interview

What is Special Education? 1

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Pre-Test

1. You can use the terms disability and handicap interchangeably. T/F 2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F 3. The first American legislation that protected students with disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F 4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special education classrooms. T/F 5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

5Shaping Classroom Culture

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Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

• Explain what it means to manage a classroom and why classroom management is important.

• Describe effective strategies for managing the classroom.

• Identify effective management techniques.

• Describe the foundational approaches to management that have influenced later models.

• Differentiate between teacher-centered and student-centered classroom management approaches.

• Analyze the effect of creating a positive learning environment.

Section 5.1Understanding Classroom Management

The ideal environment would support children’s desire to find out about things, facilitate the process of discovery, and, in general, meet children’s needs.

—Alfie Kohn

If you are like most beginning teachers, you associate classroom management with student behavior. In particular, you probably think about misbehavior and how you will handle vari- ous incidents. To be concerned about managing student behavior is not unusual, particularly for beginning teachers. However, classroom management entails much more than respond- ing to student behavior. Rather, it encompasses the creation of a classroom environment that encourages positive social interactions: a true community of learners. The challenge of man- aging a classroom lies in balancing the needs of individuals with those of the group so that all members of the classroom community can grow and prosper.

In this chapter, you will learn what is involved in managing a classroom successfully. You will explore the relationship between instructional and managerial skills, and you will learn that many classroom problems can be averted by positive teacher attitudes and proactive strate- gies. You will also learn that, historically, a number of different management approaches have been proposed. Definitions and philosophies of management are often controversial and in conflict with each other.

Some might say that the goal of management is “to help children make informed choices to improve their behavior and to make life better for teachers” (Curwin, Mendler, & Mendler, 2008, p. 2). Conversely, others might say that it is often not the children who should be held at fault for their inappropriate behavior but instead teachers who should “reflect on what it is [they] want and whether it’s reasonable . . . and more generally, how the environment created by the adult might have contributed to a student’s response” (Kohn, 2006, pp. 12, 18). This chapter will explore the various philosophies and theories about what makes a well-managed learning environment, as well as how to succeed in the effort.

Teachers begin each year with a group of students who have divergent interests, strengths, abilities, and needs. Part of their job is to create a classroom culture that builds on students’ strengths, addresses their areas of need, and propels all students forward in their learning, ready for 21st-century citizenship. As discussed in Chapter 1, graduates with 21st-century skills can think through problems and be self-directed, yet collaborate with others. They are able to analyze information and make decisions that add value to any organization they might be employed by. So how does one create a positive classroom culture that can develop these types of skills? The first step is to begin thinking about how order and structure are created in the classroom.

5.1 Understanding Classroom Management Understanding what it means to manage a classroom begins with knowing its purpose. The reason for a well-managed classroom is not so that quiet prevails. It is not solely to main- tain your peace of mind, although this is an important consideration. Its purpose is not even to simply control student behavior. Managing a classroom effectively means creating those conditions that facilitate learning, whether it be for 5-year-olds or 50-year-olds, as well as

Section 5.1Understanding Classroom Management

enhancing the social and moral growth of students (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Effective teachers must understand the critical relationship between classroom management and a curriculum that engages, encourages, and motivates students.

At its core, classroom management refers to the teacher’s decisions and actions, as well as the set of procedures and systems that are put in place, intended to create an environment that encourages student learning. To illustrate this idea, imagine you are throwing a dinner party. Although you cannot control guests’ reactions to your preparations or their interac- tions with each other, you can come close to ensuring success by determining how you will best use the time, space, and materials at your disposal. For example, using your best china and silver will send a message that the meal may be somewhat formal, while paper napkins and plates along with the smell of hamburgers cooking will send a quite different message. If you hope that a few guests who are new to the group will feel welcomed, you might consider name tags on assigned seats or, instead, quietly asking one or two people known for their sociability to engage them in conversation.

The same is true when managing a classroom. In fact, much of classroom management takes place behind the scenes, before interaction with the class. This includes such things as decid- ing how desks or tables will be arranged, how students will write headings on their papers, or how students will work collaboratively or independently. As at the dinner party, there might be name tags or requests that new students be welcomed. There will also be many unplanned events that occur in the classroom, as well as on-the-spot decisions that will need to be made with your students. Having the procedures and processes in place to handle these instances with little difficulty is essential to being a successful teacher. Simply put, if students are run- ning amok in class and the room is filled with chaos, you will not be able to teach. More impor- tantly, your students will not be learning.

A Necessary Skill Being an expert in classroom management as a new teacher is a rarity. In fact, one of the major contributing factors to teacher burnout is the inability to manage the classroom (Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006; Hastings & Bham, 2003; McCormick & Barnett, 2011; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Managing behavior is a top issue in schools today, as dealing with increasingly high levels of student discipline problems leads to high rates of teacher turnover (Buckley, Schneider, & Shang, 2005; Eberhard, Reinhard-Mondragon, & Stottlemyer, 2000; McCormick & Barnett, 2011; National Education Association, 2003).

Managing a classroom involves making many decisions and requires exceptional organiza- tion; it is a skill that is developed over time. Investing the time to develop a sound classroom management plan is worth the effort and energy. To begin with, a well-managed classroom has a stronger focus on teaching and learning because distractions and discipline issues are minimal. Teachers and students, therefore, have increased opportunities to engage with one another. In fact, a meta-analysis of more than 100 studies identified high-quality interactions between students and the teacher as the most important aspect of classroom management. Classrooms with these high-quality relationships saw, on average, 31% fewer disciplinary issues over a school year than did classrooms lacking in high-quality relationships (Marzano, 2003). Additionally, students of well-managed classrooms outperformed those in classes that were not effectively run (Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003). Needless to say, effectively managing a classroom provides numerous benefits to both students and teachers.

Section 5.1Understanding Classroom Management

Challenges in Classroom Management Despite the numerous resources available on classroom management, choosing ways to man- age your classroom can still be a challenge. First of all, every teacher has a unique personal- ity. Teachers have different limits for the types of noise they can tolerate, preferences for the level of order desired, and expectations of how students are to behave and interact with one another. Second, many teachers, especially those new to the profession, are not sure what their management system is and are often so busy setting up their classrooms and learning the ins and outs of their new school that they have little time to think about their plan until it is needed. Often, this is the point when teaching and learning has stalled and the teacher is scrambling to rethink how things should operate. There are so many things to consider when teachers begin their careers that crafting a classroom management system often falls low on the priority list, when in fact it should be one of the first topics addressed. Note the use of the words “management system.” This indicates that a teacher’s approach to management should be planned and have specific ideas about how various issues and problems will be addressed. Underlying the system should be a philosophy about how and why those ideas have been chosen, indicating the kind of relationship the teacher wishes to maintain with the students. Having a well-managed classroom with clearly stated goals and philosophy will go far toward creating a successful learning environment.

However, there are general problems that any teacher, new or experienced, will face. Manning and Bucher (2013) explain that:

• Behavior problems challenge all teachers, regardless of the school, grade level, or geographic location.

• Behavior problems differ in frequency and intensity, yet they are similar in type. Although some schools do not experience any violence (albeit the threat continues to loom), all schools have some students who generally goof off and disturb others.

• Behavior problems disturb teachers and students, negatively affect the teaching and learning process, and ultimately hinder academic achievement. (p. 6)

Teachers who leave the profession after just 2 or 3 years often do so because management issues were much greater than they had expected and because they lacked the tools to deal with them. Consider this chapter a first step in gaining the necessary tools, and the Assess Yourself activity a first step in thinking about management in relation to your own teaching.

Assess Yourself 1. When you think about managing a classroom, what do you feel most confident about?

What are your biggest concerns? State carefully one possible way to deal with your greatest concern. Why do you think your solution will work? What challenges or obstacles could impede its success?

2. What can you do to prepare yourself to handle classroom management before you actually start working in a classroom?

3. Imagine your ideal classroom. What things would you want to see, hear, and sense? What could you teach students early on to help create this ideal learning environment?

Section 5.2Classroom Management Techniques: Teachers and Proactive Behavior

5.2  Classroom Management Techniques: Teachers and Proactive Behavior

The classic study of what effective teachers do when it comes to managing the classroom was published in 1970 by Jacob Kounin. Kounin’s research involved the analysis of numerous hours of videotaped segments from classrooms at various grade levels. Kounin observed that teachers who prepared and proactively managed their classrooms were far more effective in teaching and engaging students. Because of the impact of his work, some have called Kounin the “father of classroom management.” In this section, we will learn some of Kounin’s con- cepts that emphasize preventive approaches to managing the classroom.

Managing by Being “Withit” Jacob Kounin (1970) is known for introducing several helpful manage- ment concepts. Perhaps the best known is withitness. This term signi- fies a teacher’s awareness of what is going on in his classroom and the com- munication of this awareness to his students. Teachers most often commu- nicate their withitness in nonverbal ways, anticipating potential difficulties and warding off problems very quickly. Withit teachers act as if they have eyes in the back of their heads. For exam- ple, a withit teacher might go right on teaching when two students are chat- ting with each other, simply laying a hand on each desk as he walks by. In most instances in a well-managed classroom, this is the only action necessary to nip things in the bud.

Withit teachers also possess the ability to overlap, that is, to do more than one thing at a time. By “overlapping,” Kounin meant the teacher’s ability to handle two or more simultaneous events, or in today’s terminology, to multitask. For example, a teacher who can overlap can answer a student’s question and hand another student a hall pass without neglecting the first student. Situations continually arise in the classroom that call for the teacher to overlap.

Kounin (1970) also discovered that effective classroom managers are conscious of momen- tum and aim to achieve smoothness. Momentum refers to the rate or pace of the lesson, and smoothness involves the lesson’s flow. Teachers carefully watch students for signs of bore- dom or frustration and intervene appropriately. They must be aware of the lesson’s momen- tum and plan ahead for transitions, those times between lessons and activities when chaos can erupt if not planned for. Teachers can productively use transition time, either by giving warnings (e.g., “You have 2 minutes to complete this task”) or by preparing for the next task in advance (e.g., “Once you have turned in your math problems, take out your daily journal and enter today’s date and a sentence about what we did first this morning”).

Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock There are so many things to consider when teachers begin their teaching careers that crafting a classroom management system often falls low on the priority list, when in fact it should be one of the first topics addressed.

Section 5.2Classroom Management Techniques: Teachers and Proactive Behavior

As a way to enhance lesson smoothness, teachers can use group alerting. Group alerting includes what the teacher does to keep students on their toes. For example, teachers who wait to call on a particular student until after giving all students a chance to think about a question are using group alerting. In addition, a teacher who says, “Everyone look up here,” is also using group alerting as a way to focus the class’s attention.

Along with exhibiting specific behaviors, maintaining activity flow means that the teacher does not engage in certain behaviors. Kounin (1970) used some colorful terms for these behaviors. One such teacher behavior that leads to what Kounin called “jerkiness” is overdwelling, in which the teacher goes over the same point or direction repeatedly. When a teacher over- dwells, students lose interest, become frustrated, and may take advantage of opportunities to misbehave. Another teacher behavior to avoid is what Kounin labeled stimulus-boundedness. This occurs when the teacher is distracted by some external stimulus (e.g., the teacher may comment on something she sees in the hallway and thus cause the students to redirect their attention). A teacher who is stimulus bound is easily drawn off track; the result is confusion on the part of students.

Holding Students Accountable Kounin (1970) observed that, in a well-managed classroom, teachers hold students account- able for the work assigned. Emmer, Evertson, and Worsham (2000) present three ways teach- ers can promote greater student accountability. First, teachers should clearly communicate assignment expectations and requirements. This can be done both verbally and in writing. Directions must be clearly stated. It is also helpful to provide students with the grading crite- ria at the time an assignment is given.

Second, in order to hold students accountable, teachers should monitor their progress. Dur- ing class, this can be accomplished by circulating around the classroom and giving corrective feedback. For assignments completed outside the classroom, the teacher can monitor stu- dents’ work by scheduling progress checks.

Third, students are more accountable when teachers provide regular and prompt feedback. The importance of such feedback was described in Chapter 3 in our discussion of Skinner and behaviorism. Now we can see that it is important for both learning and behavior. When students know where they stand, what they are lacking, and how closely they have hit the mark, they are more motivated to perform. Note how this feedback mechanism already exists in most sports. For example, kids know immediately whether they have hit an archery target and can see where they need to aim next time. Teachers need to provide students with a simi- lar kind of feedback in order to keep them focused on learning tasks. They also need to help students learn how to self-evaluate.

An issue related to helping students be accountable is raised by Kohn (1996, p. 19) when he suggests that a key question to ask when students are off task is “What’s the task?” Sometimes students do not follow through with the work assigned because they do not see the purpose of it; they may perceive it as busy work or may question its relevancy. Thus, teachers should make sure that what they are asking students to do has value. Can they provide a reason for students to do what they are asked to do? Is the task itself interesting, relevant, and meaning- ful? If not, then teachers must recognize that students may not engage in the work.

Section 5.2Classroom Management Techniques: Teachers and Proactive Behavior

Also note that if students are held to a high level of accountability, they will usually rise to that level, but if students are not expected to perform well, they probably will not. This is true for both academics and for teachers as well as students. The foundational research leading to this finding came from the work of Albert Bandura (1993) on self-efficacy. When teachers have a strong belief in their capabilities, they tend to make greater efforts toward their students’ success. This leads to better student performance and the students’ beliefs in their own self- efficacy. Next, the teachers are encouraged by the students’ successes, believing even more strongly in their own self-efficacy, and the cycle continues.

Important to the self-efficacy theory is the idea that teachers have a willingness to persist in their efforts, to try new practices including better planning, organization, and professional commitment. Such attitudes on the part of teachers have been shown to lead to more positive student attitudes toward school. In other words, schools that implement processes to help students meet their high academic and behavioral expectations have high rates of academic success (Akey, 2006; Gambone, Klem, Summers, Akey, & Sipe, 2004). This means that every- one (including the teacher) should be held to high levels of expectation. This does not mean the same goals for everyone. For individual students, it may mean different expectations based on their individual capabilities. For teachers, it means not giving in to assumptions and stereotypes, instead, as Bandura would say, believing that all students can succeed to the best of their abilities, no matter what their backgrounds may be.

Take, for example, a recently admitted student. The principal tells the teacher that she is homeless, has not been in school for several months, and has attended five schools in the last 3 years. It is not out of the question to assume, at least initially, that this student will be below grade level and in need of support simply because she has not been in school. Whether this is true or not is not important. What is important is to give this student the respect, acceptance, and high expectations as well as the tools and support she needs. The messages that teachers communicate to students are important; they affect their self-image and ability to be suc- cessful. Conveying positive and high expectations in a classroom and school environment can affect students’ beliefs about themselves. In addition to having successful students in an aca- demic sense, schools with high expectations have lower rates of problem behaviors, including dropping out, alcohol and drug abuse, teen pregnancy, and delinquency (WestEd, 2008).

In the classroom, there are many ways that teachers can communicate high expectations from academic and behavioral standpoints. For instance, teachers should not accept students opt- ing out of participating in class or achieving success, regardless of students’ excuses. This approach is known as “no opt out” (Lemov & Atkins, 2010). Looking at “no opt out” from a behavioral standpoint, a teacher must ensure that students don’t have the option to behave inappropriately and provide accommodations to help them succeed. If teachers set high expectations, all students, even the ones with typically poor behavior, will eventually rise to them if proper supports are implemented.

A second way to communicate high expectations is called “right is right” and is about accept- ing things being partially right versus completely correct. This means that teachers should encourage students when they are on the right path and their answers are almost correct. The teacher can make statements that convey that students are closing in on the right answer or that she likes the work they have done so far (Lemov & Atkins, 2010). The same can be said of expected behaviors in the classroom. Teachers should compliment and acknowledge

Section 5.2Classroom Management Techniques: Teachers and Proactive Behavior

behaviors to let students know they are on the way to achieving the acceptable standard. Recall from Chapter 3 that this is known as “shaping.”

A third way to communicate high expectations, called “without apology,” describes the fact that we often inadvertently lower expectations by the way we talk about students and apolo- gize for having to set a rule or expectation. Holding students to high expectations requires no apology.

Planning the Physical Setting Think back to the dinner party described at the start of this chapter, with its advance environ- mental preparations so important for success. As we mentioned then, these preparations are as important in the classroom. While the physical environment was not a focus of Kounin’s study, a teacher can be proactive in this area as well, and such decisions about layout and décor will affect how students think and act. It might be said that the furniture even “talks,” telling students that they are to be quiet and listen to the teacher if the desks are placed in rows fac- ing the front, or, alternatively, telling them that they are expected to participate actively with each other if the desks are placed in groups of four or five. The younger the students, the more they are affected by layout. Kindergarten children, for example, need room between tables and centers to navigate their still-awkward bodies. They, and primary children as well, need frequently changing concrete materials that hold their attention, rather than a day filled with dreary pencil-and-paper drills (Slentz & Krogh, 2001).

All ages will respond to a colorful and friendly environment. Prints of professional artwork can provide enjoyment as well as a basis for study. Posting student artwork promotes an atmosphere of respect. While at the beginning of the school year it is the teacher’s responsi- bility to create a pleasant environment, turning that responsibility over to the students adds even more respect and fosters independent decision-making. In general, student-created art should be emphasized over beautiful, aesthetically pleasing work. In addition to student art- work, photos of the students, newspaper clippings that contain students’ names, and calen- dars of students’ birthdays make the room more personalized. Classroom space should be attractive and inviting. Students should feel welcome there.

For making decisions about the layout of the classroom, Emmer, Evertson, and Worsham (2000, pp. 2–3) provide the following five keys to good room arrangement:

1. Use a room arrangement consistent with your instructional goals and activities. 2. Keep high-traffic areas free of congestion. 3. Be sure students are easily seen by the teacher. 4. Keep frequently used teaching materials and student supplies readily accessible. 5. Be certain students can easily see instructional presentations and displays.

Some teachers ignore (or are unaware of ) these guidelines, and thus, through neglect, igno- rance, or oversight, they contribute to a poorly managed learning environment. Of the five keys, the first one is the most important. Your decisions about the look and feel of your class- room should be determined by what you are trying to accomplish. Thus, before arranging your classroom, you will need to think through your long-term goals for students. For exam- ple, a high school business education teacher who desires to prepare students for the work- place might decide to arrange her classroom to resemble an office. Similarly, a third-grade

Section 5.3Classroom Management Techniques: Rules and Procedures

teacher who wants students to learn how to work cooperatively and plans to use small groups frequently may place students’ desks in pods of four. And finally, a teacher at any grade level who wants to provide easy computer access for Internet research would set up the classroom so that computer usage could be monitored and so that those students on the computers would not disturb other students.

The major work of preparing your classroom takes place during the few days before students arrive. However, changes can and should be made throughout the year in response to stu- dents’ needs and on the basis of instructional changes. You should not view arranging your classroom as a onetime event. Whenever behavior problems arise, look for signs that the physical environment could be the source. It may be, for example, that arranging students in small groups has led to misbehavior on the part of some children. Placing desks in rows for a time―possibly a week or two―might be helpful in returning the class to better organization and calm.

5.3  Classroom Management Techniques: Rules and Procedures

Effective teachers implement a management system at the beginning of the school year. Rules and procedures are important components of any management system (Emmer, Evertson, & Worsham, 2000). Rules are clearly stated expectations that guide student behavior. If rules are unclear or fuzzy, or if they change from day to day, students are likely to push or test the limits. Rules can be established by the teacher, or by the students with guidance from the teacher. Research offers the helpful information that “students are much more likely to adhere to a set of rules that they helped establish than those they perceive are forced on them” and that “it is important to explain the classroom standards clearly and state the rea- sons for them” (Bradley, Pauley, & Pauley, 2006, p. 37). During group learning, rules also pro- tect students from harm (both physical and psychological) and assist in the smooth operation of the class so that learning can result.

When developing rules, with or without participation from the students, teachers should cre- ate a small number (generally three to five), phrase them clearly, and use positive statements (i.e., state what students should do rather than what not to do). Once decided upon, the rules should be posted where they can be seen by everyone and easily referred to. Younger students will need opportunities to practice the rules. As an example, the class might have established a rule that asks everyone to line up for recess quietly. Practicing once or twice immediately following the rule’s creation will prove helpful later when it is time for recess, because other- wise, children might be too excited about going outside to think about appropriate behavior.

Procedures are routines for accomplishing tasks, making efficient use of time and space. Think about everything that happens in the classroom on a daily basis. Procedures range from how students enter the classroom and how homework is collected, to how students ask for help or how permission is granted to go to the nurse’s office. Students must master learning classroom procedures just as they master subject matter material. Thus, procedures, like anything else in a classroom, must be taught and reviewed regularly. Research has dem- onstrated that “fewer behavior problems occur in classrooms that adhere to established rou- tines” (Bradley et al., 2006, p. 37).

Section 5.3Classroom Management Techniques: Rules and Procedures

Keeping It Clear and Simple Advance thought and planning, with buy-in from the students, will be well worth the time devoted to it, because “ultimately more time can be devoted to teaching and learning” (Brad- ley et al., 2006, p. 37). Part of the classroom management system is to create procedures and systems that make classroom expectations clear, so it is important to be transparent and suc- cinct about what they are. Expectations must be meaningful, relevant, and connected to the work in the classroom. Having rules and procedures that are clear and well thought out reduces wasted time and allows everyone in the classroom to work efficiently. One of the key characteristics of a well-managed classroom is that “there is relatively little wasted time, con- fusion or disruption” (Wong, 1991, p. 89).

Of course, having a set of rules or procedures that covers every classroom misbehavior or dis- ruption is unreasonable and impossible: “Just as the list of behavior problems is nearly end- less, the effects of misbehaviors are also limitless” (Manning & Bucher, 2013, p. 6). Something unexpected will always come up in the classroom, often with unique consequences. Simplicity is key to remembering your classroom management system well enough to be able to adapt it in the face of unexpected events. Simplicity is even more important for students. It will ensure that they remember expectations, rules, and procedures. As an example of what doesn’t work,

take the complicated directions that come with new technology or an appli- ance. Few people ever read them, and most of us try to figure things out as we go. It is only when we stumble or get hopelessly lost that we read directions, search for answers online, or ask for assistance. The point is, we rarely read directions or follow procedures when they are not short, simple, and eas- ily accessible. The same is true in the classroom. The list of rules should be easily manageable and simple enough to explain in a couple of minutes. The rules must be reasonable, positively worded, enforceable, and integrated into your classroom systems (Burden, 2006; Grossman, 2004; Kerr & Nelson, 2006; Maag, 2004).

As an example of how rules can be made to work, let’s assume a class of

second graders. It is the beginning of the year, the teacher is new, and the children have just now graduated from the K–1 playground to the field that the big kids use. The teacher gath- ers the class together and prepares the children for this new and more grown-up playground they are about to enter. She asks them, “What do you know about a good way to go to the playground?” Responses might include:

• We should all line up quietly. • In first grade, if we were noisy we had to go to the end of the line.

Cusp/Cusp/Superstock Something unexpected will always come up in the classroom, often with unique consequences. Simplicity is the key to remembering your classroom management system well enough to be able to adapt it in the face of unexpected events.

Section 5.3Classroom Management Techniques: Rules and Procedures

“Great,” responds the teacher. “Those are the only two rules we need. What about coming back in?” The children look a little confused. They’re really not ready to think that far ahead. So, the teacher continues, “When it’s time to come in, I’ll blow this whistle three quick times.” She gives a brief demonstration. Hands now go up:

• I guess we should line up quietly all over again. • And go to the end of the line if we fool around.

Now there are just two rules for leaving and two for coming back. “We can write them down later,” says the teacher. “Since it’s our first time, let’s just see how well your rules work. Good job thinking of some helpful choices!”

Another piece of important advice is to know yourself and what you can and cannot handle in the classroom. Many classrooms are poorly managed because teachers do not take enough time thinking through their own needs. Do you like to have a lot of movement in the class- room, with students walking around and working with other students? Do you prefer to have a quiet room? Do you want students to ask for permission to use the restroom? How do you want homework passed out or turned in? Who should be in charge of these things: teacher or students? It is important to know what keeps you calm, collected, and able to function, thereby helping you and your students succeed. Many teachers react in the moment and change rules and procedures because they have not thought through what they needed. Perhaps the sec- ond-grade teacher in the example has already determined that she will have the class line up quietly and that misbehavers will go to the end of the line. Not wanting to chance the children thinking of inappropriate suggestions, she doesn’t engage them in dialogue but simply informs them of the rules. She may include the children in such decision-making another time. The time it takes to reflect on your own needs will save time down the road. Benjamin Franklin perhaps stated it best when he said, “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.”

Using Appropriate Methods Rules work best when they make sense to students and to the teacher and when they are explicit with no possibility of misinterpretation. The same can be said for having a list of consequences. Rules can serve as a mechanism to build cohesion and community among stu- dents and teachers, particularly when students have had input in their construction (Henley, 2006). When students know they can rely on fair and equal treatment, they will more readily accept and respect the rules.

Reconsider Punishment In the past, the most frequent response teachers had to behavior problems was punishment. In recent years, the use of punishment has been widely criticized (Gordon, 1989), although, as discussed in Chapter 3, B. F. Skinner had unkind things to say about it decades ago. Kohn (2006) challenges teachers to consider the messages sent to students about learning when punishment is the method of correction. He suggests that teachers need to examine why they use punishment. Among the reasons that he outlines are the following:

• Punishment is expedient—it’s fast and easy (for the teacher). • Teachers may know no other strategies. • The use of punishment makes teachers (and other adults) feel powerful.

Section 5.3Classroom Management Techniques: Rules and Procedures

According to Kohn (2006), one of the primary reasons why teachers use punishment is because they falsely think that it is the only choice, that “until we have made the wrongdoer suffer, we haven’t really taken any action” (p. 31). There is no reason, Kohn argues, to think that punishment will ever be “effective at helping students to become caring, responsible members of a community” (p. 32). A problem-solving approach, on the other hand, not only helps offenders learn better behavior, but also fosters the building of a classroom community.

Favor Natural and Logical Consequences When teachers view rule enforcement as a teachable moment, they are more likely to use nat- ural or logical consequences instead of punishment. A punishment is discipline imposed by an external authority; a natural consequence is something that occurs naturally as a result of behavior. In many situations, natural consequences already exist in the students’ worlds, thus making the concept easily understood. For example, if a student fixes dinner while wearing nice clothes, a natural consequence might be that her clothes become soiled. Or perhaps the student makes an unkind remark to another child. The natural consequence of this behavior, perhaps, would be the other child’s unwillingness to interact again with the student who hurt his feelings. In other words, the unpleasant consequence can be thought of as a type of natural punishment, leading to an avoidance of these acts in the future.

Natural consequences can be distinguished from logical consequences, which are defined as “situations where the consequence is, in effect, arranged by the parent or another adult rather than being solely the result of the child’s own acts” (Dreikurs & Grey, 1968, p. 65). In order for the consequence to be effective, the student must experience it as logical in nature. In fact, Wong and Wong (1998) emphasize that students cooperate more readily when they understand that consequences logically follow behavior. For example, should a student leave a messy work station in science lab, the logical consequence would be for her to clean up the area.

According to some education writers, teachers should follow three guidelines when selecting consequences (MacKenzie & Stanzione, 2010; Nelsen, Lott, & Glenn, 2000):

1. The consequence should be related to the behavior. 2. The consequence should be reasonable. 3. The consequence should be delivered in a respectful manner.

When consequences are related, students see the connection between what they have done and its outcome. For example, if a student leaves paper on the floor, a related consequence would be to pick up the trash. Teachers can formulate reasonable consequences by mak- ing sure their decisions do not seem arbitrary to students. In addition, consequences that are respectful are administered in a way that does not seem overly harsh; respectful conse- quences have well-defined beginnings and endings (MacKenzie & Stanzione, 2010).

Another way to ensure that consequences are respectful is to be sure that they are not viewed by the students as punishments, which could so easily happen. If everyone—teacher and stu- dents alike—views the classroom as a community, then consequences are simply a step in repairing a problem or restoring a positive atmosphere. And everyone is responsible for this. For example, if paint is spilled from a kindergarten easel, the child who did it knows it is his

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

responsibility to clean up the mess. If this happens in a highly functioning community, other nearby children would offer to help. And if the classroom has been efficiently set up, the nec- essary clean-up materials would be near at hand. As a second example, two middle school girls might have engaged in a quarrel that includes loudly interrupting each other. In this case, the teacher begins to realize that the class rule “Be respectful of one another” is perhaps too vague. In this case, she would work with the students to define the problem and create a solu- tion that would be satisfactory to them both. Together they might decide to refine the rule to be “Listen as much as you speak.”

Deciding on the consequences of inappropriate behavior (the middle school argument) or unintended mistakes (the easel mess) is a part of creating rules. It is also the case that these two experiences offer two different examples of rulemaking. In the example of the easel spill, the teacher, with the children’s help, no doubt created a rule for clean-up at the beginning of the school year. Thus, there are no questions about what to do when mishaps occur. The middle school disagreement, however, leads to the need for in-the-moment rule creation. The general rule for being respectful doesn’t fit every occasion, including this one. Now, the two students and teacher will need to refine the rule to meet the current problem. They can later take the situation to the class as a whole for agreement or further refinement.

As discussed earlier, students have more ownership of rules that they help create (Scherer, 2008). The same is true in deciding on consequences, and part of teaching children to create rules is teaching them what consequences would be most appropriate. The latter is actually a more difficult process, particularly for younger children. This is an important reason for keeping rules to no more than three to five. If we use the same two examples again, we can see that a simple consequence for making messes will be to clean them up, and the consequence for fighting will be to create a satisfactory resolution, possibly with accompanying apologies. In both cases, rules and their consequences as created by teacher and students together will lead to the creation of a well-functioning community of learners.

5.4 Models for Classroom Management Since Jacob Kounin’s groundbreaking research of the 1960s and 1970s, much educational energy has been expended searching for ways to package management approaches in such a way that teachers would have answers to problem behaviors and students would have clear- cut rules to follow. In some cases, it was deemed necessary for an entire school to buy into an approach, one that was often accompanied by (usually expensive) training. Such models of classroom management or instructional practice are generally classified in one of two major categories: teacher-centered or student-centered. The distinction between the two catego- ries often refers to how decisions are made and how authority is exhibited in the classroom. In the first instance, discipline is imposed on the students with the teacher providing some sort of negative consequence for misbehavior. In the second instance, the focus is on teach- ing the students to create their own discipline. Descriptions of some of the most well-known models follow. Before reading about them, think back for a moment to the kindergarten easel and middle school examples. Which of the two approaches (teacher-centered or student- centered) do these examples seem to follow? If you are unsure, be sure to rethink this ques- tion at the end of this section.

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

Teacher-Centered Models Teacher-centered pedagogy occurs when the teacher assumes primary responsibility for com- municating knowledge to students (Mascolo, 2009). From this view, teachers are the central focus in the classroom; they determine rules and procedures and how instruction takes place. They are the dominant leaders who create and enforce classroom rules and who structure learning by providing the time allotment and method for task completion (Hancock, Bray, & Nason, 2003). In short, the teacher’s needs prevail in the teacher-centered classroom. Com- munication is typically one-way—from teacher to student. Students depend on the teacher for discipline direction. The teacher’s goal is student compliance.

Assertive Discipline Assertive Discipline is a teacher-centered classroom management strategy originally devel- oped by Lee Canter. This strategy focuses primarily on rewards and consequences in the classroom, but also on catching students being good. The premise of this model is to pro- actively deal with issues, meaning that teachers should establish classroom rules and pro- cedures before the school year begins, and then communicate them to students. The think- ing behind this strategy is that it is essential for students to understand exactly what will happen when they misbehave. By beginning the year with defined rules and consequences, teachers can clearly convey their expectations and focus on teaching, rather than deciding on consequences as issues emerge (Canter & Canter, 2001). They must be persistent in stating classroom expectations and recognize the responsibility they have to themselves and their students (Canter, 1976). Teachers must also reward or compliment appropriate behavior and point out inappropriate behavior. (This approach, of course, will be handled differently depending on the age and diversity of your students. What works with 6-year-olds may not work with a class of high school seniors!)

Canter’s model states that students and teachers have rights in the classroom. Teachers have the right to teach and to expect appropriate behavior in the classroom. Students have the right to expect support from their teacher and help minimizing inappropriate behavior. There are four main components of the Assertive Discipline model:

1. establishing a set of consistent, firm, and fair rules; 2. developing a set of positive consequences; 3. developing a set of negative consequences to use when rules are broken; and 4. creating a plan for implementing the model with students. (Canter & Canter, 2001)

Canter and Canter also suggest that the classroom discipline plan should have no more than five consequences, and they recommend implementing classroom rules such as these:

1. The first time a student breaks a rule, the student is warned; 2. The second infraction brings a 10-minute timeout; 3. The third infraction, a 15-minute timeout; 4. The fourth time a student breaks a rule, the teacher calls the parents; 5. The fifth time, the student goes to the principal. (2001, p. 58)

Again, these rules will differ depending on the age and diversity of the students.

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

Positive Classroom Discipline Fred Jones, a clinical psychologist, developed the Positive Classroom Discipline method. Through his research, he observed that teachers lost almost half of their instructional time because students were off task and disruptive. He believed that there were four management methods which, when used together, would help teachers and students succeed:

1. Classroom structure, such as seating arrangements, 2. Limit-setting techniques, such as body language and eye contact, 3. Responsibility training through incentives, and 4. Backup systems. (Jones, 1987)

The backup system refers to the series of teacher responses designed to meet force with force, and it is essential to know what steps you will take when met with resistance from a student. For example, first a warning might be issued, then a private conference held with that student, and afterwards a loss of privileges or a trip to the office.

Jones describes two types of rules that are taught in the classroom. The first type are general rules, which reflect the teacher’s goals, hopes, or wishes. These rules focus on good behavior and work habits. The second type are specific rules, which outline what teachers want students to do and when. These rules generate behavior and should be mastered in the first few weeks of school.

There are a number of other tips Jones mentions that can reduce classroom issues. Teachers’ use of effective body language, signals, eye contact, and physical proximity to students can reduce many disruptions. For example, during a direct instruction lesson, the teacher might note two students paying little to no attention because they are involved with passing whis- pered messages to each other. If the class is a generally well-ordered one, it may be neces- sary only to stand between the two whisperers and continue teaching with no interruption. If needed, the teacher can talk with the students later, but, for now, physical proximity is all that is needed. Interestingly, the technique just described can be as effective with 7-year-old second graders as with high school seniors.

Implementing an incentive system and rewarding students for positive behavior can mini- mize student discipline issues as well. Providing individual assistance and support in a timely and efficient manner helps students improve their behavior and complete more work. Lastly, having an effective backup plan is key, because not everything always goes as planned in the classroom.

Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock Positive discipline techniques can improve all aspects of the learning process.

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

Student-Centered Classroom Management Models In the teacher-centered model, students are generally perceived as passive participants in the classroom, and the needs of the teacher are thought to come first. In contrast, the stu- dent-centered classroom focuses on the needs of the student. Students are actively engaged in making decisions in the classroom, including those about rules and procedures, and they have a level of ownership in their learning. In a student-centered classroom, students participate and construct their learning in an encouraging environment. The movement from teacher- to student-centered is a gradual progression of building trust and develop- ing shared responsibility for the management of the classroom. This type of classroom bal- ances the needs of the teacher and the learner (Freiberg & Lamb, 2009). Communication is very fluid and allows student voices to help guide the classroom in its creation of a learning community.

Love and Logic Charles Fay developed the Love and Logic model with the premise that children are unique individuals and need to feel loved and respected. This student-centered model focuses on teaching students responsibility and respect with the expectation that if students feel loved and are provided with sufficient choices, they will become responsible citizens with appro- priate behaviors.

As originally conceived, Love and Logic was designed as an approach to parenting, with tips for raising children in their toddler years all the way through their teens. When adapted for the classroom, Love and Logic takes into account the influence of parenting that students bring with them. Three different parenting styles can affect the way children learn and experi- ence the world, including their classroom (Fay, 2007). The first type is the consultant parent, who guides and consults with her children and models the completion of jobs and how to feel pride in accomplishments. The second type is the helicopter parent, who protects her children from negative feelings and makes decisions for them. Lastly, the drill sergeant dictates what her children should do and tells them how to handle responsibility. As you can imagine, each of these parenting styles has implications for how students take responsibility for their work in the classroom. For example, you might expect that children who grew up with helicopter parents who protected them from hearing negative feedback might react very differently to a teacher who provides constructive feedback than would a child who grew up with consul- tant parents. See Case in Point: Student Perspectives on Parenting Types for some more insight from real students on the different types of parents.

Two key concepts guide the Love and Logic model. One concept is that children will develop the ability to problem solve on their own when the adults around them model effective prob- lem-solving skills and when they are given the power to think about and solve the problems they encounter. The primary goal of the model is to provide parents and educators with prac- tical strategies to reduce children’s behavioral issues, increase their motivation, and help them develop tools that enable lifelong responsibility and resiliency (Fay, 2005). The second concept encourages teachers to respond to each problem individually because every situation is unique. Rather than keeping a list of rules and consequences, teachers set up and share classroom expectations. Examples of this include “Feel free to do anything that does not cause a problem for anyone else,” “I listen to students who raise their hand,” and “Please treat me with the same respect I treat you” (Fay, 2007, p. 2).

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

Case in Point: Student Perspectives on Parenting Types Sarah and Kate are two 16-year-olds with very definite, as well as similar, observations of the effects of the three kinds of parenting on their classmates.* Here is what they had to say about each:

• The consultant parent: In a kid’s eyes, this can be the ideal parent because life is “more free.” However, the parent can become a “push-over parent,” and children think they can get away with anything. Kate describes one 16-year-old who “pitches a fit” in class when he doesn’t get his way. Sarah notes that consultant parents sometimes sound as if they’re talking baby talk, a special embarrassment for boys.

• The helicopter parent: Sarah describes one parent who hovers over her daughter, guid- ing her into the fields that she herself tried, but failed, to become accomplished in: beauty pageants, chorus, fencing. If the student doesn’t like a grade she receives, she brings in her mother to argue with the teacher. Mostly, says Kate, the girl “sits there looking smug,” assuming that everything will go her way.

• The drill sergeant parent: Kate believes that children of drill sergeants are “huge atten- tion seekers” because the parents are more interested in their own interests and needs than in those of their children. Thus, in school they look to their peers for attention, per- haps “acting stupid” or becoming “the class clown.”

All children must negotiate what life offers them, including the parents they are assigned. Fre- quently, they bring their home-life coping techniques to school with them, as demonstrated by each of the students Kate and Sarah described.

*The students are real, as are the interviews, but the girls’ names have been changed.

Question to Consider

1. How do you think you would handle the behaviors of the three students if they were in your classroom?

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Conflict Resolution Another classroom management model that is used to effectively manage behavior is called conflict resolution. This model focuses on teaching students the skills they need to effectively resolve differences and conflicts and to become effective problem solvers before issues become too difficult. Teachers develop a classroom environment conducive to constructive conflict. There is a wide variety of models that fall under the heading of conflict resolution, including pro- grams such as Peaceable Schools, Teaching Students to be Peacemakers, violence preven- tion, and violence reduction.

uwe umstätter/imagebr/imageBROKER/Superstock Effective classroom management includes letting children work out difficult issues on their own as much as possible.

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

The premise of the conflict resolution model is the belief that classrooms are places to learn problem-solving skills and that conflict, while inevitable, can have positive outcomes if man- aged constructively. The approach, Teaching Students to be Peacemakers (TSP) (Johnson & Johnson, 2005), focuses on five steps:

1. Students learn what is and is not considered conflict. 2. They learn how to negotiate conflicts. 3. They mediate conflicts between classmates. 4. Teachers select specific students to be mediators who help other students navigate

conflicts in the classroom. 5. Continued training is provided throughout the year.

These methods do not supplant the need for school rules, but they place the onus for solving classroom issues on students. A second approach to conflict resolution contains eight steps (Beane, 2000):

1. Cool down. Don’t try to resolve conflict when angry. 2. Describe the conflict. Each student gets a turn. 3. Describe the cause of the conflict. Each student identifies the events. 4. Describe the feelings raised by the conflict. Each student gets a turn. 5. Listen carefully and respectfully while the other person talks. 6. Brainstorm solutions to the conflict. No one can make fun of others’ ideas. 7. Try your solution. 8. If one solution does not get results, try another. Brainstorming can continue until an

acceptable solution is found. (p. 43)

In addition to the four models just described, there are numerous other models for teachers to choose from based on their preference for teacher-centered or student-centered approaches. Teachers at the same school might make use of different systems, as in Case in Point: Con- flicting Views of Management Approaches. Table 5.1 provides an overview of the differences between teacher-centered and student-centered classrooms.

Table 5.1: Differences between teacher-centered and student-centered classrooms

Teacher-centered management Student-centered management

Teacher’s needs take priority. Balance between teacher and student needs.

Teacher develops the rules and procedures and shares them with the class.

Students have input into the rules and procedures.

Students depend on the teacher for discipline. While students still depend on the teacher for discipline, greater reliance is on student ownership of behavior.

Rewards and consequences are clearly delineated. Rewards and consequences are present, but children are encouraged to develop the ability to problem solve on their own.

Changes to rules and procedures are made by the teacher.

Students are part of the process when rules and procedures are changed.

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

Case in Point: Conflicting Views of Management Approaches One popular way in which teachers reward good behavior is to catch their students being good by dropping marbles into a jar when it seems an appropriate time for praise. Once the jar is full, the class has a popcorn or pizza party. Hannah is a new teacher, and she loved finding out about this idea. With great enthusiasm, she introduced the idea to her third graders, and they responded with equal enthusiasm. Several days had gone by when Jackie, the third-grade teacher next door, said to Hannah, “Are you really manipulating your children’s behavior with marbles and parties? My kids are talking about it on the playground, and they’re really upset with me because I refuse to stoop to such tricks.”

Hannah was both taken aback and embarrassed. She had heard the idea from a very experi- enced and respected teacher, and now, here was another well-thought-of teacher criticizing her. Rather defensively, she told Jackie where the idea had originated, and then was a bit sur- prised to be asked, “Well, what are you trying to achieve then? And why do you think it will work?” Hannah was now even more embarrassed because she just wanted to do a good job teaching and have a good learning atmosphere. Jackie laughed then and apologized for putting Hannah on the spot. “Let’s have lunch together in my room tomorrow,” she suggested. “We’ll discuss where those ideas come from, and then you can decide what you really want to do with those marbles.”

Questions to Consider

1. Look back through the four models just presented (Assertive Discipline, Positive Classroom Discipline, Love and Logic, conf lict resolution). Which one(s) do you think most closely fit what Hannah has been doing this week? Explain why and how.

2. Do you think you would respond the same way that Hannah did if your methods were questioned by another teacher? Why or why not?

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School-Wide Models Any of the four models might be adopted by an individual teacher or by an entire school. It is sometimes argued that, to be effective, a management system should be adopted by the school’s full faculty to be successful. In that way, when children move from one grade to the next they understand what behaviors are expected of them, as well as the consequences of misbehaving. In addition, when classrooms work together on such things as projects or holiday performances, teachers can function more smoothly as a team. It may well be that, when you are hired to teach, the school will have enrolled in just such a school-wide system. Deciding to take a position will, in part, involve your own philosophy about management; do you feel comfortable buying into the school’s management program? If not, is this a job you should actually take?

Two of the best-known school-wide systems are based on slightly different theoretical foun- dations. Although that is the case, they are similar enough that there are some schools that have successfully integrated the two approaches (Responsive Classroom, n.d.). The system known as the Responsive Classroom is based largely on constructivist theory, though it bor- rows from other approaches as well. The second system, Positive Behavioral Interventions

Section 5.4Models for Classroom Management

and Supports (most commonly called PBIS), with its origins in special education, is based to a greater extent on behaviorist theory, although it too borrows from other approaches. Despite their basic philosophical differences, teachers and consultants from the two approaches can and do work together. More typically, however, a school will choose to adopt a single program: either Responsive Classroom or PBIS. As each is described, keep in mind that it is more all- inclusive than a simple management or discipline system.

Responsive Classroom Responsive Classroom describes itself as “a research- and evidence-based approach to elementary education that is associated with greater teacher effectiveness, higher student achievement, and improved school climate” (Responsive Classroom, n.d.a, para. 1). Begun in the 1990s by the Northeast Foundation for Children (NEFC), Responsive Classroom takes the position that students learn best when they interact with others and, therefore, social and emotional growth is as much a part of classroom learning as academics. Practices include social experiences such as the daily “Morning Meeting,” opportunities to make academic choices, and physically rearranging the classroom to meet children’s learning needs. Children participate in making rules and discussing consequences of not following them. Coopera- tion, responsibility, and accountability are all qualities that are seen as important to foster (Responsive Classroom, n.d.b).

PBIS PBIS, like Responsive Classroom, is designed to incorporate social learning with academics. However, it is focused on management, behavior, and discipline rather than on the full learn- ing experience, and it addresses all grade levels rather than only elementary school. The PBIS model consists of a three-tiered framework.

Tier I is a universal approach to behavior in which preventive measures are introduced to an entire class or school. The concept is that discipline is easier to achieve if dealt with in advance rather than as remediation. PBIS research has demonstrated that about 80% of dis- ciplinary measures can typically be dealt with at Tier I. Steps taken in Tier I include achiev- ing commitment of the entire school staff to behavioral expectations and teaching children those expectations through direct instruction, including modeling behaviors for all the vari- ous rooms and areas of the school building. During the introduction of expectations and ini- tial experiences, teachers observe which children might not be easily reached through simple Tier I instruction. Observational data include the number of times a student might have been referred to the office for misbehavior. These children are targeted for Tier II and are provided with increased supervision outside the classroom, daily monitoring, or increased feedback for behavior. There might also be home-school intervention.

In exceptionally difficult situations, Tier III is put into place with its intensive individualized interventions. At this stage, references to special education may be called for. It is expected that, when a student is designated for Tier III intervention, it is because his or her behavior is dangerous, chronic, or highly disruptive, or it impedes the learning of self and others. School- wide PBIS programs have demonstrated improved behavior as well as higher academic per- formance (Portland Public Schools, 2011).

Section 5.5A Positive Learning Community

5.5 A Positive Learning Community Although there are some management systems such as PBIS that focus their attention specifi- cally on behavior, there are others, such as Responsive Classroom, that take a broader view. In this broader view, positive behavior is one element in the creation of a community of learn- ers or classroom community. In general, a classroom community is defined as a group of students and a teacher who work together to build a sense of trust, care, and support: “[I]t is a place in which students feel cared about and are encouraged to care about each other. They experience a sense of being valued and respected; the children matter to one another and to the teacher” (Kohn, 2006, p. 101). A classroom climate, on the other hand, can be broadly defined as the classroom’s social, intellectual, and physical environment in which students learn (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, & Lovett, 2010). Teachers and students alike want and hope for a positive climate in which to create a true learning community:

While providing students with opportunities to learn and interact in a humane, respectful, and psychologically safe learning environment, teachers want a safe and supportive community that promotes harmony and interper- sonal relations among students and reflects positive verbal interactions. Such a school community provides teachers and students with opportunities to express opinions, listen to others with empathy, and support others in a non- threatening situation. (Manning & Bucher, 2013, p. 258)

A positive climate or learning environment is a crucial component of student learning, one that prepares children of any age for the lives they will have as citizens of a 21st-century democracy. Students thrive when they feel supported, engaged, nurtured, and challenged in the classroom (Church, 2006; Uline & Tschannen-Moran, 2008). Fostering a positive learn- ing environment cannot simply be planned and implemented in some mechanistic fashion. Classrooms that progress from a basic classroom to a community of learners embrace collab- orative cultural practices, shared values, and an explicit focus on learning together (Rogoff, 2003). The central principle of learning as a community is learning in a collaborative way where there is shared ownership and involvement (Watkins, 2005). Educators whose man- agement focus includes this wider view of community learning believe that such an approach leads to better behavior when everyone shares in the community’s creation.

What are the strategies that help develop a collaborative classroom culture with high stu- dent engagement? To begin with, high student engagement is positively correlated with teacher support (Akey, 2006; Garcia-Reid, Reid, & Peterson, 2005). Research has shown that the teacher is the most important factor in terms of student achievement (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004). It is important to get to know your students and understand their backgrounds. Being sensitive to your students’ cultures and understanding their inter- ests goes a long way toward developing a relationship with them. Students who feel that their teachers care for and support them are more engaged and involved in the classroom, which translates to academic success (Akey, 2006; Heller, Calderon, & Medrich, 2003). If these results sound like common sense, you are on the right track. For example, take a current or former workplace. If you have ever had a boss who cared about and connected with you, you were probably happier at work than if you had a boss you felt disconnected from and who did not take the time to get to know you. If you feel happy at work, you are also probably more productive. After all, no one likes to spend most of the day in an unhappy environment. The same is true at school.

Section 5.5A Positive Learning Community

Students will flourish in an atmosphere where risk-taking is supported and where they can try something new. Students need to know it is safe to explore a new way of understanding a problem or tackle a topic that is out of their comfort zone. Often, students are afraid to fail because the expectation is to succeed and get things right. As a society, we reward success even though we know that every great achievement was preceded by many missteps. It is believed that Thomas Edison failed more than 1,000 times in his attempt to create the light bulb. Can you imagine if he had quit after the first or second try, or even the hundredth? When students fail, they must be supported and encouraged to try again. Teachers should minimize the pain of making an error and ensure that school is a safe place to make mistakes and learn from them. Support for both successes and failures creates trust between teachers and students.

Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the importance of teacher expectations for making a dif- ference in student behavior and academic accomplishment. One effective strategy for holding expectations is encouragement. By using encouragement, teachers express belief in the stu- dent’s ability to improve. Encouraging statements focus on the process more than the product; praise statements, on the other hand, stress the product (i.e., what the student has done). For example, the words of encouragement “I can tell that you have been practicing your Spanish” send the message to students that you value their efforts and reinforce their focus and atten- tion on future behavior. Additionally, words of encouragement are less judgmental and con- trolling. When teachers use encouragement, they can influence student behavior in positive ways. For example, the teacher who says, “I know you will make the right choice about how to act while we watch a video” is more effective than the one who states, “I doubt your ability to sit still and listen during the program.” As you think about assuming the role of teacher, you can look for opportunities to send messages of encouragement to others now. This ability will serve you well in the classroom as you interact with students and their families.

Bullying In recent years, management models and approaches have come up against the need to deal with the increasing problem of bullying, both direct and indirect. The latter, which is engaged in by everyone but more often by girls, includes rejecting, terrorizing, defaming, humiliating, blackmailing, rating personality or physical characteristics, manipulating friendships, ostra- cizing, and peer pressure. Direct bullying, somewhat more popular with boys, might include physical acts such as punching, poking, strangling, hair pulling, beating, and biting and verbal assaults such as name calling and teasing. Most recently, cyberbullying has been added, in which hurtful information, threats, and insults are inflicted through the use of social technol- ogy (Manning & Bucher, 2013). As Manning and Bucher note, “Whether direct or indirect, the key component of bullying is that the physical or psychological intimidation occurs repeat- edly over time to create an ongoing pattern of harassment and abuse” (p. 22).

Understanding bullying is important, but knowing ways to curb bullying is even more impor- tant. Manning and Bucher (2013) suggest that educators, in general, should

• Be warm, positive, and caring; • Set firm limits on acceptable behavior; • Apply nonhostile and nonphysical sanctions consistently on offenders; • Be authoritative but not authoritarian and understand and follow state laws and

regulations as well as school district policies. (p. 24)

Section 5.5A Positive Learning Community

One specific approach that offers help is the class meeting. As Nelsen, Lott, and Glenn (2000) note:

Where else do students have their thoughts and ideas taken seriously? Where else do they have an opportunity to learn life skills that build confidence, courage, and a sense of belonging and significance? Where else do they have an opportunity to nurture one another and learn respectful interactions? (p. 116)

The class meeting, in fact, may be the most effective way to deal with problems that affect the whole class. It is not always easy to find time for one, given the continual pressures on teachers and students to achieve academic goals. In the long run, however, class meetings can actually save time if they lead to solutions for problems. In elementary school, the Morning Meetings that are part of the Responsive Classroom model have been shown to be effective for the creation of such solutions (Portland Public Schools, 2011). In secondary schools, where students change classes throughout the day, it will no doubt be necessary to work with the homeroom teacher to find the appropriate time and place for important meetings. Alfie Kohn (2006) suggests the following reasons for class meetings in addition to those for more criti- cally serious problems:

• Sharing. Students might want to share what they did over the weekend or major events in their family life. This is not to be confused with the Show and Tell ritual in which children often play “can you top this.”

• Deciding. In classes that endeavor to be communities in which all participate, deci- sion meetings might be held to determine how furniture should be placed or walls decorated. There also might be occasions when class members feel some respon- sibility toward caring for and contributing to others during emergencies (earth- quakes, tornadoes, and so on).

• Planning. A close relative of deciding and equally important for community building, planning meetings can be used to organize a field trip, class party, or the methods that will be used to make the decided-upon room décor happen.

• Reflecting. This can be a time when: – students might talk about the values they believe should inform their life together

and the rationale for doing things a certain way. How should we treat each other? What can we do when we don’t agree, or when somebody says or does something unpleasant? (pp. 88–89)

The United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) manages a website called StopBullying.gov that provides helpful and specific guidelines for dealing with bullying. While HHS is supportive of activities like those just discussed, these guidelines provide ideas that may prove most useful when on-the-spot approaches are needed.

When faced with a bullying incident:

• Intervene immediately. It is okay to get another adult to help. • Separate the kids involved. • Make sure everyone is safe. • Meet any medical or mental health needs.

Section 5.5A Positive Learning Community

• Stay calm. Reassure the kids, including any bystanders. • Model respectful behavior.

Avoid these common mistakes:

• Don’t ignore it. Don’t think kids can work it out without adult help. • Don’t immediately try to sort out the facts. • Don’t force other kids to publicly describe what they saw. • Don’t question the kids involved in front of other kids. • Don’t talk to the kids involved together . . . only separately. • Don’t make kids apologize or patch things up on the spot.

Get police help or medical attention if:

• A weapon is involved. • There are threats of serious injury. • There are threats of hate-motivated violence. • There is serious bodily harm. • There is sexual abuse. • Anyone is accused of an illegal act. (Stopbullying.gov, n.d., para. 2–4)

Teachers and Students Together Successful classroom environments are not created by accident. On the contrary, behind every successful classroom is a teacher who worked to create a climate of achievement, inclu- siveness, and high expectations. According to Herb Kohl (2009), “Managing the complex life within the classroom and creating a convivial learning community in which everyone par- ticipates willingly is a formidable challenge” (p. 1). This is true even given the right choice of classroom type and children’s ages. It took Kohl close to 5 years to be comfortable with his developing teaching style and his ability to create and adapt curriculum. But, despite the chal- lenges, Kohl says, beyond it all “is a sense of the wonderful rewards of facilitating children’s growth and earning their respect, admiration, and affection” (p. 2).

There are four key principles that can create synergy between your management system and your instructional delivery. These principles are:

• setting high expectations • developing classroom rules and procedures • creating a positive learning environment, and • effectively using time and space in the classroom.

Teachers and students spend the vast majority of every day interacting with one another. In fact, most teachers and students spend more face-to-face time together during the school week than with their own families. Therefore, one hopes that the time spent at school is enjoy- able, productive, and positive. The relationship between teacher and students is widely rec- ognized as being critical to student motivation (Davis, 2003; Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006; Quate & McDermott, 2009).

Section 5.5A Positive Learning Community

A study of high school students demonstrates that student motivation increases as students grow to like, and feel connected to, their teacher (Montalvo, Mansfield, & Miller, 2007). This can be seen in the improvement of students’ effort and quality of work, which is quite logi- cal. While we can be motivated by fear, most people are more motivated by a positive con- nection to another person. While teachers are not necessarily focused on whether students like them, the connection and relationship that students feel with their teacher is very important in creating a safe and motivating learning environment. Simply put, “relation- ships are at the heart of teaching since it is an activity based on communication” (MacGrath, 2005, p. 57).

Teachers are often called upon to be more than an instructor. At times, they are nurses, counselors, mentors, friends, social workers, and surrogate parents, to name a few roles. Conse- quently, relationships, and especially ones built on trust, become incred- ibly important. The quality of early teacher–student relationships has been shown to have a lasting impact on students and their learning. Then, as students matriculate through the grades and struggle with adolescent emotions and the pressures of life, the relationships with their teachers can play an ever-more important role. This can be especially important in middle school as students navigate the intrica- cies of growing up and the challenges of school. It has been found that high-quality student–teacher relationships strongly influ- ence academic performance and classroom conduct (Gable, Hester, Hester, Hendrickson, & Size, 2005). This can be true of any group of students, whether they are first graders or work- ing adults seeking their graduate degrees.

Most importantly, you must remember that as a teacher, everything you say and do mat- ters. The classroom is an open space where students witness the teacher’s every word and action, which can be a difficult adjustment for new teachers. It’s like being on stage or living in a fishbowl. Anything you say or do with one student could affect your rela- tionship with other students who have observed the interaction. Finally, classrooms have a history. The past influences the present and the future in classroom life. A teacher’s response or interaction with a student can live on for many years at a school. In fact, a classroom incident can become folklore in the community and define a teacher’s cred- ibility and style.

Cusp/Cusp/Superstock The quality of the student–teacher relationship has a direct impact on students’ academic success and classroom conduct.

Summary & Resources

Building Your Portfolio While your philosophy of classroom management may not end up in your final portfolio, it will likely be something you will discuss with a potential employer. Take a few moments to articulate your philosophy. Which type of classroom model appeals to you most? What are your thoughts on discipline in the classroom? What classroom decisions or tasks, if any, would you feel comfortable turning over to students? Would you be apt to engage your students in a dialogue about sharing classroom responsibilities at a certain time of the year?

Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary Although managing a classroom has no doubt been a challenge throughout history, it remained for Jacob Kounin in the mid-20th century to create an actual system based on scientific obser- vations of classrooms. Since his groundbreaking work, others have developed different mod- els based on differing philosophical and theoretical views of learning and development. Basi- cally, models can be divided into two groups: teacher-centered and student-centered. The former keeps the teacher in charge of behavior management, while the latter endeavors to turn much of the responsibility over to the students. Teachers who hope to create a com- munity of learners, prepared to enter adulthood as citizens of a 21st-century democracy, are more apt to choose a student-centered system for their classroom. This can even be the case when confronted by difficult behavior problems such as bullying in its many modern-day forms. Teachers find that class meetings have many uses, including dealing with difficult situ- ations. Whatever your emerging philosophy, it will be important to choose and use a system- atic plan of management, rather than dealing with problems ad hoc as they arise.

Questions for Further Critical Thinking & Reflection

1. Imagine the layout of your ideal classroom. How are the desks arranged? What does your desk look like? Consider sketching out a physical diagram. Make a list of what you have to have and what you want to have. Now look at it in terms of management. How does the arrangement support, or not support, your goals for a well-managed environment?

2. Formulate a list of three to five rules for your ideal classroom. For each rule, develop a rationale (i.e., how you would explain its value to your students). Then, decide on consequences for breaking the rules, should they actually be needed. Would you define the consequences as punishment, and, if so, are you comfortable with that? Why or why not?

3. What in a classroom is under your control? What in a classroom is outside your con- trol? What does losing control mean to you?

Web Resources 4teachers.org – Classroom Architect. This site offers actual diagrams and potential layouts to

choose from when designing a classroom. Furniture can be dragged to its ideal position

Summary & Resources

as you desire. http://classroom.4teachers.org

Classroom Management with Harry and Rosemary Wong. The Wongs have many decades of advice on many topics for new teachers. Here they provide their practical approaches to management. http://classroommanagement.com

Love and Logic. This approach to discipline is designed for parents and for educators. Under “Educators,” there is a link to the available free materials. www.loveandlogic.com

Positive Discipline. This management system is designed to build a sense of community in the classroom. Although it mostly centers on training programs, there is also a free newsletter and a free guide to the system’s approach. www.positivediscipline.com

Teaching Channel. At the Teaching Channel, you can find a multitude of videos that include inspiring teachers in action. There are helpful ideas that include quick attention-getting signals as well as more complex lesson plans and teaching tips. http://www.teachingchannel.org

Additional Resources For helpful ideas, models, and thoughtful positions, try:

Bireda, M. (2002). Cultures in conflict: Eliminating racial profiling in school discipline. Lan- ham, MD: The Scarecrow Press.

Curwin, R., Mendler, A., & Mendler, B. (2008). Discipline with dignity: New challenges, new solutions. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Kohn, A. (2006). Beyond discipline: From compliance to community. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Key Terms Assertive Discipline A teacher-centered behavior modification approach to disci- pline created in the 1970s by Lee (and later Marlene) Canter. This strategy focuses pri- marily on rewards and consequences in the classroom, but also on “catching students being good.”

classroom climate The classroom’s social, intellectual, and physical environment in which students learn; students’ feelings, beliefs, and consequent behaviors related to their sense of community.

classroom community A group of students and a teacher who work together to build a sense of trust, care, and support.

classroom management Procedures, sys- tems, decisions, and actions intended to cre- ate an environment that encourages student learning.

conflict resolution A collection of manage- ment approaches with mediation techniques included; the goal is generally violence reduction.

Summary & Resources

Love and Logic A child-centered approach to management, originally begun for parents and later expanded for use in the classroom. This approach focuses on teaching respon- sibility and making students feel loved and respected.

PBIS Acronym for “Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports.” An education approach designed to incorporate social learning with academics and focused on management, behavior, and discipline rather than on the full learning experience. The PBIS model consists of a three-tiered frame- work. Based in part on behaviorist theory.

Positive Classroom Discipline A manage- ment approach in which educators set limits and build cooperation.

procedures Routines for accomplishing tasks, making efficient use of time and space.

Responsive Classroom An elementary education approach that focuses on social and emotional growth as much as academics in the classroom. Student participation and cooperation, responsibility, and accountabil- ity are emphasized. Based on constructivist theory.

rules Clearly stated expectations that guide student behavior.