts of essays or research paper sections X

Answering questions in class X

Performing an error analysis of a math problem

X

Try It! (continued)

han82148_05_c05_115-138.indd 120 3/3/15 2:20 PM

Implement interventions

Plan interventions

Analyze student

learning data

Formative Assessment

Gather evidence of

student learning

Section 5.2 Formative Assessment

asserted, “There is strong and rigor- ous evidence that improving formative assessment can raise standards of pupils’ performance. There have been few ini- tiatives in education with such a strong body of evidence to support a claim to raise standards” (Black & Wiliam, 1998, p. 20). In the 21st century, leading theo- rists have confirmed this claim. Stiggins (2004) concludes, “Studies have dem- onstrated assessment for learning rivals one-on-one tutoring in its effectiveness and that the use of assessment particu- larly benefits low-achieving students” (p. 27). Finally, one of the most well- known experts in testing and measure- ment, James Popham, asserts, “Formative assessment represents evidence-based instructional decision-making. If you want to become more instructionally effective, and if you want your students to achieve more, then formative assess- ments should be for you” (Popham, 2008, pp. 3, 15). Figure 5.1 captures the essence of the formative-assessment process.

Formative assessments are extremely flexible, and K–12 teachers may use them when instructing the entire class, small groups, or individual students. Additionally, these assess- ments may range along a continuum from very informal, such as “thumbs-up, thumbs-down,” to more formalized, such as written responses. Either way, the goal is to provide immediate feedback to both teacher and learner. We would now like to share specific examples of forma- tive assessments appropriate for the entire class, small groups of students, and when working with students one-on-one.

Whole-Class Formative Assessment Strategies When teachers are in the middle of a whole-class lesson, they need to know whether the instruc- tion is at the correct level of difficulty for the students and, if necessary, adjust the instruc- tion upward or downward. The following strategies, termed Every Pupil Response (EPR),

C O N S I D E R T H I S

As you ref lect upon the sequence for formative assessment, how do you think formative- assessment practices may assist both students and teachers?

5.2 Formative Assessment As we have noted previously, educators have become keenly interested in the entire formative-assessment process. Buczynski and Hansen (2014) assert “formative assessments are changing the entire assessment paradigm in 21st century schools” (p. 310). To review, in Chapter 4, you learned that formative assessment guides teachers in making decisions about future instruction. The Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO, 2008) defined formative assessment as “a process used by teachers and students during instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to improve students’ achievement of intended outcomes” (p. 3).

There has always been a procedure for helping teachers determine next steps in lessons. The main difference between these earlier attempts and newer formative assessments is the teacher’s ability to capture the data, integrate it, and provide almost instant feedback to the learner to redirect the thinking process. Whether making quick notes or coding feedback more elaborately, in formative assessment, teachers must be able to record data on student learning as it is happening. The essential functions of formative assessment were summarized in the 2001 report of the National Research Council:

As instruction is occurring, teachers need information to evaluate whether their teaching strategies are working. They also need information about their current understanding of individual students and groups of students so they can identify the most appropriate next steps for instruction. Moreover, stu- dents need feedback to monitor their own success in learning and know how to improve. (Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001, pp. 225–226)

Formative assessment has been noted as the most powerful type of assessment for improv- ing student understanding and performance. This conclusion is supported by Black and Wiliam’s (1998) seminal review of research on formative-assessment practices. They

Figure 5.1: The formative- assessment cycle

ሁ The goal for a formative assessment is to provide immediate feedback to both the teacher and the learner.

Implement interventions

Plan interventions

Analyze student

learning data

Formative Assessment

Gather evidence of

student learning

han82148_05_c05_115-138.indd 121 3/3/15 2:20 PM

Section 5.2 Formative Assessment

allow all students to respond to every question, thus cueing the teacher with feedback informa- tion while the lesson is being taught. Teachers are immediately aware of which students are “getting” the concept and which ones are not. Let us make this important point: It is not enough for teachers to observe student responses; they need some mechanism to record this data on the spot so they can plan necessary reteaching later on for those who may need more time to learn the content.

• White boards are small, laminated, erasable boards that all students can easily use. Typically, each student has a board, a marker, and an eraser—which could be as simple as a sock. When the teacher asks a question, each student writes a response on the board and, when given the signal, holds the board in the air for the teacher to see.

• Hand signals require students to make some kind of movement to indicate their level of understanding. The most well-known of this category is the technique of Thumbs-up, Thumbs-down where students indicate understanding or agreement with a thumbs-up and, conversely, nonunderstanding or nonagreement with a thumbs-down action. Since this signal is a bit overused, another signal that can sub- stitute would be the Fist-to-Five signal: Each student responds with a fist in the air to represent no understanding, and from one finger raised to represent some under- standing to all five fingers raised to signal full understanding. Fist-to-Five is a very useful EPR strategy for teachers to use nearing the end of an instructional period to determine the degree of understanding for each child.

• Response cards are similar to the white boards in that students are instructed to hold up cards to indicate responses to teacher-led questions. The most simple response-card strategy is the Yes/No, which have the words Yes on one card and No on a second card (or true/false). To make it easier for teachers to see and code the responses, these cards may also be color-coded, as in green for Yes and red for No. Another way to use response cards is to give students three cards, one with an A, one with a B, and one with a C so they can respond to teacher- or text-generated multiple-choice questions. In mathematics, students may use a number fan, which consists of 10 strips of paper secured by a paper fastener at the bottom. Each strip of paper has a single digit from 0–9. Students respond to math questions by manipulat- ing the fan and pulling up specific digits. For example, the teacher may ask, “What is 7 times 8?” and students respond by bringing up the 5 and the 6 digit cards together to show the answer of 56. Because students hold the cards in the air, teachers can view and note which students may need additional instruction.

• Exit tickets have become very popular in recent years. Exit tickets, or slips, are written responses to questions the teacher poses at the end of a lesson or a class to assess student understanding. These generally take students no longer than a few minutes to complete, and teachers collect them as students leave the classroom. By assessing the responses on the exit slips, the teacher can better adjust the instruc- tion to better accommodate student needs for the next class. An example is shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Example of an exit ticket ሁ At the end of a lesson or class, students may complete an exit ticket to help teachers assess

student understanding and adjust instruction, as needed.

Generic 3-2-1 Chart from the West Virginia Department of Education, http://wvde.state.wv.us/strategybank/3-2-1.html

3 2 1

THINGS I LEARNED TODAY...

THINGS I FOUND INTERESTING...

QUESTIONS I STILL HAVE...

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3 2 1

THINGS I LEARNED TODAY...

THINGS I FOUND INTERESTING...

QUESTIONS I STILL HAVE...

Section 5.2 Formative Assessment

• Journals or logs provide a place for students to summarize ideas, experiences, and opinions before and after instruction. Many teachers believe they do not have enough time to use student journals for assessment purposes. For that reason, we recommend having students code their journal according to the most important point or central concept communicated in the lesson and/or their opinion about why they believe it to be the most important. Teachers may then read just the student-selected, highlighted section of the journal.

• Technology-based audience participation allows students to respond to teacher questions using hand-held devices, thanks to the advent of mobile technology and one-to-one devices. Examples of such devices are wireless “clickers,” cell phones, iPads, or laptop computers. Because responses are sometimes recorded anony- mously and sometimes keyed to individual students, teachers can probe at vari- ous times throughout the lesson to ascertain what students have and have not understood.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Have you observed any of these whole-class formative assessments used in real class- rooms? What did you notice regarding student learning?

allow all students to respond to every question, thus cueing the teacher with feedback informa- tion while the lesson is being taught. Teachers are immediately aware of which students are “getting” the concept and which ones are not. Let us make this important point: It is not enough for teachers to observe student responses; they need some mechanism to record this data on the spot so they can plan necessary reteaching later on for those who may need more time to learn the content.

• White boards are small, laminated, erasable boards that all students can easily use. Typically, each student has a board, a marker, and an eraser—which could be as simple as a sock. When the teacher asks a question, each student writes a response on the board and, when given the signal, holds the board in the air for the teacher to see.

• Hand signals require students to make some kind of movement to indicate their level of understanding. The most well-known of this category is the technique of Thumbs-up, Thumbs-down where students indicate understanding or agreement with a thumbs-up and, conversely, nonunderstanding or nonagreement with a thumbs-down action. Since this signal is a bit overused, another signal that can sub- stitute would be the Fist-to-Five signal: Each student responds with a fist in the air to represent no understanding, and from one finger raised to represent some under- standing to all five fingers raised to signal full understanding. Fist-to-Five is a very useful EPR strategy for teachers to use nearing the end of an instructional period to determine the degree of understanding for each child.

• Response cards are similar to the white boards in that students are instructed to hold up cards to indicate responses to teacher-led questions. The most simple response-card strategy is the Yes/No, which have the words Yes on one card and No on a second card (or true/false). To make it easier for teachers to see and code the responses, these cards may also be color-coded, as in green for Yes and red for No. Another way to use response cards is to give students three cards, one with an A, one with a B, and one with a C so they can respond to teacher- or text-generated multiple-choice questions. In mathematics, students may use a number fan, which consists of 10 strips of paper secured by a paper fastener at the bottom. Each strip of paper has a single digit from 0–9. Students respond to math questions by manipulat- ing the fan and pulling up specific digits. For example, the teacher may ask, “What is 7 times 8?” and students respond by bringing up the 5 and the 6 digit cards together to show the answer of 56. Because students hold the cards in the air, teachers can view and note which students may need additional instruction.

• Exit tickets have become very popular in recent years. Exit tickets, or slips, are written responses to questions the teacher poses at the end of a lesson or a class to assess student understanding. These generally take students no longer than a few minutes to complete, and teachers collect them as students leave the classroom. By assessing the responses on the exit slips, the teacher can better adjust the instruc- tion to better accommodate student needs for the next class. An example is shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Example of an exit ticket ሁ At the end of a lesson or class, students may complete an exit ticket to help teachers assess

student understanding and adjust instruction, as needed.

Generic 3-2-1 Chart from the West Virginia Department of Education, http://wvde.state.wv.us/strategybank/3-2-1.html

3 2 1

THINGS I LEARNED TODAY...

THINGS I FOUND INTERESTING...

QUESTIONS I STILL HAVE...

han82148_05_c05_115-138.indd 123 3/3/15 2:20 PM

Section 5.2 Formative Assessment

Formative Assessment Strategies for Small Groups When teachers are instructing a small group of students, they have many more opportunities to observe students up close. While teachers may use any of the strate- gies we discussed for whole-class lessons, additional strategies seem to work better with smaller groups of students. Many of these revolve around student observation, or as some have termed it, “kid watching.” We know teachers are constantly observing students. When we talk about observations in the context of formative assessment, we are intending that teachers, in addition to watching students, will also record use- ful data about student learning. Here are some examples of how teachers may cap- ture observation data when teaching small groups of students.

• Anecdotal notes are notes a teacher records during a lesson as students work in groups or after the lesson is complete. The teacher reflects on a specific aspect of the lesson and takes notes in a kind of a short-hand fashion, noting a student’s progress toward mastery of the learning target. Sometimes teachers may use a template or form so that the note taking is more efficient. An organizational system, like a file box or a notebook, will assure that the teacher may easily access these notes to adjust instruction.

• Anecdotal note cards are a variation on using a form or template to take notes. The teacher keeps a file folder with 5” 3 7” note cards for each student; it provides a convenient way to record observations on students and is portable.

• Labels or sticky notes are another organizational system that many teachers find efficient. This system involves using a sheet of labels or a pad of sticky notes to make observations on students while circulating throughout the classroom. After the class, the teacher can place the labels or sticky notes in the observation notebook in the appropriate student’s section.

• Digital notes are possible, too, now that most teachers have access to hand-held devices such as iPads or laptops. Digital devices make recording observations of students less cumbersome. Using Google Docs, teachers can put observation forms directly onto their computer for ease of use.

Whichever method a teacher uses to record observations on student learning, the important thing to remember is to go beyond the mere collection of the data and resolve to use the data to adjust instruction to meet identified student needs. (Please refer to Chapter 2 on meeting student needs.)

Formative Assessment Strategies for Individual Students Teachers sometimes have an opportunity to work with students one-on-one. While teach- ers can still make anecdotal notes, the opportunity for back-and-forth dialogue creates an

iStock/Thinkstock

ሁ Working with small groups of students gives teachers the opportunity to observe the students more closely.

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Section 5.3 Summative Assessment

excellent venue for observing thinking-in-action. Specific strategies for individual students include the following:

• Student conferences are private conversations between a teacher and an individual student. Students may engage in an actual learning task during this time while the teacher is watching and asking questions. Or, a student may communicate learning successes and challenges to the teacher, who can then adapt instruction.

• Goal setting with individual students is a powerful way to make assessment personal and encourage ownership in the learning process. Examples of this strategy include establishing and defining quality work together, asking students to participate in establishing normed behaviors for classroom culture, and determining what to include in criteria for success. Using student work, classroom tests, or exemplars of what is expected helps students understand where they are and where they need to be, and identify an effective process for getting there (Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2014).

5.3 Summative Assessment As you learned in Chapter 4, teachers administer summative assessments at the end of a learning segment to measure the level of student knowledge; these assessments are usually associated with a student’s grade. A learning segment may be as short as an individual lesson or topic, or as long as an entire grading period. Both summative and formative assessments are a vital part of a balanced assessment system (Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2014). If teachers rely too heavily on either one, they do not get a clear picture of what students know, under- stand, and are able to do (KUD). “The key is to think of summative assessment as a means to gauge, at a particular point in time, student learning relative to content standards” (Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2014, p. 1).

While teachers do not have a choice in using many summative assessments (such as state- level assessments, district benchmarks, end-of-term or semester exams, and end-of-unit or chapter tests), teachers may use many strategies to gather summative learning data on stu- dents. Chapter 4 introduced several kinds of summative assessments, traditional and nontra- ditional, or alternative assessments. The next section gives concrete examples of each to use in the classroom.

Traditional Summative Assessments You are no doubt well aware of traditional summative assessments since those would have been the predominant testing measures used when you were in school. The following specific examples are easily recognizable: (1) multiple-choice, (2) true/false, (3) matching, (4) fill in the blank, (5) short answer, and (6) essay. Wiggins (1993) asserts that the one of the main failings of traditional summative assessments are that they do not measure performances and contexts that are most important for higher-order thinking. That said, teachers still may need to use these more traditional assessments at times. Table 5.1 showcases common tradi- tional formats and indicates appropriate uses for each.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

What effect do you think technology will have on classroom-assessment practices?

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Section 5.3 Summative Assessment

Table 5.1: Examples of summative assessments

Question type Purpose Example

Multiple-choice Discriminate among a number of dif- ferent responses, or choose one that is correct.

In which food group do beans belong?

a. fruit b. vegetable c. protein d. grain

Matching, sequencing Identify terms or ideas from one list that is related to another list.

Match up the planets with the number of moons.

1. Venus 2. Earth 3. Mars 4. Jupiter 5. Saturn

a. 67 b. 2 c. 62 d. 0 e. 1

Answers: 1d, 2e, 3b, 4a, 5c

True/false; yes/no Distinguish the correctness or incor- rectness of factual information.

William Shakespeare died a rich man.

a. True b. False

Answer: a. True

Fill in the blanks Recall factual information, _________ is the most common element in the universe.

Answer: Hydrogen, making up about three-quarters the mass of the universe.

Short or long essay Articulate an argument generally using higher-order thinking pro- cesses of analysis, synthesis, applica- tion, or evaluation.

What were some of the effects to the “new world” by the explorations of Christopher Columbus?

Alternative Summative Assessments The last decade has seen renewed interest in different forms of summative assessments— those that can better engage the learner and highlight what they do know as opposed to what they do not know. Traditional summative assessments help answer the question “Do students know it?” and alternative summative assessments helps answer the question “How well can students use what they know?” Because this textbook is focused on helping students acquire 21st century skills, the following strategies showcase alternative ways that teachers may assess student learning.

The Purpose of Performance Assessments

Performance assessments require students to show their knowledge by constructing a response, for instance, by writing an essay or showing how they solve a mathematical prob- lem. Performance assessments are not a new reform. However, performance assessments have had a bit of a renaissance in 21st century classrooms. Many educators believe that performance assessments may, indeed, be more valid indicators of students’ knowledge and skills since they require students to demonstrate what they know. The Partnership

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Section 5.3 Summative Assessment

for 21st Century Skills (Fadel, Honey, & Pasnik, 2007) has suggested that in an age of innovation—in which the workplace will require “new ways to get work done, solve prob- lems, or create new knowledge”—student assessment will need to be largely performance based to allow students to show how well they can apply content knowledge to critical thinking, problem solving, and analytical tasks throughout their education (p. 34). Sim- ple attainment of knowledge and skills does not make people into competent thinkers or problem solvers. To know something requires learning that is reflective, constructive, and self-regulated.

Creating Effective Performance Assessments

In the 1990s, when performance assessments were gaining popularity, Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters (1992) designed a set of five questions that educators need to ask themselves as they identify what students should be able to learn or practice by completing a performance task. Now, almost three decades later, testing consortia for the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC), and the Partnership for Assess- ment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) will include performance assessments as one measure of student learning. Evaluate these questions, and consider whether they are still valid as we move into the era of the Common Core.

1. What important cognitive skills or attributes do I want my students to develop? For example, do I want them to communicate effectively in writing, analyze issues using primary source and reference materials, or use algebra to solve everyday problems?

2. What social and affective skills or attributes do I want my students to develop? Do I want them to work independently, work cooperatively with others, have confidence in their abilities, or be conscientious?

3. What metacognitive skills do I want my students to develop? Do I want them to reflect on the writing process they use, evaluate the effectiveness of their research strategies, review their progress over time?

4. What types of problems do I want them to be able to solve? 5. What concepts and principles do I want my students to be able to apply? Do I want

them to understand cause-effect relationships or apply principles of ecology and con- servation in their everyday lives? (Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992, pp. 25–26.)

All performance tasks require that the stu- dents engage in problem solving and use higher-level thinking processes, but some tasks go even further and specifically address real-world applications (Mertler, 2003). The word authentic used with performance assessment means that the performance uses information, concepts, and skills in ways that people use them outside of school (Frey & Schmitt, 2007). This idea is what is meant by authentic assessment. Newman, Brandt, and Wiggins (1998) offer a slightly more nuanced view: “Authentic refers to the situational or contextual realism of the proposed tasks” (p. 20). The following seven examples will showcase authentic perfor- mance assessments.

Ryan McVay/Photodisc/Thinkstock

ሁ Student presentations are one example of authentic performance assessments.

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Section 5.3 Summative Assessment

1. Journals or letters may be used to record student content knowledge. Journal entries are excellent ways for students to sum up the day’s lesson and make the learning their own. Letters are a variation on the journal since students may summarize their “learning” for a person or persons to whom the letter is intended. The audience for a letter may be the student’s parents or even a fictitious historical figure. For example, students might write a letter encouraging General Washington not to give up his fight help the colonies separate from Great Britain, citing content-specific evidence why this separation is needed. The teacher will collect the journals periodically and provide feedback to the students. Journals and letters can serve as a communication log between the teacher and students.

2. Graphic organizers are a pictorial way of constructing knowledge and organizing information. They help the student convert and compress a lot of seemingly dis- jointed information into a structured visual graphic display that conveys complex information in a simple-to-understand manner. In Chapter 6, we will discuss the power of graphic organizers to help students learn content. However, referenced here as a summative assessment, they demonstrate how students see the “big picture.”

3. Student presentations: • Oral reports are well known and used as an assessment device by nearly every

teacher. Oral reports often follow student research, individually or in groups about a given topic. After they have completed their research, students pre- pare an oral presentation to present to the class explaining their research. In 21st century classrooms, these oral reports are often accompanied by a digital presentation of content.

• Poster presentations are similar to oral reports. Students create a summative presentation of their learning and create a poster to showcase the content. The poster may be a sheet of paper, a three-sided standing board, or a digital applica- tion such as any of the following examples: • Popplet, a digital bulletin board software. • NoteApp, a note-taking collaborative tool. • Animoto, a photo and video platform. • Museumbox. Museumbox provides the tools for you to build up an argument

or description of an event, person, or historical period by placing items in a virtual box.

• Bubbl, a tool for collaborative brainstorming. • Padlet, a blank wall for teaching or showcasing. • Voice Thread, a tool for creating online podcasts. • Storybird. This web app is used to make, read, and share visual vignettes.

• Oral interviews take place between two students. One student will ask the ques- tions and listen to the responses of the other student. From the given responses, more questions can be asked. Each student will be responsible for listening and speaking. Teachers listen to the interchange to evaluate the degree of content learning for each student.

Try It!

Try out at least three of the presentation apps listed above. Which ones might you use in your classroom?

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Section 5.4 Common Assessments

• Skits or puppet shows allow students to work in groups to create a skit showcas- ing content learned. The students are assessed holistically, based on the overall presentation of the skit. Students may use puppets, rather than perform the skit themselves.

• Music or poetry recitations allow students, after learning content, to write a song, rap, or poem to showcase learnings.

4. Self and peer review relies on students reviewing their own and each other’s work. Self and peer review may be accomplished in class or through use of technological tools, done as blogs or other digital platforms.

5. Individual or group projects have long been used in education to assess a student’s understanding of a subject or a particular topic. In 21st century classrooms, learning of this nature is termed project-based learning (PBL). PBL, as a learning pedagogy, will be discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 6; however, PBL constitutes an excit- ing arena for teachers to assess student work that is authentic in nature. Criteria for evaluating the projects may be teacher developed or developed with student input. Having student input increases the ownership and, thus, student engagement. Group projects involve a number of students working together on a complex problem that requires planning, research, internal discussion, and presentation. Group projects should include a component that each student completes individually to avoid having a student receive credit for work that he or she did not do. Many teachers accomplish this assessment with student input as well. Students identify their own strengths the group may use when completing the project.

6. Artwork/designs/drawings constitute a creative way to assess students through artistic expression. Adding the arts into the assessment process increases visual literacy and is an additional way to incorporate individual student talents.

7. Portfolios are designed to be a collection of a student’s work over a particular period. They can be in the form of hard copy, usually a file folder, or digital in nature and include work from both the teacher and the student. However, when a portfolio is used as an assessment, and not just a collection of student work, some level of stu- dent choice and student reflection is always evident for each artifact selected for inclusion. Portfolios may be deemed “working,” as when they include several drafts to an essay, or “showcase,” as when they document a student’s best work. Now, with mobile technology being present in classrooms, teachers and students are no lon- ger bound to including only paper artifacts. Today’s portfolios may include videos, podcasts, recordings, slideshows, and other such digital samples of student learning (Morrow, Jackson, Disch, & Mood, 2011).

5.4 Common Assessments Now that we have examined an array of assessment choices you have as a teacher, we will turn our attention to an exciting innovation taking root in schools in the 21st century. This educational reform has been the decision of teachers to agree to use common assessments. Common assessments are those that teachers of the same grade level or subject agree to use so they can better discuss student achievement relative to content standards.

Powerful, proven structures for improved results already exist. . . . They begin when a group of teachers meet regularly as a team to identify essential and valued student learning, develop common assessments, analyze current lev- els of achievement, set achievement goals, and then share and create lessons and strategies to improve upon those levels. (Schmoker, 2005, p. 135)

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Cases From the Classroom Section 5.5

According to Fullan (2005), common assessments allow for:

• Collective response: teachers plan appropriate interventions for students. • Efficiency: more can get accomplished when teachers work together. • Fairness: allows for school-wide pacing and consistent standards when assessing

students. • Informs individual teacher practice: teachers have a high-quality way to continually

improve.

These collaborative teacher teams that Fullan supports have been termed professional learn- ing communities (PLCs). Recall that a professional learning community is a peer-to-peer vehi- cle for involving teachers in conversations regarding student learning (Lakshmanan, Heath, Perlmutter, & Elder, 2011; McLaughlin & Talbert, 2010; Nelson, Slavitt, Perkins, & Hathorn, 2008; Richmond & Manokore, 2011). Research is leading us to believe that the PLC is a pow- erful structure for teachers because it allows them to work with one another with the goal of improving student learning (Dallas, 2006; Schmoker, 2005; Stoll, Bolam, McMahon, Wal- lace, & Thomas, 2006). Moreover, one of the most effective uses of the PLC structure is for teachers to collaboratively examine student work samples, especially when participants have all used common assessments. For example, using common assessments allows teachers to seek and find patterns of student errors or misconceptions in the content. Teachers can then engage in discourse with one another to diagnose the problem and design a workable solu- tion. PLCs can work together to create a full cycle of student learning: from joint decisions of the exact learning goal that will be expected of students, the creation of common assessments (both formative and summative) for that learning goal, the gathering of evidence and analysis of student work to determine whether the goal has been met, to the next action plan by all teachers.

5.5 Cases From the Classroom

From the Desk of: Jeff

December 6

Hola, Dr. Z.—

This week you wanted to know how we use assessments in our teaching. Well, in our district, we have organized middle school math around a system of Common Formative Assessments (we call them CFAs). These are tests that were developed by the district teachers and cur- riculum coaches for us to use near the end of each major unit. The curriculum pacing guide gives a suggested date for when these tests should be given, and then a 2-week window for re-teaching or enrichment.

After giving the last CFA, I sat down with Meredith, the other 6th grade math teacher at my school, and we sorted the results into categories. Which problems did a lot of students miss? Which problems did all students get correct? What concepts need to be re-taught and to whom? How can we enrich these concepts for those who are ready? Then, we shared what we had with the 7th and 8th grade math teachers in our PLC, and they did the same with their

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Cases From the Classroom Section 5.5

results. I like this process. At first I didn’t get it—it seemed like just a lot of meeting time. But as the year has gone on, I am beginning to see how we are working together to help each other out. The upper-grade teachers are interested in the 6th graders learning so they can move forward in their own curriculum—and I am able to see first-hand where my own students are heading next year and the year after. From these CFA results, we organized student support groups and planned out who will do what and when. We also brought the CFA results (and our analysis) to the district math meetings, and worked in grade level teams to see how everyone was doing. We adjusted the pacing guides and calendar somewhat, and worked on enrichment activities for those who understood the concepts, and re-teach activities for the others. Since we have 2 teachers for the 6th grade in my school, this was do-able for us.

To me, the test wasn’t formative enough. What I learned from this process is that waiting until close to the end of the unit to adjust based on the CFA was too late for me to know what is really going on with the students. In-class assignments and homework helped me to see who is getting the answers right, but I didn’t know how they understand the concepts. When I looked at the first CFA results, I was disappointed. I had taught that skill, why hadn’t they remembered? I was surprised by what they didn’t know. And I must admit I was angry—probably at myself more than them, but I really had an emotional reaction to less than 50 percent of the students making a “proficient” score. I realized that I needed a quicker way of knowing what was going on.

I figured this out when it came to the unit on dividing fractions. The big idea that it was important to know which operation was appropriate. So, we reviewed what they knew about addition, subtraction and multiplication of fractions. I began with a question that I wanted them to solve alone and show their work (big so I could see it) on their dry erase boards.

You did 8 loads of laundry by filling the detergent cup 3/4 full. How many loads of laundry could you have done if you filled the detergent cup to the top for each load?

Their answers were all over the place! Some recognized that this was a multiplication prob- lem, and showed the correct answer, 6. Others though it was an addition problem, and some subtracted. But what I saw amazed me. If I hadn’t asked them to write big and hold up their white boards so that I could see all the answers at once, I might have missed this. Most of them drew a butterf ly in order to work out the math! Some multiplied using the numbers in the butterf ly and got a beautifully logical but wrong answer, others added or subtracted. And no one could tell me their thinking behind the numbers. They had learned a procedure, but did not understand the meaning. To them, getting the answer was the most important thing. And getting the right answer was more important than understanding the meaning behind the math. I think that some of the tricks they use to get at what they hoped would be the right answers end up confusing them even more.

I had to explain my philosophy—I called it the 6th grade rules, now that they are all grown up and in middle school. They are: “Always explain your answers,” and “Wrong answers are part of the process of learning.” A mistake is their opportunity to share what they do not under- stand before the test. The CFA test is too late. And no more butterf lies or other cute stuff that doesn’t have anything to do with math. If the answer works, there is a mathematical reason why it works.

How do I keep up with what they know when I see 90 students each day? I am beginning to use a variety of ways. During class, the students work in small cooperative groups to solve a few problems and develop an explanation using a model or a diagram. For example, I changed

From the Desk of: Jeff (continued)

(continued)

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Cases From the Classroom Section 5.5

the opening question from multiplication to division of fractions to see if they could use the appropriate operation:

You have 9 ounces of laundry detergent. If it takes 3/4 ounce of detergent to wash one load of clothes, how many loads can you do?

Each group reported out by bringing their clearest paper to the document camera for all to see. Then we discussed how that particular answer was derived. Other group members asked ques- tions and added their comments. I like giving these real-life questions, and have started asking the students to compose their own word problems that illustrate what we are working on.

I give independent homework assignments on Monday and Wednesdays. On Tuesday and Thursday, we go over their work and answer questions while students grade their own work. Then, each student scores how they did using the Exemplars Jigsaw Student Rubric (http:// www.exemplars.com/assets/files/puzzle.pdf). This rubric is neat because it emphasizes problem solving, reasoning and proof, communication, connections and representations—all concepts that work with the math practice standards. Using the rubric also is helping to build self-evaluation skills, which I think are very important. This system helps me to keep up with their work—I can quickly review 90 papers instead of grading each one from scratch.

Thanks for the suggestions on using student work as a formative assessment. I am using the idea from the Teaching Channel, “My Favorite No” (accessed from https://www.teachingchannel .org/videos/class-warm-up-routine). This is a warm-up routine, done in the first 5 minutes of class. I write a problem on an index card and display it on the document camera. Then I hand out index cards to the kids, and give them 5 minutes to write their answer. I quickly sort the cards into 2 piles, yes and no, looking for my favorite wrong answer, and then re-write that answer on an index card and show it on the document camera. It is called “My Favorite No” because it recognizes what they are doing wrong, but also what shows the part that is good math. There is a mistake, but the mistake did not ruin the whole thing, and it shows how far they are from getting it right. I ask questions, such as, “What is good about this answer? What does the person not understand? Where is the mistake?” I like using this idea because index cards are cheap and easy to sort, and I am able to quickly find out what percent of the class knows the concept. I am also able to figure out if the error was one of miscalculation or of misconception, and work on those ideas before moving on. And another thing—I can quickly record these results in the grade book—1 for those that got it, * for those who are still a bit confused but have most of their thinking OK, and 2 for those that I need to reteach. We never seem to have time for exit cards at the end, so this is a great way to begin the class.

Another thing—I am using those math websites you suggested. It helped me realize that some teaching techniques had nothing to do with evidence-based practice, and I had to be careful what I used. I have banned the butterf ly. When using operations with fractions, the students have to show their work by drawing a model, preferably a number line or images made out of squares or rectangles. When we study inequalities (in January, after the break), I guess I will have to ban the “alligator that eats the larger number” (a common way to teach 5, , and  in elementary school). With the new standards, students will be assessed on their understand- ing of the inequality symbol as a placement (right or left) on a number line. Alligators won’t cut it. We are in the 6th grade now, so we will have to get rid of tricks that may be cute but have nothing to do with math.

So how am I doing? Dang I need a break! The second CFA is scheduled for next week. The results from the first one disappointed me, and I guess for a while I was a bit down over it.

From the Desk of: Jeff (continued)

(continued)

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Cases From the Classroom Section 5.5

I tried not to take it personally, but I really thought I was doing a better job of teaching than that. I don’t want any surprises this time. I have worked hard to develop systems that I can live with that keep me aware of who knows what. I am thinking that a good 80 percent of the students will meet their target scores. The other 20 percent, well, Meredith and I have worked hard to give them the support they need, but they are still pretty inconsistent. So we shall see.

Hey, if I could only relate fractions to the beats on the drum—playing in my rock band is my sanity. We’ll be at The Goat this Saturday night—I put the invite on Facebook. Try to come if you can.

Only 15 more school days until the holidays!

—Jeff

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

December 7

With the end of the first semester approaching, I decided to focus on assessments and ask the teachers what they are using and how the results change their teaching (or not). So here is a quick check in:

Ingrid (Chapter 1) is busily preparing her fifth graders for the 2nd quarter CFA in math and language arts. She is working with her mentor (Marie) who suggests she concentrate on a review of the major standards for this quarter. In language arts, the test provides passages to read with questions that measure comprehension and are the basis for an informational writ- ing piece. In math, the assessment will include adding, subtracting and multiplying fractions, dividing a whole number by a fraction, and estimating. Students will also have to explain why the procedures for multiplying and dividing fractions make sense. Ingrid is concerned that the CFA results will show how well she is or is not doing as a teacher, even though Marie and the school-based PLC will help her to analyze the results and organize reteaching and enrichment activities. Despite Marie’s reassurances that there is room in the schedule to give students the support they need, Ingrid is pretty still nervous about the upcoming test. Her words: “There is just so much to cover—especially when having to cover so many subjects in the elementary grades!”

Travis (Chapter 3) seems to be getting a handle on his concern about grading papers. He has developed a portfolio system for students to participate in self-evaluation of their work and make a case for their improvement. He is not trying to give a letter grade to daily writing assignments; rather, he is giving targeted feedback and lets the students choose their best work for reading aloud or moving forward for review. With new or difficult tasks, such as reading a particularly hard text, he asks more questions and gives more immediate feedback. He is experimenting with technology here, occasionally having the students post an answer to one thoughtful question on a Google Forms document. He is beginning to realize that forma- tive assessments in areas with more complex skills require more sophisticated approaches than formulaic advice given for more concrete skills. A policy brief from the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) helped him to formulate his assessment ideas.

Lori, still involved in the unit on identity (see Chapter 4), has moved on to the extended text, The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros. She is happy with the reading analysis and writing activities the students are doing, but has “no clue how they’ll do on the CFA!” I am a bit concerned about this and will need to reach out to her.

From the Desk of: Jeff (continued)

(continued)

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Cases From the Classroom Section 5.5

Jeff (in this chapter) thinks he is ready for the next CFA! He said that between the “Favorite No” activity and the use of the student rubric, “I know what they know, and they know what they know and don’t know, and can tell me what they need to do to get better!”

Melanie (Chapter 2) talked about how formative assessments helped her figure out the challenge of teaching kindergarten students all at different levels. Here is an excerpt from her post:

Just because the pacing guide gives a suggestion of what to teach and when, you can- not always follow it for everyone. Some students have mastered that skill, but others may not even have the prerequisites needed to begin understand the concept. Like shapes, for instance. The pacing guide says to teach shapes for 10 days, but I have to keep coming back to shapes for some students. Others already knew it coming in to kindergarten, so I had to move on to what to do with shapes for them. I have to be constantly assessing. That doesn’t mean giving quizzes and tests—because if I did the tension would be so high the children might just cry! Instead, I use a lot of different formative assessments—observations, role play, conversations, counting objects. A checklist is what I use the most. I keep the checklists separated by Language Arts on one clipboard, Math on another, physical and social develop- ment on a third. The checklists have abbreviations of the kindergarten standards—like let- ter recognition, sight words, tracking words, answering questions, counting to 10. So when I observe a child making a rectangle from two triangles, I can quickly mark it off on my checklist and add the date when I observed this behavior. The one thing you can say about kindergarten, it’s never boring. I have to keep on my toes to adjust so that they are not bored because instruction is too easy or frustrated because it is too difficult.

We will be doing our 2nd quarter CFAs next week. This is a bit of a challenge, because we have to sit with each student individually and give a common probe (like a worksheet with pictures of objects to compare—all the kindergarten teachers have the same sheet). So I have to plan activities for my assistant to do with the class while I call children over individually or in a small group for the CFA. We can really only get away with doing this 30 minutes at a time, otherwise the class gets too hard to handle. I think I did a bit of overkill last quarter, so I am trying to be aware of the time and not have the assessments disrupt our schedule too much. Remember Isaiah? Well, he started mocking me last time we did the CFA. He grabbed one of my clipboards, put on a hat and oversized sunglasses from the dress up area, hovered a crayon over my precious checklist and said in a fierce voice, “Miss Melanie, stand on one foot!” It was funny at the time, but made me realize that I have to work at making the process less ominous for the students. I want these assessments to build confidence, not anxiety.

These teachers are describing a mish-mash of understanding of assessments. Some are describ- ing the use of assessments for learning, while others see the upcoming test as an assessment of learning, despite its original intent. This confusion is plausible however. The Common Forma- tive Assessments as used by this district can best be described as periodic, interim evidence collected over a long term, similar to what others may call progress monitoring, or benchmark assessments. The assessment itself seems to be a measure to see if the students are on track, or an assessment of learning. But the structure of how the test is administered (at least two weeks prior to the end of a unit) and how the results are used and analyzed by a PLC to organize learn- ing activities is a formative use, or an assessment for learning.

The teachers also described short-term (weekly or daily) collection of evidence, a more of a continuous f low of information that they use to target their instruction, or to get students to see what they could do to improve. Ingrid could use some assistance in organizing this form

(continued)

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz (continued)

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Cases From the Classroom Section 5.5

of assessment. Actually, they all could, so I posted some websites for them to look at. These included the following:

Don’t leave out the math—Phil Daro https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uyeebGEDtio My favorite no https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/class-warm-up-routine Fostering high quality formative assessment: A policy research brief produced by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/Journals/CC/0201-sep2010 /CC0201PolicyBrief.pdf Daily assessment of students with tiered exit cards https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/student-daily-assessment Inclusion and differentiated instruction: Teachers in the movies do it too https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6rEy3Lqfio 53 ways to check for understanding: Edutopia http://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/blogs/edutopia-finley-53ways-check-for-understanding.pdf Formative (informal) assessment strategies provided by American Federation of Teachers (AFT) http://www.aft.org/pdfs/teachers/teach11materials/t11_providingh3.pdf Wees, D. (2012). 56 different examples of formative assessment https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1nzhdnyMQmio5lNT75ITB45rHyLISHEEHZlHT WJRqLmQ/pub?start=false&loop=false&delayms=3000#slide=id.p Exemplars jigsaw student rubric http://www.exemplars.com/assets/files/puzzle.pdf

Emotionally, attitudinally, they are all looking forward to the holiday break! Not many com- plaints now—they all just seem to be hanging on.

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz (continued)

Discussion Questions

1. Lori, who has “no clue” how her students will do on the CFA, apparently needs some help in using classroom data to inform her teaching. Given her subject area (seventh- grade Language Arts), and suggestions offered by Dr. Z., what strategies for assess- ment for learning would you initiate?

2. Help Ingrid to understand how the district’s CFA can assist her instructional efforts. Given her current second-quarter goals, offer one suggestion for an appropriate forma- tive assessment strategy in Language Arts and in Math.

(continued)

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Summary & Resources

Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary

This chapter has explored the powerful role that assessment plays in 21st century class- rooms. While discussing the merits of both formative and summative assessments, we have advocated for a balanced system. Dufour and Eaker (1998) indicate that a balanced assess- ment system helps answer four questions:

1. What do we expect all students to be able to know and do? 2. How do we know if students are meeting the expectations? 3. What do we do if students are not meeting expectations? 4. What do we do if students exceed expectations?

Regarding formative assessment, we provided many examples of classroom-tested models to use with the entire class, with small groups of students and with individual students. For summative assessments, a distinction was made between those that were traditional and those that were alternative or authentic in nature and examples were given for when to use each format. Finally, we addressed a newer assessment reform, that of teachers using com- mon assessments and meeting in professional learning communities to engage in meaningful conversations regarding student learning, often with authentic student work being the cen- terpiece of those teacher-to-teacher discussions.

In Chapter 6, we will turn to the aspect of instruction. We will examine the questions “What classroom structures best support student learning?” and “What teaching strategies are evidence-based and most effective?”

3. Travis has organized a workable strategy for keeping up with the progress of his students and helping them evaluate their own learning more effectively. What other suggestions from the NCTE policy brief would you suggest he use as manageable strat- egies for formative assessment? (http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources /Journals/CC/0201-sep2010/CC0201PolicyBrief.pdf )

4. From your understanding of the relationship between standards, curriculum, and assessment of learning, what conditions should be in place for Jeff’s strategy of assess- ment for learning to work? What else would you advise that he pay attention to?

5. What advice would you give Melanie for developing assessments for learning that encourage and bring smiles to her kindergartners?

6. Discuss how and why formative assessment is considered assessment for learning, and why summative assessments are considered assessment of learning. What advice would you give these teachers to help them consider the advantages of each?

7. How does working within a PLC help these teachers use the results of common assess- ments as a vehicle for supporting student learning?

Discussion Questions (continued)

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Summary & Resources

Key Ideas

1. Assessment models have changed in 21st century classrooms, and assessment for learning is effective in helping teachers augment their knowledge regarding learner needs.

2. Formative assessments, due to their use during the instructional period, allow teach- ers to make mid-lesson changes to better address student learning needs.

3. In addition to traditional summative assessments (multiple-choice, true/false, matching), newer alternative ways are available to assess student learning at the conclusion of learning segments.

4. Teachers, working with other teachers in professional learning communities, are examining student work with one another in an effort to diagnose and remediate dif- ficulties in student learning.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Explain the difference between assessment of learning and assessment for learning. 2. Explain how and when formative assessments may be used in the classroom. 3. Explain how and when summative assessments may be used in the classroom. 4. Explain the benefits of teachers’ use of common assessments. 5. Analyze the PLC cycle, and explain how each component functions to assist

student learning.

Key Terms

anecdotal notes Notes written by teach- ers as they observe student learning. They may be written during a lesson, as students work in groups, or after the lesson has been completed.

common assessments Assessments that teachers of the same grade level or sub- ject agree to use to better discuss student achievement relative to content standards.

Every Pupil Response (EPR) A formative assessment strategy that allows all students to respond to every question that a teacher poses, thus cueing the teacher with feedback information while the lesson is being taught.

exit tickets or slips Written responses to questions the teacher poses at the end of a lesson or a class to assess student understanding.

hand signals A formative assessment that requires students to make some kind of movement to indicate level of understanding.

journals or logs A place for students to summarize ideas, experiences, and opinions before and after instruction.

labels or sticky notes An organizational system where teachers use a sheet of labels or a pad of sticky notes to make observa- tions on students while circulating through- out the classroom.

performance assessments Students dem- onstrate their knowledge through perfor- mances or creating products.

student conferences Private conversations between a teacher and an individual student.

technology-based audience participa- tion Students respond to teacher questions using one-to-one hand-held devices.

white boards Small, laminated, erasable boards that all students can easily use.

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Summary & Resources

Additional Resources

Readings

Ainworth, L., & Viegu, D. (2006). Common formative assessments: How to connect standards- based instruction and assessment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Bailey, K., & Jakicic, C. (2012). Common formative assessment: A toolkit for professional learn- ing communities at work. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

DiRanna, K., Osmundson, E., Topps, J., Barakos, L., Gearhart, M., Cerwin, K., Carnahan, D., & Strang, C. (2008). Assessment-centered teaching, a reflective practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Dodge, J. (2009). 25 quick formative assessments for a differentiated classroom. New York, NY: Scholastic.

Websites

Authentic Assessment: This presentation suggests that teaching and assessing the students requires focus on student understanding of fundamental concepts and real-life learning. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l5m66Y607U

Assessment in the Ideal School: This video envisions assessment in the ideal school of the future, considering how to pursue a competency-based approach to learning, given that exams still often focus on the student’s ability to memorize information, prob- lem solve on their own, and disallow the use of technology. http://www.youtube .com/watch?v=49nPa4ESyWk

How Differentiated Instruction and Formative Assessment Work at Forest Lake Elementary: This presentation shows how Forest Lake Elementary differentiates student learning by using technology tools, particularly stations where students learn at their own pace independently and work toward self-governing their learning. http://www .edutopia.org/stw-differentiated-instruction-learning-styles-video

Using Technology to Formatively Assess Our Students: This website shares numerous tools, such as QuizBreak, StudyBlue, and Survey Monkey, to assess students. http:// animoto.com/play/o1P3WQhCfjIGidDwVP3ZLA

Formative and Summative Assessment: This presentation uses animation to discuss formative and summative assessment. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u0nSW3W4MW0

Hands-on Performance Assessments: This website presents learning tools such as math manipulaties, like algebra tiles and base-ten blocks, and reading and science manip- ulatives that help connect children with valuable concepts in classrooms around the world. http://www.AssessmentServices-Edu.com

Assessment for Learning: Developed for education departments in Australia, this website presents the idea that the assessment tasks are not learning and teaching units, but suggests what learning needs to have taken place before students undertake the provided assessment tasks. http://www.assessmentforlearning.edu.au/default.asp

Intervention Central: This website provides teachers, schools, and districts with free resources to help struggling learners, implement Response to Intervention, and attain the Common Core State Standards. http://www.interventioncentral.org /homew

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