reflection due in 14 hours

combs

04CH_Teaching_Lefrancois1.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >reflection due in 14 hours

107107

4Exceptionality and Teaching for Diversity

Rawpixel/iStock/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Define giftedness and explain how it is identified and addressed in the classroom. ሁ Analyze how a teacher’s attitudes and teaching styles affect creativity. ሁ Identify the dimensions of exceptionality. ሁ Define the common classifications of intellectual exceptionality. ሁ Evaluate the concept of multicultural education.

If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them.

—Henry David Thoreau

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 107 12/14/17 4:37 PM

108

Introduction

Pretest

Determine if the following statements are true or false.

1. Research has found that providing gifted and talented students with accelerated education is harmful to them socially. (T/F)

2. Mainstreaming leads to inclusive classrooms, where students with disabilities are included in the regular education classroom. (T/F)

3. Parents of students with severe or multiple disabilities need to pay for the entirety of their child’s education. (T/F)

4. Individuals with dyslexia have below-average intelligence. (T/F) 5. Culture differs from race in that culture includes genetic components of group

membership. (T/F) 6. Some of the main opponents of bilingual education are parents of Hispanic students who

fear that their children are not learning English quickly enough. (T/F)

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction Today’s schools are vastly different from yesterday’s schools. And not just because of the appearance of newfangled technologies like computers, smartphones, and social media, but more because today’s average, ordinary classroom typically contains a sometimes bewil- dering diversity of students. For one thing, North American societies are becoming increas- ingly multicultural; for another, legislation now mandates that, wherever possible, children with exceptionalities be educated in ordinary classrooms with other students. As a result, the teacher’s roles and responsibilities have become increasingly complex, as we see in this chapter.

“Suppose,” Ms. Lebron said, “suppose you have a wild cow . . . no, make that a demented goose. . . .” Some of us chuckled a bit, squirming ahead in our seats to get closer and not miss anything. Ms. Lebron often began her lessons this way, especially when we were unsettled from recess. All she had to say was “suppose”—a rich word, pregnant with implications—and we would collectively hold our breath and listen for what was to come next. And when, in the same short sentence, she would wave in front of us an image like that of a wild cow or a demented goose, she had us—attention riveted, unwavering.

“A demented, cross-eyed goose,” she continued. “A goose with a completely unnatural passion for Ford cars.” Barney tittered suddenly, loudly, perhaps knowing or suspecting something about demented geese or unnatural passions the rest of us were not yet aware of.

“Now suppose this goose is flying along at 30 miles an hour and he looks down and sees that he is directly over a Ford that’s going in the same direction, only it’s going just 20 miles an hour. Well, the goose is tempted to go right down to this car, but when he looks out in the distance, he sees another Ford that is exactly 120 miles away and it’s coming directly toward the first Ford at a steady speed of 40 miles an hour.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 108 12/14/17 4:37 PM

109

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

“So the goose leaves the first Ford and flies straight toward the second one at 30 miles an hour. But when he gets to the second Ford, he remembers the first, changes his mind, and turns right around and flies right back to the first Ford. But when he gets there, he turns around again and flies right back to the second, always at 30 miles an hour and always without slowing down—back and forth and back and forth, until finally the two Fords run, kaboom! smack into each other.

“The question is,” Ms. Lebron announced into the expectant silence—and we knew that we had again been seduced into a math problem—“the question is, how far will that goose have flown before the two cars run into each other?”

Stan raised his hand at once: “I know the answer! Can I tell it?” “Just write it down and hand it to me.” We knew that Stan’s answer would

be correct, although I couldn’t for the life of me see how he could have figured it out so fast. Most of the rest of us wrestled with the problem, writing numbers, dividing, multiplying, drawing lines, trying to figure out how many turns the goose would make and how much shorter each one would be. For his part, Bar- ney drew exquisite replicas of two Ford cars, one in each of the bottom corners of a sheet of paper. Then he sketched a clearly delirious cross-eyed goose in one upper corner, drew a line from that corner to the other, and then curved the line down in a series of diminishing esses until it reached the bottom center of the page. He then measured this line with a ruler and a string and announced, “374 miles—give or take a few.” There was something about demented geese that Barney apparently didn’t know.

4.1 The Talented and the Gifted “That is an excellent goose!” Ms. Lebron announced. She seemed truly proud, as if she were somehow responsible for Barney’s being able to draw and paint so well. “May I show it to the others, even if the goose didn’t fly quite 374 miles?” And even Barney was proud. One of Ms. Lebron’s greatest gifts as a teacher was that she recognized gifts and talents in others and encouraged them and made their owners feel proud.

Education doesn’t always recognize talents and giftedness. Historically, with some notable exceptions, most school jurisdictions have not offered special programs for gifted children. And those that have were never quite certain which children to include in these programs.

Defining Talent and Giftedness Who are the gifted and talented? Our concept of these terms remains unclear. And although the terms talent and giftedness are often used interchangeably, they mean different things. Giftedness refers to exceptional general ability often evident in superior performance on measures of intelligence and achievement. The National Association for Gifted Children defines gifted individuals as “those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains” (Definitions of Giftedness, 2016). Talent is a narrower term; it refers to remarkable performance in a specific field like art and design, physical education, performance arts such as dance or drama, or music. The most precocious of the highly talented are sometimes referred to as prodigies.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 109 12/14/17 4:37 PM

110

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

As an example of the distinction between the terms gifted and talented, compare the gifted Almira—who receives stunningly impressive grades in all her academic subjects—with the highly talented Rodriguez who, at the age of 6, could already play a host of musical instruments with such dexterity, emotion, and grace that his grandmother wept to hear him. Although the distinctions might seem clear in theory, in practice they are not so clear. Very often, those who are gifted will also be talented, and those who are talented will also be exceptionally gifted. And because the distinctions between the two aren’t very distinct or important, the phrase talented and gifted has become common in education. It includes all of those who require special educational services because of their exceptional abilities.

The concept of giftedness was clarified somewhat in 1969, following the passage of U.S. Pub- lic Law 91-230. A section of this law (806) relates directly to the talented and gifted and includes the following definition, which is still the most common basis for state definitions of giftedness:

Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified per- sons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated educational programs and/or services beyond those normally provided by the regular school programs in order to realize their contribution to self and society.

The law goes on to state that high achievement and high potential for achievement may be found in any one or more of five areas:

1. General intellectual ability 2. Specific academic aptitude 3. Creative or productive thinking 4. Leadership ability 5. Visual and performing arts

Defining giftedness and establishing criteria for admission to this group are particularly important where special programs are available for gifted and talented children. The defini- tion and criteria are used to determine which children are eligible for special programs. By the same token, they determine which children are ineligible. Because of biases in identifica- tion procedures, non-European and economically disadvantaged children tend to be overrep- resented among programs for those with specific learning disabilities, emotional disorders, and related disabilities; similarly, they are often underrepresented among the talented and the gifted (Briggs, Reis, & Sullivan, 2008).

Identifying Gifted Children Those who are talented and gifted are typically identified by their performance on group intel- ligence tests, through teachers’ nominations, through assessment of portfolios (collections of samples of student work), sometimes through performances and auditions, and perhaps through an individual intelligence test (Pfeiffer & Blei, 2008). Unfortunately, what is perhaps the most common identification method, teachers’ nominations of gifted students, is some- times heavily biased in favor of students who achieve exceptionally well in school subjects and who appear to be highly motivated. This means that gifted underachievers are typically excluded. When Rost and Hanses (1997) looked at teachers’ ratings for 7,000 third-grade

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 110 12/14/17 4:37 PM

111

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

students, they found that more than two-thirds of the highly gifted underachievers had been overlooked.

The use of intelligence tests to select the gifted does not resolve all problems, given the ambi- guity and confusion that often surround their use. As we saw in Chapter 3, what these tests measure isn’t entirely clear. They tell us very little about important factors such as motivation, persistence, and other personality variables. And whatever they measure, they don’t always measure very accurately.

In effect, then, what happens in practice with respect to identifying gifted children often does not reflect official definitions of giftedness. In the majority of cases, general intellectual abil- ity and academic achievement are taken into consideration, but these are only two of the five criteria identified by the U.S. public law that defines giftedness. Although special talents and abilities (creative ability, leadership qualities, and talents in visual and performing arts) may affect teachers’ nominations, they are seldom part of formal identification procedures.

Characteristics of the Gifted By definition, the talented and gifted are marked by a significant advantage in intelligence, creativity, performance, or motivation—or, most likely, all four. Many of them come from con- texts where their gifts and talents are not only nurtured but are highly valued as well (Sen & Sharma, 2013).

But are the gifted identifiably different from their classmates in other, more negative, ways? Are they more likely to be geeks and social misfits? The answer is a resounding no. In fact, research indicates that the gifted are often as athletic, physically attractive, well-adjusted, insightful, and popular as those who are less gifted (Jenaabadi, Marziyeh, & Dadkan, 2015).

Table 4.1 summarizes some of the many characteristics that various researchers have reported as being descriptive of the talented and gifted. Note that some of these might also be characteristic of those less gifted.

Table 4.1: Possible characteristics of the talented and the gifted in four areas

Intellectual (academic) giftedness Creative giftedness Artistic giftedness Leadership talent

• Memorize material easily

• Learn rapidly • Advanced

vocabulary • Curious and

inquisitive • Achieve at a high

level

• Independent thinkers

• Seek novelty • Highly curious • Marked by fluency

of ideas • Openness • Tolerant of

complexity • Sense of humor • Improvise solutions

• Self-chosen artistic activity

• Self-study and practice for self- improvement

• Experiment in area of artistic interest

• Demonstrate confidence

• High achievement in area of interest

• High degree of organization

• High social intelligence

• Work well in groups • Recognized as

leaders by peers • Willingly accept

leadership role • Self-confident • Highly adaptable

Source: Based on Clark, B. (2013). Growing up gifted: Developing the potential of children at school and at home (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson; Kettler, T. (Ed). (2016). A differentiated approach to critical thinking in curriculum design. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 111 12/14/17 4:37 PM

112

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

Prevalence of Giftedness Estimates of the prevalence of gifted and talented children vary considerably. Some research- ers argue that as many as 20 percent of all children have the potential to become gifted (Ren- zulli, 2008). In the U.S. Department of Education’s 2010 survey of U.S. schools, an impressive 6.7 percent of the total enrollment was classified as gifted and talented (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Gifted and talented students in U.S. schools ሁ 6.7% is the total percentage of public elementary- and secondary-school students in the United

States who are considered gifted and talented.

Source: National Center for Education Statistics, 2010 Tables and Figures. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10 /tables/dt10_049.asp

Gifted and talented students as a percentage of total U.S. elementary and secondary

enrollment

Female TotalMale

6.3 6.77.0Pe rc

en ta

g e

Ethnic minorities are vastly underrepresented in special programs for the gifted (Bracken, 2008). Although in some cases their backgrounds might have impeded the development of the cognitive skills and motivation essential for performance at a high level, that is clearly not always the case.

Because there are insufficient programs for gifted learners, educators tend to err on the side of under- rather than overidentification.

Programs for the Gifted There are two broad approaches to educating the gifted: acceleration and enrichment. Each of these can occur in the regular classroom; each might also involve what is termed ability grouping.

Ability grouping implies segregating the gifted either in separate classes or sometimes even in special schools. These schools, sometimes termed magnet schools, typically have very strin- gent entrance requirements and highly developed programs designed to foster the develop- ment of talents and gifts. Not all magnet schools cater solely to those identified as gifted and talented in a general sense; many are designed for students with special interests in specific areas like math and science, the arts, or sports.

Programs that accelerate simply move students more rapidly through the conventional cur- riculum, exposing them to the same material as other students. Grade skipping is the most common form of acceleration. Grade skipping is generally a response to a single student’s

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 112 12/14/17 4:37 PM

https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_049.asp

113

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

achievement rather than a general, schoolwide program for gifted learners. Although this practice rewards the student for past accomplishments, it does little to modify the curriculum to make it more appropriate.

Programs that enrich provide students with additional school experiences in an attempt to deepen and broaden their knowledge and capabilities. One well-known enrichment approach is Renzulli’s (1977) school enrichment model (SEM), also called the revolving door model (Renzulli & Reis, 2008). This approach selects gifted individuals on the basis of three char- acteristics: above-average academic ability, high creative potential, and high motivation (task commitment). Any of the students selected may then enter enrichment programs and drop out of them as they wish (hence, the revolving door). The programs vary according to the expressed interests of the students. Under this model, enrichment programs tend to be schoolwide rather than restricted to specific classes or students.

Research on Acceleration and Enrichment The relative merits of acceleration and enrichment have long been debated among educators. One common argument against acceleration is that it might be harmful to move students much beyond their social and psychological levels of development, that they might eventually no longer “fit in” socially with their peers. Enrichment, on the other hand, does not separate gifted children from their age and grade level peers and would not be expected to have the same negative consequences.

The research, however, indicates that the fear that acceleration might cause social or emo- tional harm to gifted learners is generally unfounded (Plucker & Callahan, 2014). The evi- dence suggests that different forms of acceleration such as entering school early, skipping grades, and entering college early appear to have clearly positive effects. This is especially true for gifted learners who are carefully selected on the basis of academic, social, and emo- tional maturity. It may be less true for students selected for acceleration solely on the basis of high IQ or advanced social maturity.

Tutoring, Mentoring, and IEPs Other approaches to teaching the gifted include the use of tutors, mentors, and indi- vidualized education plans (IEPs).

A tutor is a one-on-one teacher. Tutoring is one of the most effective ways to teach, says Bloom (1984). However, it is far more likely to be used with learners who are having difficulty than with the gifted and talented. When used with gifted learners, tutoring is often carried out by adults or older students, sometimes in what are termed study-buddy programs. It can also be conducted by peers; in this case it may be called peer-assisted learning (PAL). Many studies have reported highly positive results for peer tutoring (for example, Weidner & Popp, 2007).

Marie Lefrançois/Marie’s Photography ሁ Tutoring can be carried out by peers or older

students, which has proven to be highly beneficial to both the tutor and the learner.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 113 12/14/17 4:37 PM

114

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

A mentor is an individual who serves as a sort of intellectual and psychological guide. Unlike tutoring, which is generally limited to instructing, mentoring implies a close relationship on a variety of levels. The mentor may be a role model, consultant, advisor, source of wisdom— even a sort of protector. Hence, the term protégé (the protected one) is often used to signify the one who is mentored. Investigations of the effectiveness of mentoring are generally highly positive (for example, Dennison, 2000).

Another approach to the education of the gifted involves self-directed and independent study, often using IEPs as a guide. These are specific descriptions of educational activities specially designed for individual students according to their needs and talents. IEPs are widely used for children with special needs, their use having been mandated in the United States by a 1975 law (PL 94-142) later reaffirmed by the No Child Left Behind act (which has now been replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act).

Suggestions for the Classroom Teacher Many gifted and talented children remain in regular classrooms and lack access to any formal “special” education. Do schools do what they can (or should) for gifted and creative students? Perhaps not, if Ms. Bourgeois’ class is any indication (see the case entitled “Your Dad’s Not the Teacher”).

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M : Y O U R D A D ’ S N O T T H E T E A C H E R

The Setting: Ms. Adèle Bourgeois’ third-grade arithmetic class. The class has been learning odd and even numbers.

Ms. Bourgeois: So who can tell me, you should all know this by now, which numbers between 1 and 10 can be divided by 2?

Thomas: All the even ones—2, 4, 6, 8, and 10!

Ms. Bourgeois: Very good, Thomas. That’s exactly right.

Claire: That’s not right.

Ms. Bourgeois (annoyed): What’s that, Claire?

Claire: That’s not right. I mean, not just the even numbers.

Ms. Bourgeois (quite angry): You always think you know better than the book, don’t you?

Claire (more timidly, but sticking to her guns): But the odd ones too. My dad said . . .

Ms. Bourgeois: Your dad isn’t the teacher. How d’you suppose you’d divide 5 by 2, hunh? Weren’t you paying any attention at all when we talked about how all even numbers can be divided by 2?

Claire, red-faced, shrugs and whispers “2 1/2” too softly for Ms. Bourgeois to hear.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 114 12/14/17 4:37 PM

115

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

Schools have traditionally been geared toward developing students who are obedient, accept- ing of other people’s ideas, popular, punctual, courteous, and respectful. Academic success has been fostered by memorization and the ability to recognize and replicate accepted answers and procedures. Flexibility, risk taking, originality, inventiveness, and nonconformity are absent from these lists. Claire, like all other students in her class, was expected to learn a simple odd-even rule and to repeat it when asked.

Many highly gifted and talented students, note Torrance and Sisk (1997), achieve at levels far below what might be expected on the basis of their capabilities. Why? Because, these authors argue, they are simply not motivated to achieve at their highest potential. Their lack of moti- vation may have any of a variety of sources.

First, and perhaps most important, say Torrance and Sisk, is that learners cannot see any rela- tionship between real life and what they are asked to learn. Second, many of the highly gifted lose their motivation following repeated exposure to evaluation systems that are shallow, meaningless, and totally inadequate. Third, teaching often presents gifted learners with tasks that are too ridiculously simple to maintain their interest. And fourth, many school programs do not ask, or permit, gifted learners to use their most unique talents, nor do they provide them with an opportunity to learn according to their preferred learning styles.

The result of these shortcomings of schools, programs, evaluation systems, and parental and teacher expectations may well be a stifling of motivation and ambition and an appalling lack of achievement among those who could easily be society’s very best achievers.

But teachers can do specific things to teach students different ways of thinking and perhaps foster giftedness and creative thinking. Among these are a variety of problem-solving tech- niques, one of which is brainstorming.

Brainstorming Brainstorming has been widely used in business as well as in many school programs designed to foster creativity. Developed by Alex Osborn (1957), brainstorming is a process that simply asks individuals to produce a wide variety of ideas while deliberately suspending judgment about the appropriateness of any of them. This, the principle of deferred evaluation, is prob- ably the most important characteristic of brainstorming. It leads to the production of far more ideas than would be possible if evaluation were permitted.

Brainstorming in a classroom might involve the entire class, often divided into smaller groups, and last either all or only part of a class period. However, brainstorming is not always a group approach; nor does it always require face-to-face interaction. For example, it might involve interaction by means of computers—termed electronic brainstorming; or it might be entirely individual rather than involving groups (termed nominal brainstorming).

In a brainstorming session, the leader (teacher) explains a few simple rules: Criticizing ideas is discouraged; modifying other ideas is encouraged; the emphasis is on producing many ideas; and all ideas are permitted, no matter how wild or unusual they might seem. The teacher then describes the problem to be solved, and the session begins. During the session, participants are encouraged to stay focused, not to tell stories or try to explain ideas, and everyone is

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 115 12/14/17 4:37 PM

116

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

urged to participate (Paulus et al., 2006). Various checklists for stimulating ideas might also be used. Table 4.2 shows how a checklist might be applied to a general problem in classroom management.

Table 4.2: Application of a creative brainstorming checklist to the question: How many suggestions can you make for different ways to manage a classroom?

Checklist Explanation Some possibilities suggested by the checklist

Adapt Use ideas from other sources

Run class like a factory, like a prison, like a casino, like a resort, like a religion, like a military camp, like a playground . . .

Modify Change Change the composition of the class; change teaching methods; change approach to discipline problems; change school hours . . .

Magnify Make larger Increase class size; increase number of teachers; increase number of assignments; increase size of desks; increase difficulty of assignments; increase magnitude of punishment or reinforcement; lengthen school day . . .

Minify Make smaller Decrease class size; decrease number of assignments; decrease size of paper, pencil, books; reduce number of reprimands; reduce number of school days; shorten school day; shorten summer holidays . . .

Put to other uses

Put to an unexpected use Students are given the responsibility of entertaining the school at a social evening; students are encouraged to teach rather than learn; to correct assignments rather than do them . . .

Substitute Exchange Replace teacher; replace entire class; exchange one or more members of the class with students from another class; change class venue . . .

Rearrange Reorganize, reorder, resort Change physical aspects of class; change seating plan; hold classes in another school . . .

Reverse Turn around; do the opposite

Turn desks to face the rear, the side, the front; have teacher face the opposite direction; exchange teacher-student roles; hold classes during the evening . . .

Combine Bring together; join Combine one or more of previous suggestions; combine teaching-learning function with other function such as entertainment, problem solving, or discussion of noncurricular topics of interest . . .

Classroom Climate and Teaching Styles Classroom climate, the general atmosphere of a classroom, seems to be related to the encour- agement of giftedness and creativity as well as to achievement, care and respect among stu- dents, and social competence (for example, McLellan & Nicholl, 2013; de Souza Fleith, 2014).

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 116 12/14/17 4:37 PM

117

Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

However, without further clarification, phrases like “general atmosphere of a classroom” are uncomfortably vague, far from scientific, and not particularly useful.

One way of describing classroom climate is in terms of the quality of emotional and instruc- tional supports provided for students. Many studies have found that a positive and support- ive classroom climate, coupled with high-quality instruction, are highly predictive of student achievement and positive student behavior (Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008). In Corlett’s (2007) words, “the importance of establishing a positive classroom culture and climate of trust cannot be underestimated” (p. 47). Teachers need to be positive and caring, explain these authors; they also need to build rapport with their students, as well as trust and respect.

Classroom climate can also be described in terms of instructional approaches or teach- ing style. A teaching style is an identifiable group of teaching activities and routines. Thus, researchers speak of styles that reflect specific methods of instructing (for example, the lec- turing style, the questioning style, the role-playing style). Or they speak of styles that reflect the teacher’s predominant relationship with students or the major roles that each assumes (for example, authoritarian versus democratic, teacher-centered versus learner-centered, traditional versus progressive).

Haddon and Lytton (1968) describe two types of schools, which they label “formal” and “informal.” Formal schools are characterized by a teacher-centered, authoritarian approach to learning and teaching. Teachers who adopt a formal teaching style tend to teach each subject separately, emphasize individual rather than group work, assign class seating, restrict students’ movements, emphasize assessment and achievement, and make extensive use of external motivators such as grades.

In contrast, informal schools tend to emphasize self-initiated learning and greater student participation; they are more student-centered (more constructivist). Teachers who use an informal teaching style tend to integrate subjects, provide students with considerable free- dom for determining their activities, typically allow students to select their own seating, do not emphasize tests and academic achievement, and tend to rely on internal sources of moti- vation like self-satisfaction.

There is some evidence that students in informal schools do better on measures of creative thinking than do students of comparable intelligence and socioeconomic status who attend formal schools (Haddon & Lytton, 1968).

4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities Most of the human population is what we consider normal or average—although each of us is different from every other person. But there are some who, in one or more ways, are different from the average. These are children who, from an educational, social, and sometimes medi- cal point of view, can be described as having special needs.

Among them are those about whom we have been talking: those who are far more talented and gifted than the average. These include the exceptionally academically gifted and talented, those who are endowed with superior motor skills, and those who are socially gifted. The special needs of these learners must be attended to if they are to develop their potential.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 117 12/14/17 4:37 PM

118

Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

Note that the term exceptionality includes those less intelligent or less creative, those with physical and motor disabilities, and those with emotional and adjustment problems as well as the talented and gifted. That is, the term exceptional applies equally to those to whom nature and nurture have been noticeably generous and to those to whom nature and nurture have been much less kind.

Knowing how to identify exceptional children—and knowing, as well, how to administer the programs and resources available for them—has always been an essential part of the train- ing of special education teachers. These are teachers whose express function is to provide educational services for children with special needs.

In recent years, however, the special needs of exceptional children have also become impor- tant to the regular classroom teacher—particularly since the passage of a series of federal laws. Public Law 94-142, which came into effect in 1975, attempted to correct the injustices that have sometimes existed in the treatment of exceptional children. This law gave special- ists like psychologists and special education teachers most of the responsibility for identify- ing children with exceptionalities and providing services for them. The law was amended in 1990 by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and reauthorized by the U.S. Congress in 1995. Then, in 2004, it was reauthorized and changed with the passage of the No Child Left Behind act, and its name was changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). The No Child Left Behind act has now been replaced by a new education law: the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). This act, signed in 2015, along with various related court interpretations associated with the No Child Left Behind act, has been largely instrumental in revolutionizing how schools deal with exceptionality.

The broad goal of ESSA is to ensure that all learners receive the best possible educational experiences regardless of their gifts, talents, and challenges. Among other things, the law pro- vides some important guarantees for children with special needs and for their parents (IDEA 2004 Statute Changes, 2010), including:

• Zero rejection and parent participation • Education in the “least restrictive environment” • Free and appropriate educational services • Fair, nondiscriminatory evaluation and due process of law • An individualized education plan (IEP)

We look at each of these provisions in the next five sections.

Zero Rejection and Parent Participation The stipulation that there be “zero rejection” refers to the principle that all children, regard- less of how severe their disabilities, are entitled to all the provisions of IDEIA. That is, all are entitled to free and appropriate educational services including individualized education plans, nondiscriminatory evaluation, and due process of law. The law also guarantees zero rejection for children with special needs who might otherwise be excluded from special pro- grams for disciplinary reasons.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 118 12/14/17 4:37 PM

119

Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

In general, when faced with a serious disciplinary problem, school administrators are allowed to suspend a child with a disability for up to 10 days. In the case of serious disciplinary issues (drugs, weapons, or injury to self or other students), students may be suspended for as many as 45 days. After that, the child’s IEP team, which is made up of teachers, parents, and special- ists, is required to determine the extent to which the discipline problem might be related to the child’s disability and whether it might also relate to the school’s failure to implement the IEP.

The Act’s guarantee of parent participation grants parents the right to participate in signifi- cant ways in all aspects of their child’s education including initial assessment, development of educational programs, ongoing evaluation, and transition from school.

Inclusion: The Least Restrictive Environment The phrase “least restrictive environment” relates to a legal decision that specified that chil- dren with disabilities have a right to education in the “least restrictive environment.” For prac- tical purposes, this environment has usually been judged to be the regular classroom—hence, the practice labeled mainstreaming or inclusion (inclusive education). This practice means that an increasing number of regular classroom teachers are called upon to teach exceptional children in regular classrooms, sometimes also termed inclusive classrooms.

Proponents of inclusion, note Gresham and MacMillan (1997), argue that it has at least three positive outcomes: increased peer acceptance and decreased rejection of students with dis- abilities by their peers; mutually beneficial social interactions between students with and without disabilities; and the learning of socially appropriate behaviors by students with dis-

abilities as a result of modeling the behavior of other students.

In addition to these largely social benefits, inclusion often has clear academic benefits for learners with disabilities. This is espe- cially true in well-designed inclusion class- rooms where regular teachers and special education teachers collaborate to discover and apply strategies that work well with children who have special needs. Among these are highly individual approaches often involving drill and repetition (Shar- rock, 2008).

Inclusion, says Perles (2010), also has advantages for students without disabilities. Not only do many of these students develop

strong friendships that they would not otherwise have developed, but they also develop acceptance and appreciation of people different from them.

Wavebreakmedia/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Well-designed inclusive classrooms can create

positive social and academic benefits for students with and without disabilities.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 119 12/14/17 4:37 PM

120

Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

Even when exceptional children are part of inclusive classrooms, not all of them have their needs met only by their teachers and entirely in inclusive classrooms. Some may stay in a regular classroom, and the regular teacher may be assisted by an aide, an assistant teacher, or an itinerant specialist; others may be sent to a special resource room for part of each day or week; some may be in special classrooms part of the time and in a regular classroom for the remainder of the time; some may be in a segregated, special class full time. Still others may be in residential schools (children who are deaf or blind, for example) or in hospitals or other institutions.

A Free and Appropriate Education Legislation mandates that all children are entitled to free and appropriate public educa- tion (FAPE). This means that educational services for children with special needs must be provided at public expense. Furthermore, they must be appropriate in the sense that they are guided by a detailed educational plan developed for each student. (Individualized education plans, or IEPs, are discussed shortly.)

Fair Evaluation and Due Process The decision that a student has special needs is typically based on a variety of evaluation and assessment procedures. Parents or teachers are usually first to notice that there might be a problem and to seek referral for further evaluation. IDEIA mandates that an interdisciplinary assessment team be employed to determine whether comprehensive assessment is required. Where further assessment is necessary, the law stipulates that it be undertaken by trained professionals and that the evaluation take place in the child’s native language.

If the final determination is that the student requires special services, an individualized edu- cation plan is prepared—often by the assessment team in consultation with the teacher and the parents.

Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) Individualized education plans (IEPs) (sometimes called individualized education pro- grams) are written programs, required by law for every child with disabilities. IEPs are usu- ally prepared by a team that includes the child’s parents, the regular classroom teacher, one or more special education teachers or other specialists as required, and sometimes the child.

IDEIA stipulates that an IEP must be a written document that contains the following:

• A description of the student’s current performance and achievement • A statement of annual goals and short-range objectives • A detailed list of services and programs to be provided for the student • The expected duration of the program, including specific dates • Evaluation procedures that will be used to determine whether the program’s goals

are being met

See Table 4.3 for a summary of the provisions and implications of IDEIA.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 120 12/14/17 4:37 PM

121

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Given the classroom teacher’s role in identifying and providing services for children with special needs, it has become increasingly important for all teachers to be familiar with the various manifestations of exceptionality they are most likely to encounter.

Exceptionality, as we saw, has two dimensions: the exceptionally gifted and those with dis- abilities. Exceptionalities are found in each of the three main areas of human functioning— cognitive, physical, and socioemotional. In each area, abilities range from average to the fur- thest extremes in either direction.

In general, children with disabilities are those who are in need of special services to achieve their full potential. They include children who have varying degrees of intellectual disabili- ties; children with specific learning disabilities; those with any of a variety of speech, lan- guage, physical, visual, or hearing impairments; and those with serious emotional disorders (such as schizophrenia). In the United States, approximately 9 percent of children aged 6 to

Table 4.3: Main provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA)

Provision Practical implication

Zero rejection and parent participation

Free and appropriate educational services must be provided to all children, no matter how serious their disability, even those who present discipline problems. Parents have the right to participate in their child’s education, to be fully informed, and to grant or withhold consent for evaluative or instructional procedures.

Education in the least restrictive environment

Typically mandates inclusive education (or mainstreaming) because the “least restrictive environment” is interpreted by the courts to mean the most normal environment that can meet the child’s special needs.

Free and appropriate public educational services

Publicly funded special education programs are to be provided without charge to all children with special needs.

Fair, nondiscriminatory evaluation and due process of law

Students must be evaluated by experts using instruments that are free from bias and that take into consideration specific disabilities and problems the child might have (such as a different first language); parents have a right to be informed and to grant or withhold consent regarding assessment and educational plans for their child.

Individualized education plans (IEPs)

An individually designed education plan for each child with special needs must be developed by a team of teachers, administrators, specialists, and parents, and should contain statements of goals, instructional programs, and assessment procedures together with specific time lines for each.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 121 12/14/17 4:37 PM

122

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

21 receive services under IDEIA. Percentages of these in the most common classifications of disabilities are shown in Figure 4.2.

The sections that follow examine exceptionality in all three areas of human functioning— physical, cognitive, and social—with special emphasis on cognitive disabilities, which are often more relevant for the regular classroom teacher (see Figure 4.3). Teachers who major in special education would be expected to know much more than can be included here.

Physical Exceptionality At one extreme among the physically exceptional are those endowed with superior capabili- ties that might be manifested in athletic skills and in other activities requiring motor coordi- nation, strength, rhythm, and so on. At the other extreme are those with physical disabilities, sensory deficits, cerebral palsy, or a variety of diseases that might lead to problems in school. Among these, blindness and deafness may require special assistance beyond the capabilities and resources of the regular classroom teacher.

Socioemotional Exceptionality At the positive end of socioemotional exceptionality are children who are more socially adept, better adjusted, and more immune to the stresses and tensions of life than are ordinary indi- viduals. These exceptional individuals often go unrecognized and unheralded, although they might on occasion be envied.

At the other extreme are those with severe emotional disturbance (SED) (also sometimes termed behavior disorder or social maladjustment). What these labels have in common is that each describes individuals who are troubled and often unhappy and who are frequently a source of difficulty for teachers, peers, parents, and others.

IDEIA specifies that children with SED are those who manifest one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time, to a marked degree, and where these characteris- tics impair their performance:

• An inability to learn not explained by other factors such as intellectual disabilities • Difficulty in establishing and maintaining satisfactory interpersonal relationships

with teachers, peers, parents, or siblings • Pervasive negative moods; unhappiness or depression

For the most severe manifestations of emotional disturbance (schizophrenia, for example), institutional care is generally required. Sometimes learners with emotional problems may be placed in special classrooms. In many cases, however, children who might be described as suffering from emotional disorders continue to function in regular classrooms.

Intellectual Exceptionality On the one hand are the gifted and creative children that we discussed earlier in this chap- ter; on the other hand are children who have significant difficulty in learning some, if not all, of the things that others learn relatively easily. This dimension of exceptionality includes two important categories: those with intellectual disabilities and those with specific learning disabilities.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 122 12/14/17 4:37 PM

123

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Figure 4.2: Percentage of students in U.S. schools served under IDEIA by disability

ሁ More than 95 percent of American children have no disabilities. The severity of disabilities among remaining children varies from slight to very severe.

Source: Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of Education Statistics, 2014 (NCES 2016-006), Retrieved October 23, 2016, from https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64

Specific learning disabilities 4.6%

Speech or language impairments 2.7%

Intellectual disability 0.9%

Emotional disturbance 0.7%

Multiple disabilities 0.3%

Hearing impairments 0.2%

Orthopedic impairments 0.1%

Other health impairments 1.6%

Visual impairments 0.1%

Autism and traumatic brain injury 1.0%

Deafness and blindness 0.1%

Developmental delay 0.8%

Students without disabilities 96.2%

Figure 4.3: Dimensions of exceptionality ሁ Children can be exceptionally gifted or challenged in three areas of human functioning: physical,

socioemotional, and intellectual.

Physical

Socioemotional

Intellectual

• Superior athletic ability • Superior sensory ability

• Invulnerability • Leadership

• Giftedness, superior intellect, intellectual, creative, and motivational qualities

• Visual impairment • Hearing impairment • Cerebral palsy • Other physical loss, injury, or disease

• Autism • Schizophrenia • Hyperkinesis • Conduct disorders (Aggressiveness, delinquency withdrawal, severe shyness)

• Mild, moderate, severe, and profound mental disabilities learning disabilities

Exceptionality (below average)

Exceptionality (above average)“Normality”

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 123 12/14/17 4:37 PM

https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64

124

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Definition of Intellectual Disabilities Intellectual disabilities is the current expression for what has long been labeled mental retardation. One widely accepted definition is that presented by the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) (Definition of Intellectual Disability, 2016):

Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many every- day social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.

“Significant limitations in intellectual functioning” is generally defined as a score of 70 or less on one or more of the well-known individual intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet or the Wechsler. “Limitations in . . . adaptive behavior” are apparent as significant maturational deficits, most evident in an inability to learn and failure to reach the levels of independence, social effectiveness, and social responsibility that would normally be expected of others of similar age and experience—such as a 4-year-old not yet able to talk. The AAIDD presents a useful checklist of what parents and professionals might look for when looking at a child’s adaptation (Table 4.4).

Table 4.4: Examples of adaptive behavior skills to be taken into account when diagnosing intellectual disabilities

Conceptual skills Social skills Practical skills

• Receptive and expressive language

• Reading and writing • Money concepts • Self-directions

• Interpersonal skills • Ability to accept

responsibility • Self-esteem • Lack of gullibility (likelihood

of being tricked or manipulated)

• Not exceptionally naive • Follows rules • Obeys laws • Avoids victimization

• Personal activities of daily living such as eating, dressing, mobility, and toileting

• Instrumental activities of daily living such as preparing meals, taking medication, using the telephone, managing money, using transportation, and doing housekeeping activities

• Maintaining a safe environment

• Occupational skills

Source: Based on Definition of Intellectual Disability. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) (2016).

Classifications of Intellectual Disabilities Commonly used classification schemes for intellectual disabilities are based mainly on IQ scores (Figure 4.4). Approximately 1 percent of the general population appears to have an intellectual disability when the level of adaptive behavior is also taken into account (Smith, 2007). In practice, however, school psychologists tend to rely much more on IQ than on adap- tive skills when diagnosing intellectual disability.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 124 12/14/17 4:37 PM

125

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Figure 4.4 Labels sometimes used to classify intellectual disabilities

ሁ The two common classification schemes for intellectual disabilities shown here are based on measured IQ. In practice, adaptive skills would also be taken into account. Note that the cutoffs are vague rather than definite: “mild” ranges from 50–55 to around 70; “moderate,” from 35–40 to 50–55; “severe,” from 20–25 to 35–40; and “profound,” below 20–25.

757065605550454035302520151050

Profound Severe MildModerate

Custodial Trainable Educable (EMR)

Common DSM-5 classifications

Educators’ global labels

Measured IQ

Causes of Intellectual Disabilities Psychologists and educators classify intellectual disabilities by level of disability (as shown in Figure 4.4) rather than by cause. Often we don’t actually know the specific cause of the dis- ability. In some cases, however, we know that organic causes are involved—as in the case of cerebral injury, chromosomal aberrations and defects such as Down’s syndrome, and mater- nal infections or alcohol and drug use at critical periods of fetal development. In other cases, familial causes might be implicated: These would include inadequate genetic endowment, growing up in an unstimulating environment, or a combination of environmental and genetic factors.

Characteristics of Children with Intellectual Disabilities The largest group of children with intellectual disabilities includes those with mild intel- lectual disability. Relatively few of these children are identified as having intellectual dis- abilities before they’ve been in school for a while. Many are eventually capable of acceptable academic achievement in elementary school and can adapt quite well socially. Most are main- streamed and are sometimes described as educable.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 125 12/14/17 4:37 PM

126

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Severe intellectual disabilities and profound intellectual disabilities are generally asso- ciated with highly limited motor and cognitive learning—virtually no communication skills in the case of children with profound intellectual disabilities and only rudimentary skills for those with severe intellectual disabilities. Children with profound intellectual disabilities often require institutional care of a custodial nature—that is, involving feeding and clothing.

A moderate intellectual disability is characteristic of about 20 percent of those with intel- lectual disabilities. These children learn to talk during the preschool period, and most also learn to walk, although their verbal and motor skills are generally noticeably inferior to those of other children. Many are educated in inclusive classrooms where, with the help of spe- cial programs and teachers, they may progress through the primary grades but not usually much further academically. Training in occupational skills is sometimes very helpful for these children.

Specific Learning Disabilities Intellectual disability (mental retardation) usually affects all areas of cognitive functioning and adaptation. But there are children who, in the absence of any perceptible physical or emotional disturbance, and in the absence of general intellectual disability, nevertheless experience significant difficulty in learning specific skills. These children have sometimes been described as suffering from a learning dysfunction, hyperactivity, cerebral dysfunction, minimal brain damage, perceptual disability, dyslexia, or simply as being slow learners. Unfor- tunately, these terms are nonspecific, often confusing, and sometimes meaningless. Largely for this reason, the expression specific learning disability, or simply learning disability, was introduced.

Defining Specific Learning Disabilities The expression specific learning disability is now used to describe a variety of conditions that have these four groups of characteristics in common:

1. There is a marked disparity between expected and actual behavior often apparent in general academic achievement that is significantly below what would be predicted on the basis of measured IQ.

2. The child displays an uneven pattern of academic achievement, doing quite well in some subjects but very poorly in others. Often, such a child is unable to do certain things that other children do very easily.

3. The child typically has problems with one of the basic psychological processes involved in language or arithmetic. Hence, the disorder is apparent in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic.

4. Problems observed are not the result of other problems relating to hearing, vision, or general intellectual disabilities.

Prevalence Children with specific learning disabilities make up the largest group of special needs stu- dents in North America. In fact, as Figure 4.2 shows, they compose about 4.6 percent of the entire student body in U.S. public schools—about half of all children with special needs. Males with specific learning disabilities outnumber females by about 3 to 2 (Child Trends Data Bank, 2013).

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 126 12/14/17 4:37 PM

127

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Various tests are available to help identify the learning disabled (for example, Hammill & Bryant, 1998, Learning Disabilities Diagnostic Inventory). These are used to examine the basic psychological processes involved in learning and remembering. In addition, of course, intel- ligence tests are often used as well.

Categories of Specific Learning Disabilities Like intellectual disabilities, specific learning disabilities are not classified by cause—which is typically unknown—but by symptom. They are most often labeled according to whether they involve oral or written speech, comprehension or production of speech, or particular problems in spelling or arithmetic.

By far, the most frequently diagnosed specific learning disabilities are those that involve lan- guage—especially reading. Thus, one common learning disability is developmental read- ing disorder—also called dyslexia or specific reading disability (American Psychiatric Asso- ciation, 2013). Its main feature is difficulty in recognizing words and understanding what is read, in spite of normal or above-normal intelligence and absence of problems such as deaf- ness, blindness, or inadequate schooling.

Table 4.5: Some symptoms that may be associated with specific learning disabilities

Preschool K to grade 4 Grades 5–8 High school and adults

• Delayed speech • Pronunciation

problems • Slow vocabulary

growth • Trouble learning

numbers, alphabet, days of week, colors, shapes

• Trouble interacting with peers

• Slow to make sound- letter connection

• Confuses simple words

• Consistent reading/ spelling errors

• Confuses number sequences/arithmetic signs

• Difficulty remembering facts

• Impulsive • Trouble learning time

• Letter sequence reversals

• Difficulty learning prefixes, suffixes, spelling strategies

• Avoids reading aloud • Difficulty with

handwriting/pencil grip

• Poor memory • Difficulty making

friends

• Inconsistent spelling errors

• Avoids reading/ writing

• Trouble summarizing

• Problem with open- ended questions

• Poor grasp of abstractions

• Misreads information

Source: Based on LD Online, 2015, retrieved October 23, 2016, from http://www.ldonline.org/ldbasics/signs

Symptoms of Specific Learning Disabilities For the classroom teacher, first indications of specific learning disabilities are usually very tentative and uncertain. The characteristic most likely to be noticed by teachers is general academic retardation, which is often a result of a child’s problems with reading, writing, and other aspects of the language arts.

A variety of other symptoms can sometimes be associated with specific learning disabilities: inattentiveness, mood shifts, hyperactivity, short-term memory problems, and impulsiveness (see Table 4.5). Drug use may also be more common among these children, perhaps because of their problems in school and subsequent adjustment problems.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 127 12/14/17 4:37 PM

http://www.ldonline.org/ldbasics/signs

128

Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

A second language disorder involves difficulty in written language, termed developmental expressive writing disorder or dysgraphia. Children with dysgraphia may lack coordina- tion, making it difficult to hold a pencil correctly or to form letters. Also, they may find it dif- ficult to spell words. Many confuse similar letters like p and q, or b and d.

A third specific learning disability is developmental arithmetic disorder, also termed dyscalculia. Its principal feature is significant difficulty in developing arithmetic skills in the absence of other problems such as intellectual disabilities. Consequently, developmental arithmetic disorder is usually most apparent in computational problems (difficulties in add- ing, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing) or problems in processing visual or auditory infor- mation. As a result, children with arithmetic disabilities often have reading problems.

In most instances, specific learning disabilities are treated in the regular classroom, often with the help and advice of learning disability specialists. Many of these children are not dif- ferent from other children in regular classrooms, except for the specific learning difficulty they experience. Most children with learning disabilities are well adjusted and well liked. Here, as in other areas of exceptionality, the onus of initial identification rests with the class- room teacher. In fact, the teacher’s opinion may be relied on in place of more formal—and more expensive—testing.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a relatively common emotional excep- tionality that is closely related to specific learning disabilities.

Prevalence Estimates of ADHD prevalence vary enormously depending on the criteria used and also depending on whether diagnosis is based on teacher ratings, parent ratings, or both. Some believe that this condition is significantly overdiagnosed by both parents and teachers who want explanations for the misbehavior of their charges, and by the pharmaceutical compa- nies who want to sell medication (Cohen, 2006). It is the most frequently diagnosed child- hood psychiatric disorder. Global estimates of the prevalence of ADHD among children ages 3 to 17 range from 5 to 7 percent (ADHD Institute, 2016).

Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Cause Overdiagnosis may well be a function of the most apparent features of ADHD: excessive gen- eral activity for the child’s age; difficulty in sustaining attention and apparent forgetfulness; and impulsivity (tendency to react quickly, difficulty taking turns, low frustration tolerance). For these reasons, ADHD is often commonly labeled hyperactivity.

Strictly speaking, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as defined by the American Psy- chiatric Association (2013), must be apparent before the age of 7 to differentiate it from dis- orders that might arise as reactions to stressful events or illness. The disorder also requires diagnosis according to a list of very specific criteria in the areas of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016).

The causes of ADHD are unclear, although the fact that more males than females are diag- nosed with the condition suggests that it is at least partly genetic. Most of the research indi- cates that the disorder has a strong neurological basis (Barkley, 2017).

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 128 12/14/17 4:37 PM

129

Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

Intervention with ADHD The most common treatment for a child diagnosed as having an attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity involves the use of stimulant drugs such as dextroamphetamine (Dexe- drine) and methylphenidate (Ritalin). This might seem strange because stimulants ordinarily increase activity and many ADHD children already suffer from excessive activity. However, these drugs appear to have what is termed a paradoxical effect on children. That is, they appear to sedate rather than stimulate. They are effective in approximately 70 to 80 percent of children with ADHD (NIMH, 2008).

Nonmedical interventions for children with ADHD include a number of different options. Many of these children respond well to token reward programs; some require highly struc- tured approaches to learning and benefit from clear rules and well-defined consequences for misbehaviors; most function better in classroom environments that are uncluttered and that offer a minimum of distractions (Pfifner, Barkley, & DuPaul 2005).

Labels in Special Education “Learning disabled,” “educable mentally retarded,” “attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,” “severely emotional disturbed”—these and their common letter substitutes (LD, EMR, ADHD, and SED respectively) are widely used labels in special education. But they are just that: labels. Labels do nothing more than name; they don’t explain anything. To say that Eric has difficulty recognizing numbers because he has the condition called dyscalculia might mislead us into thinking we understand why Eric hesitates and struggles when he picks up the six of spades. But all the label tells us is that Eric’s behavior manifests a combination of symptoms that we have agreed to brand “dyscalculia.”

Although labels can be useful because they permit us to communicate with one another and to develop remedial programs, they do have disadvantages. Many insist that labels are often unfair and inaccurate, that they lead to lower expectations and thus present an additional disadvantage for those who are labeled, and that there is a remarkable lack of homogeneity among those who are given identical labels. There is also a growing tendency to treat children with disabilities as quantitatively rather than qualitatively different from normal children. The use of generally pejorative labels is clearly incompatible with this trend.

We have come some distance from labels that were once as widely accepted as those we use today—labels like “idiot,” “moron,” “imbecile,” “cretin,” “dolt,” “nitwit,” “nincompoop,” “igno- ramus,” “dimwit,” “booby,” “simpleton,” “halfwit,” “dullard,” “numskull,” “dummy,” “stupid,” . . .

4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom Gifts and talents and learning disabilities in all their varieties describe only a few of the sources of diversity with which the teacher must deal. Another is defined by multicultural- ism: the mix of cultures found in the classroom. A culture is the totality of the customary ways of behaving, the beliefs, the attainments, the stories, the songs, the dances, the language, of an identifiable group of people, or of a specified period of time.

We often think of culture and race as though they were largely synonymous. But, strictly speaking, a race is a major biological subdivision of individuals who share a common genetic

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 129 12/14/17 4:37 PM

130

Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

ancestry and who are often identified on the basis of physical characteristics. There is consid- erable controversy over the assignment of groups to races.

For most purposes, the concept of race is not only largely useless, but it easily leads to racism, the belief that biologically distinct groups of humans have inherited different mental abilities and personality characteristics.

As if these often vague terms were not enough, another one is frequently bandied about as though it meant both race and culture—which, in a sense, it does: ethnic. What ethnic signi- fies is membership in a racial, cultural, or language group where individuals share important things such as beliefs and values, history, or other characteristics. This causes them to have a sense of shared identity, or belongingness. So when we speak of ethnic differences, we might be referring to language differences, cultural differences, or racial differences—or perhaps to all three.

Changing Demographics As recently as 1980, 78 percent of the school-age population (ages 5–15) in the United States was white; Hispanic children accounted for only 8 percent of school-age children. Now, in some states like California, the “minority” has become the “majority.” Projections are that by 2050, more than half of California’s population between birth and age 14 will be Hispanic (see Figure 4.5). By then, Hispanic, African American, Asian, and other groups will make up about 75 percent of California’s total population. These changing demographics are partly due to lower birthrates and, consequently, smaller average family size among white families than among African Americans and Hispanics (United States Census Bureau, 2016).

Figure 4.5: Projected California birth to age 14 population ሁ Changing demographics in California. By 2050, the total population of the state is projected at

50,365,074. The current population is close to 40 million.

Source: Data from State of California, Department of Finance, Population Projections for California and Its Counties 2000–2050, by Age, Gender and Race/ Ethnicity, Sacramento, California, July 2007; and from California Department of Finance Population Projections: 2010–2060 Data Tables, retrieved October 23, 2016, from http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/projections/

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian

Other

Total

2,0 00,

000

4,0 00,

000

6,0 00,

000

8,0 00,

000

10, 000

,00 0

12, 000

,00 0

Projected population

D em

o g

ra p

h ic

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 130 12/14/17 4:37 PM

http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/projections/

131

Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

Multicultural Education and Language Learning The clearest implication of these changes is an increasing need for multicultural educa- tion—that is, education that reflects an understanding and appreciation of different cultures and that accommodates the needs of children from different backgrounds.

Multicultural education is a loosely defined concept that reflects the attempts of educators to take into consideration the cultural diversity of their classrooms and communities. And because it is very difficult to separate culture from language, in the majority of cases, multicul- tural education is also multilingual—that is, it involves instruction in more than one language.

Ideally, explains Banks (2006), multicultural education accomplishes several tasks, each of which is reflected in the five key features of multicultural education shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Features of multicultural education ሁ Ideally, according to Banks (2014), multicultural education should be designed to achieve

five important goals relating to reducing prejudice, making teaching fair, empowering learners, developing an appreciation of how culture influences learning, and integrating cross-cultural content.

Source: Adapted from Banks, J. A. (2014). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum and teaching (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Making teaching equitable

Teacher attempts to match instruction to

student learning styles, interest, motivation, to

enhance every individual’s performance

Empowering learners

Teacher attempts to provide school climate that permits students to develop to their full

potential (that empowers them)

Construction of knowledge

Teacher helps learners understand how culture influences knowledge

Reducing prejudice

Teacher Is aware of personal biases and of learners’ prejudices and

attempts to minimize their influence

Integration of content

Teacher incorporates content from different

cultures

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 131 12/14/17 4:37 PM

132

Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

First, it integrates information and examples from a variety of different cultures, making all students, in a sense, culture literate. This feature of multicultural education might involve modifying the curriculum to include units on different cultures.

Second, it helps students understand how knowledge and beliefs are influenced by cultures (and by social class and language). One example of this, the construction of knowledge dimen- sion of multicultural education, might involve having learners view historical events, such as the discovery of the American continent, from many different points of view. How might the indigenous people already here view this event? How about the discoverers? The people still in the old countries who financed the voyages of discovery? The missionaries who soon fol- lowed? Your grandparents? Your parents?

Third, and extremely important in an increasingly tribalistic world, it reduces racial prejudice by increasing understanding and tolerance of other people and other belief systems.

Fourth, it reduces racial, social-class, and gender inequities by making teaching equitable. That is, it looks for instructional approaches that provide each child with the greatest prob- ability of achieving at the highest potential level.

And fifth, it empowers all students so that even those from disadvantaged backgrounds, or very different cultural groups, can acquire information and skills and the confidence and sense of personal power necessary to succeed.

The Second-Language Debate Multicultural education, as we saw, is often multilingual—or, more precisely, bilingual, because in many North American schools there is a clearly identifiable main second language. As a result, numerous bilingual, immersion, or English as a Second Language (ESL) programs have been established. Multicultural education is enormously challenging. In particular, the question of which language—or languages—should be used and taught in schools has been intensely controversial. As Ginn (2008) puts it, “Many Americans have an opinion on bilin- gual education, and for most it is a matter of strong conviction” (p. 7). In the United States, there have been powerful movements toward doing away with bilingual programs and throw- ing all children into the same “sink or swim” classrooms (see, for example, Benson, 2014).

Ironically, opposition to bilingual programs comes from two sources: parents of English- speaking students who fear the education of their children is being shortchanged as a result of too many resources being thrown into the education of cultural minorities; and parents of Hispanic students who fear their children aren’t learning English fast enough or well enough in bilingual programs. In addition, as Wyman and colleagues (2010) point out, the “high stakes testing” that accompanied the No Child Left Behind act (and that underlies the Race to the Top initiative) presents additional incentives for school systems to present English- only programs. That’s because bilingual schools are accountable for the same curriculum as English-only schools, but they face the added responsibility of developing or maintaining pro- ficiency in a second language.

Not surprisingly, the debate over second-language programs has strong advocates on both sides. On one side are powerful, well-funded, and highly vocal groups of English-only advo- cates who argue that English should be designated the official language, as it has now been in at least 25 states (English-only movement, 2011). Many members of English-only movements are firmly opposed to the use of public resources for bilingual education.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 132 12/14/17 4:37 PM

133

Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

On the other side of the second-language debate are those who believe that education should be multicultural and multilingual. They argue that focusing exclusively on English-only pro- grams does a disservice to bilingual learners, violates their civil rights, has negative conse- quences for intergroup relations, and, in brief, does not serve the public interest (American Psychological Association, 2016). Their beliefs are expressed in the English-plus movement, which arose in response to the English-only movement. Its goals are to promote language diversity primarily through multicultural and second-language programs.

The most highly developed second-language programs in the United States are the two-way bilingual immersion programs (also called dual language programs) (García, 2008). In these programs, instruction is split between two languages, sometimes on a 50-50 basis and sometimes according to some other predetermined ratio. In two-way bilingual immersion programs, classes include all students: native English speakers, nonnative English speakers, and those who are bilingual. As illustrated in the case “Buen Amigos and False Friends,” in dual-immersion classes, instruction sometimes takes place in both languages simultaneously. At other times, one language may be used for one lesson or subject, and the second language for another (Two-way immersion, 2016).

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M : B U E N A M I G O S A N D F A L S E F R I E N D S

The Place: Miss Robinson’s seventh-grade two-way bilingual immersion (Spanish-English) class

The Situation: A language lesson

Miss Robinson: Who knows the Spanish word for one billion?

Edward: Billón.

Juan: No. Es mil millones.

Miss Robinson: Right, Juan. But that was a good guess, Edward, billón es una buena palabra Española. But it means one trillion, not one billion! That’s what we call a false friend—un amigo falso.

Tamara: You mean like a word that sounds the same but means something else. Like car- peta that sounds like it should mean carpet but it doesn’t.

Miss Robinson: Good example. ¿Tienen otros ejemplos de amigos falsos?

Students quickly come up with a short list: constipación (which doesn’t mean constipation); compromise (which doesn’t mean compromise); éxito (which is not the exit); largo (which doesn’t mean large); ropa (which is not a rope); sano (which doesn’t mean sane). . . .

Miss Robinson: Now can you think of words that sound or look the same in both languages and have the same meaning? ¿Palabras que son buen amigos?

André: Petróleo.

Roberto: Clima and tarifa and juvenile.

Marcela: And subterráneo and tranquilo and ocupado . . .

Miss Robinson: Escribamos en la pizarra una lista de amigos falsos y otra de buen amigos ¿vale?

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 133 12/14/17 4:37 PM

134

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Also very common are total language immersion programs. In essence, total language immersion involves entering an environment where only the language that is to be learned is spoken. Among the different kinds of immersion programs are what are sometimes called “elite” programs for speakers of the dominant language who want to develop proficiency in a second language. These are a form of linguistic enrichment typically offered for children of well-educated, higher socioeconomic status parents. Immersion programs for nonspeakers of the dominant language are usually programs for children who need to learn the dominant language as rapidly and as well as possible. These are programs typically provided for chil- dren of immigrant parents.

The results of research on the effectiveness of second-language programs are somewhat con- tradictory—perhaps because of the highly emotional nature of the issue. Some studies sug- gest that bilingual programs for children who speak a different native language are not always very effective, especially in developing proficiency in the dominant language. As a result, par- ents of minority-language children sometimes advocate for English-only instruction (Freed- man, 2008).

In general, however, the research indicates that immersion programs can be highly effective for teaching a second language (García, 2005). Many participants quickly reach high levels of proficiency in understanding and speaking the second language, as well as in reading and writing, although most do not reach as high a level of proficiency as native speakers. Gifted learners, in particular, can quickly excel in both languages (Green et al., 2011). And most of the research supports the notion that later academic performance is not impeded by early exposure to language immersion (Cobb, Vega, & Kronauge, 2009).

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Key Points • Talented and gifted children are those identified by professionals as being capable

of high performance by virtue of outstanding capabilities that might be reflected in general intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative or productive think- ing, leadership, or artistic talent. The culturally different are often overlooked and are underrepresented in programs for the gifted.

• Two approaches to educating the talented and gifted are acceleration (for example, grade skipping) and enrichment (students go beyond the conventional curriculum). Other approaches include mentoring and tutoring, IEPs, special schools, the use of problem-solving techniques like brainstorming, and more informal teaching styles.

• IDEIA mandates education in the “least restrictive environment” and the right to zero rejection and parent participation, due process and nondiscriminatory evalu- ation, free and appropriate educational services, and an IEP for each child with special needs.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 134 12/14/17 4:37 PM

135

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

• Exceptionality describes significant deviation from the norm in cognitive, socioemo- tional, or physical functioning. It can be associated with either superior or inferior functioning.

• Physical exceptionality may be manifested in exceptional athletic ability or extraor- dinary grace and elegance; or it may be apparent in sensory or motor impairments, physical disabilities, diseases, and so on.

• Socioemotional exceptionality includes manifestations of emotional disturbance, behavioral disorders, and ADHD, among others. Intellectual disabilities (formerly mental retardation) are characterized by a marked depression in general ability to learn and by limited adaptation; it can vary from mild to severe or profound. Most children with intellectual disabilities are mildly disabled and are thus capable of acceptable achievement in elementary school.

• Specific learning disabilities are generally evident in a disparity between actual and expected achievement, with an uneven pattern of achievement often marked by one or more specific learning impairments (for example, developmental reading disor- der or developmental arithmetic disorder).

• ADHD is a relatively common emotional disorder marked by excessive activity, atten- tion problems, and impulsivity far in excess of what might be considered normal. ADHD is often treated with stimulant drugs (the paradoxical effect).

• Labels are useful in categorizing children and in providing for their special needs. But they simply name rather than explain and should not be pejorative.

• North American schools are increasingly multicultural. Multicultural education seeks to look after the needs of children from all backgrounds. Adapting instruction for cultural diversity is a difficult and controversial task.

• Second-language programs may be geared toward teaching minority children the dominant school language, or they might be directed toward teaching a second language to speakers of the dominant language. Bilingual education remains highly controversial. Two-way bilingual immersion programs (also called dual language immersion) expose learners to two languages simultaneously.

Posttest

1. Marilyn works with Ms. Caston, a teacher in her school. Ms. Caston provides aca- demic support and acts as a role model and advisor for Marilyn. In this relationship, Ms. Caston is best described as a a. protégé. b. tutor. c. scaffold. d. mentor.

2. Which of the following best fits the characterization of an informal teaching style? a. Mr. Brock teaches individual subject areas separately in his class. b. Miss Heshmati emphasizes assessment and achievement. c. Mr. Andersen allows students to select their own seating locations. d. Mrs. Botnay uses more external motivators like grades.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 135 12/14/17 4:37 PM

136

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

3. Severe emotional disturbance (SED) is the diagnosis for all of the following behav- ioral patterns EXCEPT a. constant extreme positive moods such as euphoria or excitement. b. difficulty forming and maintaining interpersonal relationships with others. c. pervasive negative moods; unhappiness or depression. d. an inability to learn that is not related to other factors such as intellectual

disabilities.

4. Which of the following would NOT be an example of a specific learning disability? a. Joan has difficulty reading the board due to her nearsightedness. b. Michael has difficulty with tasks that involve arithmetic. c. Ralph’s actual and potential behaviors differ markedly. d. Evelyn does well on some subjects, but does poorly in others.

5. In terms of symptoms and diagnosis, which is true of ADHD? a. ADHD is underdiagnosed in the United States. b. ADHD must be apparent in the child before age 7. c. The child with ADHD feels that others are not paying enough attention to them. d. The child with ADHD tends to spend excessive time considering decisions.

6. Which of the following is the best example of a dual language immersion program? a. Ms. Saurez teaches all academic subjects in English. b. Ms. DeFeo celebrates the cultural heritage of all of the students in her class. c. Mr. Tennanbaum splits instruction between English and Dutch. d. Mr. Harper coordinates a cultural awareness each February for his school.

Answers: 1(d), 2(c), 3(a), 4(a), 5(b), 6(c)

Critical Thinking Exercises • What are the most important elements of the legal definition of the talented and

gifted? • Write a personality and teaching style profile of a hypothetical teacher whose

approach is most likely to foster creativity. Which teaching style did you choose? Why?

• What are the two dimensions of exceptionality in each of these three areas: physical, intellectual, and emotional?

• How would you describe the differences between intellectual disabilities and spe- cific learning disabilities?

• What are the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Do you think children are overdiagnosed? Explain your reasoning.

• Describe how multicultural education has been part of your schooling. What are some strategies you’ll incorporate to increase multiculturalism in your classroom?

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 136 12/14/17 4:37 PM

137

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Web Resources For more information on two-way bilingual immersion programs (dual language immersion programs) in the United States, visit:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6PwrSSZ3co

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4OYeymmd8Q

For more information on working with gifted and talented children, visit:

http://www.nsgt.org/articles/index.asp

For more information on IDEIA, visit:

http://www.specialednews.com/special-education-dictionary/ideia---individuals -with-disabilities-education-improvement-act.htm

For more information on the provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, visit:

http://www.apa.org/about/gr/issues/disability/idea.aspx

For more information on bilingual education, visit:

http://www.nabe.org/

Answers to Pretest

1. False. Research has found that students who are advanced academically, socially, and emotionally benefit from an accelerated education.

2. True. Mainstreaming allows students with and without disabilities to learn in the same classroom.

3. False. Laws mandate that all children, including those with disabilities, are entitled to free and appropriate education.

4. False. Dyslexia is characterized by having trouble understanding and recognizing words, despite having average or above-average intelligence and not having other problems, such as lack of education.

5. False. Culture is the collection of customs and beliefs of a group of people, while race is a group of people with the same ancestry who are often identified by their physi- cal characteristics, such as the color of their skin.

6. True. Opponents of bilingual education include parents of non-English-speaking students who think their children’s progress in learning English will diminish and parents of English-speaking students who argue their children’s learning is hindered by bilingual education.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 137 12/14/17 4:37 PM

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6PwrSSZ3co

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4OYeymmd8Q

http://www.nsgt.org/articles/index.asp

http://www.specialednews.com/special-education-dictionary/ideia---individuals-with-disabilities-education-improvement-act.htm

http://www.apa.org/about/gr/issues/disability/idea.aspx

http://www.nabe.org/

138

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Answers to Posttest

1. A mentor provides guidance. This role can include being a role model, trainer, or advisor.

2. Characteristics of an informal teaching style can include allowing students to choose where they sit and integrating subjects during teaching. Followers of informal teach- ing also tend not to emphasize testing and external motivators.

3. SED is marked by individuals who are usually unhappy, have difficulty creating rela- tionships, and do not have intellectual disabilities, but are unable to learn.

4. Struggling to read due to nearsightedness would not be considered a specific learn- ing disability. In order to be categorized as a specific learning disability, the problem should not result from hearing, vision, or intellectual disabilities.

5. According to the American Psychiatric Association, ADHD symptoms must appear before age 7 as well as meet criteria for inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

6. Dual language immersion programs are characterized by splitting instruction between two languages. The split can be even or according to a predetermined ratio.

Key Terms acceleration One approach used for the education of the gifted. Acceleration pro- grams attempt to move students through the conventional curriculum more rapidly than normal. See also enrichment.

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A disorder marked by excessive general activity for a child’s age, attention problems, high impulsivity, and low frustra- tion tolerance. Also termed hyperactivity. See also paradoxical effect.

bilingual education One of a variety of educational programs that attempt to develop proficiency in more than one lan- guage. See also total language immersion, two-way bilingual immersion program.

brainstorming A technique used to pro- duce creative solutions for problems where individuals are encouraged to produce a wide variety of ideas that are evaluated later.

cerebral palsy Label for collection of con- genital motor problems of varying severity, associated with brain damage, occasionally manifested in other problems such as con- vulsions or behavior disorders.

classroom climate The general ambi- ence of a classroom evident in the teacher’s customary ways of interacting with students (teaching styles), physical features of the classroom, relationships and interactions among learners, and personal and decora- tive touches.

culture The totality of the customary ways of behaving, the beliefs, the attainments, the stories, the songs, the dances, the language, of an identifiable group of people, or of a specified period of time.

developmental arithmetic disorder A specific learning disability evident in diffi- culties in developing arithmetic skills in the absence of other problems such as intellec- tual disability.

developmental expressive writing disor- der The American Psychiatric Association label for a specific learning disability char- acterized by difficulty in writing that is not due to general intellectual disabilities or to physical or sensory problems.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 138 12/14/17 4:37 PM

139

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

developmental reading disorder A spe- cific learning disability manifested in read- ing problems of varying severity—some- times evident in spelling difficulties. Also termed dyslexia or specific reading disability.

dual language immersion programs Immersion programs that include children who are native speakers of the dominant language and children who are learning the dominant language as a second language.

dyscalculia See developmental arithmetic disorder.

dysgraphia See developmental expressive writing disorder.

dyslexia See developmental reading disorder.

electronic brainstorming A brainstorm- ing session involving the use of computers either in linked groups (as in a “chat” brain- storming group) or individually (nominal brainstorming).

enrichment An approach to the education of gifted children in which learners are pro- vided with additional and different school experiences rather than simply being accel- erated. See also acceleration.

ethnic Refers to the sharing of beliefs, values, history, or other characteristics, as might happen with distinct cultural or lan- guage groups.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) A U.S. act, signed in 2015, that replaced No Child Left Behind (NCLB). The broad goal of ESSA is to ensure that all learners receive the best possible educational experiences regardless of their gifts, talents, and challenges.

exceptionality A term used to describe a significant deviation from the average in terms of physical, intellectual, or emotional behaviors, abilities, or skills (significant superiority or challenges). See also special education teacher, special needs.

formal teaching style An approach to teaching that emphasizes competition, indi- vidual work, discipline, order, achievement, and external motivators. See also informal teaching style.

free and appropriate public education (FAPE) One of the guiding principles of IDEIA. It asserts that all children with special needs are entitled to educational services at public expense and that this education must be appropriate in the sense that it conforms to an educational plan devised specifically for each child.

giftedness Exceptional general ability. See also talented and gifted, talent.

hyperactivity A common term for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. See also atten- tion deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

inclusion See mainstreaming.

inclusive classroom A classroom that contains one or more children with special needs in addition to more average children.

individualized education plans (IEPs) Individualized instructional programs tai- lored to a child’s specific pattern of needs and abilities. Also termed individualized program plans or IPPs.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) The act that updated Public- Law 94-142 in 1997. It was superseded by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act in 2004. See also Individu- als with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), Public Law 94-142.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 139 12/14/17 4:37 PM

140

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) The U.S. spe- cial education law that provides funding for special education and guarantees certain rights for learners with special needs and their parents.

informal teaching style A teaching approach that grants students a relatively high degree of freedom and autonomy and emphasizes individual growth and fulfill- ment rather than academic achievement and external rewards. See also formal teaching style.

intellectual disability A significant general depression in the ability to learn, usu- ally accompanied by deficits in adaptive behavior.

learning disability A depression in the ability to learn specific things (for example, reading or arithmetic), where the learning difficulties are not related to mental retarda- tion or emotional disorders.

magnet schools Highly specialized schools designed to attract (as might a magnet) gifted learners or learners with special artis- tic, athletic, or social skills, or other special- ized talents or interests.

mainstreaming The practice of placing stu- dents in need of special services in regular classrooms rather than segregating them. Also termed inclusion or inclusive education.

mentor An individual engaged in a one-on- one teaching-learning relationship where the teacher (mentor) serves as a fundamen- tally important model with respect to values, beliefs, philosophies, and attitudes, as well as a source of more specific information. See also tutor.

mild intellectual disability A classifica- tion of intellectual disability identified by degree and usually defined in terms of an IQ between 50 and about 70. Also termed edu- cable, children with mild intellectual disabil- ity are capable of adequate social adaptation and achievement at about the sixth-grade level. See also moderate intellectual disabil- ity, profound intellectual disability, severe intellectual disability.

moderate intellectual disability A degree of intellectual disability defined in terms of an IQ range between 35 and 55. Those with moderate intellectual disability can profit from training in social and occupational skills. See also mild intellectual disability, profound intellectual disability, severe intel- lectual disability.

multicultural education Educational procedures and curricula that are respon- sive to the various cultures and languages of students, with the goal of assuring that all children experience high-quality education.

multiculturalism Having to do with many cultures.

nominal brainstorming Phrase used to describe individual, as opposed to group, brainstorming sessions.

paradoxical effect Literally, a surprising or contradictory effect. This phrase is used to describe the apparently sedating effect that some stimulants (such as Ritalin) have on children who suffer from excessive activity (hyperactivity; ADHD). See also attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

peer-assisted learning (PAL) A form of tutoring in which the tutors are typically school peers rather than older students or adults. See also mentor, tutor.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 140 12/14/17 4:37 PM

141

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

prodigy An individual characterized by a distinct form of giftedness—marked by a highly focused talent or ability, such as musi- cal or artistic talent, for example.

profound intellectual disability A degree of intellectual disability defined in terms of a measured IQ below 20 or 25 and marked by limited motor development and a need for nursing care. See also mild intellectual disability, moderate intellectual disability, severe intellectual disability.

Public Law 91-230 A 1969 law dealing with identifying and defining talent and giftedness among students.

Public Law 94-142 A 1975 U.S. education act that attempted to formalize the rights of children with special needs, and to specify the responsibilities of the school. Later replaced by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). See also Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA).

race A biological term referring to an attempt to classify humans in groups distin- guishable in terms of their genetic ancestry; often identifiable on the basis of physical, mental, or personality characteristics. The concept is unclear, contradictory, and not very useful.

racism The belief that identifiable groups of humans inherit different physical, mental, and personality characteristics.

revolving door model An enrichment program for gifted children advocated by Renzulli, available to the top 25 percent of students in a program (high ability, high creativity, high motivation) on an optional basis, so that students can opt in or out of the program (hence, the revolving door).

school enrichment model (SEM) Also called the revolving door model, an enrich- ment program developed by Renzulli, wherein all learners in a school are pre- sented with a continuum of challenging pro- grams determined largely by their interests and talents.

severe emotional disturbance (SED) A general category of social/emotional excep- tionality defined primarily in terms of inap- propriate behavior and affect and the inabil- ity to establish normal social relationships.

severe intellectual disability A level of intellectual disability defined in terms of an IQ range between 20 and 40. Individu- als with severe intellectual disability can learn to communicate and, with systematic training, to take care of simple hygiene. See also mild intellectual disability, moderate intellectual disability, profound intellectual disability.

special education teacher A teacher whose training and/or functions deal spe- cifically with the education of exceptional children—that is, children with special needs who might be either talented and gifted or more challenged. See also excep- tionality, special needs.

special needs A phrase used to describe individuals whose social, physical, or emo- tional exceptionalities require special treat- ment and services for them to develop their potential. See also exceptionality.

specific learning disability A depression in the ability to learn specific things (for example, reading or arithmetic), where the learning difficulties are not related to intel- lectual disability or emotional disturbance. See also developmental arithmetic disorder; developmental reading disorder.

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 141 12/14/17 4:37 PM

142

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

study-buddy program A volunteer pro- gram where older individuals are matched with younger students to help them learn.

talent Exceptional ability in a specific field such as music or literature. See also talented and gifted, giftedness.

talented and gifted A phrase used to describe an advantageous combination of intelligence, creativity, and motivation that results in the potential for superior achieve- ment in one or more fields. See also talent, giftedness.

teaching style A customary way of teach- ing, often described as either teacher- centered (also labeled formal or direct instruction) or learner-centered (informal or constructivist). See also formal teaching style, informal teaching style.

total language immersion An approach to teaching a second language that involves placing the learner in an environment where only the second language is used. See also two-way bilingual immersion program.

tutor A teacher involved in a one-on-one teaching situation. Tutors are frequently other students or other teachers or experts. See also mentor.

two-way bilingual immersion program A program in which instruction is split between two languages. In two-way bilin- gual immersion programs, classes include all students: native English speakers, nonnative English speakers, and those who are bilin- gual. Also called dual language programs.

ሁ In the summer, a bear’s heart normally beats approximately 40 times per minute. In winter, when the bear is denned up, heart rate may drop as low as 10 beats per minute. Amazingly, extreme cold rouses the bear as readily as does warmth. If this were not the case, many bears would freeze to death because it is necessary for the bear to awaken and warm up when the temperature drops too low (Matthews, 1969).

Lef83909_04_ch04_107-142.indd 142 12/14/17 4:37 PM