10 DISCUSSIONS DUE IN 36 HOURS
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04CH_Hansen_Curriculum.pdf
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
ሁ Define the backward design process, and analyze its value in helping to avoid common inadequa- cies in curriculum and assessment planning.
ሁ Identify what serves as evidence of student proficiency for appropriately assessing the degree of student understanding.
ሁ Evaluate the theoretical and practical implications in the use of the Six Facets of Understanding for curriculum design, assessment, and teaching.
ሁ Create learning activities that are both engaging and effective.
4Backward Design
iStock/Thinkstock
To begin with the end in mind means to start with a clear understanding of your destination. It means to know where you’re going so that you better understand where you are now so that the steps you take are always in the right direction.
—Stephen R. Covey (1989), The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People
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Introduction
Introduction In this chapter, we examine the components of backward design. We introduce it as an effec- tive instructional design process that helps teachers to decide what is most important and move all aspects of instruction, from content to activities, toward those most important goals. Rather than encouraging teachers to teach a vast amount of content, this process encourages teachers to promote an enduring understanding of underlying concepts and premises. See the feature box InTASC Teaching Standards Addressed in Chapter 4.
I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 4
Standard #4: Content Knowledge. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experi- ences that make these aspects of the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.
Standard #7: Planning for Instruction. The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies. Teachers need to be cognizant of and utilize evidence-based instructional strategies in their lessons.
2 1 S T C E N T U R Y F R A M E W O R K E L E M E N T S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 4
21st Century Professional Development Highlights ways teachers can seize opportunities for integrating 21st century skills, tools, and teaching strategies into their classroom practice—and help them identify what activi- ties they can replace or de-emphasize.
Helps teachers develop their abilities to use various strategies (such as formative assess- ments) to reach diverse students and create environments that support differentiated teaching and learning.
Supports the continuous evaluation of students’ 21st century skills development.
21st Century Standards Emphasizes deep understanding rather than shallow knowledge.
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Section 4.1 What Is Backward Design?
4.1 What Is Backward Design? The term “backward” is derived from the perspective of much custom, habit, and tradition in the field of education. In this tradition, teachers begin their planning with textbooks, favored lessons, time-honored activities, or “fun” things to do and then, at the conclusion of a unit of study, decide how to assess for learning. This approach is considered “forward” design. By reversing the order of thinking about how we traditionally approach our planning, the backward design process asks teachers to begin planning by clarifying performance goals for students. The teacher begins to plan with the desired results (goals and standards) in mind and determines an assessment that will provide evidence of learning. Once this task has been accomplished, the teacher considers what learning activities would help students achieve these desired learning outcomes. The backward design process requires us to make an important shift in our thinking about the nature of our job and the needs of our audience of learners. The shift involves us thinking a great deal about what exactly we want students to know and be able to do before we consider which engaging and effective activities we will implement. The challenge of the backward design process is to focus first on the desired learn- ing and then let the appropriate teaching activities follow. When you think about it, backward design is logical, but it goes against our common practices because we are used to jumping to lesson and activity ideas before considering assessment means.
The appropriateness of this approach becomes clearer when we consider that the educa- tional purpose of teaching is student understanding. The backward design process focuses on outcome-based education, a term that refers to a student-centered, results-oriented design based on the belief that all individuals can learn. Every day, teachers design for students learning experiences intended to meet specified purposes. To determine if those specified purposes have been met, teachers administer assessments. These assessments are used to diagnose student needs, guide our future teaching, and inform us whether we have achieved our goals. When we start our planning process by defining learning outcomes and deciding what we will use as evidence for meeting these outcomes, we are backward designing.
The Rationale for Backward Design To adopt the backward design process, let’s take a moment to consider why the traditional “forward” design process is not working. One issue revolves around what has been noted as the “twin sins of activity design” (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 13). The first “sin” is planning activity-oriented lessons that do not lead to meaningful learning. These are lessons in which the activities are hands-on but not necessarily minds-on. Students are engaged and having fun during the activity, but ultimately, the activity does not lead to intellectual stimulation, insight, or achievement. The second “sin” is a form of superficial teaching and learning that Wiggins and McTighe (2005) term “coverage.” The need to expose students to all the material in the text usually results in “covering” too much content over too short a time, leaving little time for exploration of underlying concepts.
C O N S I D E R T H I S
How does the backward design process help us avoid common inadequacies in curriculum and lesson planning?
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Section 4.1 What Is Backward Design?
Textbook Coverage vs. Uncoverage If teachers feel the need to cover the textbook, then this can present two problems. First, it often means that teachers use little supplementary material. In the late 1980s, Applebee, Langer, and Mullis (1987) reported the results of several studies showing that textbooks structured 75 to 90 percent of classroom instruction in the United States. And, for decades, some teachers have been willing to follow their textbooks, chapter by chapter, and bring lit- tle to no supplementary material into their classroom. Unfortunately, little attempt has been made through the years to balance the use of textbook with outside resources, even when researchers show this practice to be an important aspect of teaching. Successful teachers do much more than follow the state or district adopted textbook; they communicate a vision of the higher levels of understanding that the course can lead students to reach (Farr, 2011).
Second, feeling the need to cover the textbook usually means that teachers try to cover too much content in a short amount of time, often with little time to explore underlying concepts. Exposing students to a vast amount of content within a prescribed time might contribute to short-term learning, but enduring understanding of the material will likely not persist. Crit- ics of the U.S. educational system refer to this as teaching “a mile wide and an inch deep.” The result is that, in time, students have very little recollection of the textbook material. Part of this pedagogy of rapid-paced textbook coverage is the result of standardized testing. Prompted by pressure to have the students score well on standardized exams, teachers feel obligated to at least expose their students to every chapter in the book. The problem is that this strategy can leave little class time to pursue topics in depth and “uncover” subject matter as perhaps professionals in the field might. Patterson (2003) shares this concern: “The obsession with coverage leads to bored students who are rarely engaged in their own learning” (p. 571). In contrast, when teachers focus teaching on big ideas, as opposed to recall of isolated facts, stu- dent achievement improves (Olson & Mohtari, 2010).
The backward design process seeks to remedy the process of “covering” material by first con- sidering the underlying concepts and understandings. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) outline five steps toward uncoverage of content.
1. Unearth it. 2. Analyze it. 3. Question it. 4. Prove it. 5. Generalize it.
Because steps 2 through 5 proceed from “unearthing,” Wiggins and McTighe offer a concise explanation of the term: “Bring to the surface and bring to light the misunderstood, the subtle, the nonobvious, the problematic, the controversial, the obscure, the missing, and the lost” (p. 102). Strategies for uncovering students’ potential misunderstandings include diagnostic assessment, constructive feedback, and focused questions. Teachers should also focus on uncovering the core ideas at the heart of a discipline and strive to include ideas that are not obvious and perhaps counterintuitive or potentially baffling to the learner.
C O N S I D E R T H I S
Entertain the seemingly odd or alien view that “uncoverage” is required to teach for under- standing. How might you promote “uncoverage” of an issue and make the understanding of big ideas more likely? What are the enduring understandings that are in need of uncover- age for the unit that you are currently designing?
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Section 4.2 Stage 1: Identify Desired Outcomes and Results
Stages of the Backward Design Process The backward design process is a way of thinking more carefully about planning; it is not a preset program. The backward design process is crafted to equip learners with knowledge, skills, and dispositions that will be enduring and to foster transfer of learning to create inde- pendent problem-solvers. The backward design process plans for instruction in three distinct stages, with the end goal coming first. The first stage, “identify desired results,” focuses on defining learning goals. These goals are the enduring understandings that we want our stu- dents to have developed at the completion of the learning sequence. This stage also includes development of essential questions that go beyond facts and skills to focus on larger concepts, principles, or processes. In the second stage, teachers determine acceptable evidence that indicates if students are moving toward mastering the learning goals. Students might provide evidence of their learning through essay writing, term papers, quizzes, exams, homework assignments, lab reports, projects, or problems to solve. The third stage is to plan the instruc- tional activity and learning strategies. These stages are summarized in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Three stages of the backward design process
Stage 1 Identify desired results What knowledge, skills, and dispositions are needed for learners to “understand” the concepts?
Stage 2 Determine acceptable evidence How will I measure if learners know what I want them to know?
Stage 3 Plan learning experiences What do I need to do in the classroom to prepare learners for the assessment?
Wiggins and McTighe (2005) argue that you can’t start planning how you are going to teach until you know exactly what you want your students to learn. So, let’s look at the three stages of the process more closely.
4.2 Stage 1: Identify Desired Outcomes and Results
In the first stage of backward design, we deliberately define goals, examine established con- tent standards (Common Core, national, state, district), and review curriculum expectations. We begin by determining the “big ideas.” Big ideas are the core concepts, themes, issues/ debates, paradoxes, problems/challenges, principles, theories, and processes that serve as the focal point of curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Because there is more content that can ever be reasonably addressed within time available for instruction, teachers must make choices. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) propose some guidelines to help teachers filter through content and set their priorities. This begins with identifying “enduring understandings.”
Textbook Coverage vs. Uncoverage If teachers feel the need to cover the textbook, then this can present two problems. First, it often means that teachers use little supplementary material. In the late 1980s, Applebee, Langer, and Mullis (1987) reported the results of several studies showing that textbooks structured 75 to 90 percent of classroom instruction in the United States. And, for decades, some teachers have been willing to follow their textbooks, chapter by chapter, and bring lit- tle to no supplementary material into their classroom. Unfortunately, little attempt has been made through the years to balance the use of textbook with outside resources, even when researchers show this practice to be an important aspect of teaching. Successful teachers do much more than follow the state or district adopted textbook; they communicate a vision of the higher levels of understanding that the course can lead students to reach (Farr, 2011).
Second, feeling the need to cover the textbook usually means that teachers try to cover too much content in a short amount of time, often with little time to explore underlying concepts. Exposing students to a vast amount of content within a prescribed time might contribute to short-term learning, but enduring understanding of the material will likely not persist. Crit- ics of the U.S. educational system refer to this as teaching “a mile wide and an inch deep.” The result is that, in time, students have very little recollection of the textbook material. Part of this pedagogy of rapid-paced textbook coverage is the result of standardized testing. Prompted by pressure to have the students score well on standardized exams, teachers feel obligated to at least expose their students to every chapter in the book. The problem is that this strategy can leave little class time to pursue topics in depth and “uncover” subject matter as perhaps professionals in the field might. Patterson (2003) shares this concern: “The obsession with coverage leads to bored students who are rarely engaged in their own learning” (p. 571). In contrast, when teachers focus teaching on big ideas, as opposed to recall of isolated facts, stu- dent achievement improves (Olson & Mohtari, 2010).
The backward design process seeks to remedy the process of “covering” material by first con- sidering the underlying concepts and understandings. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) outline five steps toward uncoverage of content.
1. Unearth it. 2. Analyze it. 3. Question it. 4. Prove it. 5. Generalize it.
Because steps 2 through 5 proceed from “unearthing,” Wiggins and McTighe offer a concise explanation of the term: “Bring to the surface and bring to light the misunderstood, the subtle, the nonobvious, the problematic, the controversial, the obscure, the missing, and the lost” (p. 102). Strategies for uncovering students’ potential misunderstandings include diagnostic assessment, constructive feedback, and focused questions. Teachers should also focus on uncovering the core ideas at the heart of a discipline and strive to include ideas that are not obvious and perhaps counterintuitive or potentially baffling to the learner.
C O N S I D E R T H I S
Entertain the seemingly odd or alien view that “uncoverage” is required to teach for under- standing. How might you promote “uncoverage” of an issue and make the understanding of big ideas more likely? What are the enduring understandings that are in need of uncover- age for the unit that you are currently designing?
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Worth being familiar with
Important to know and do
Big ideas and enduring
understandings
Information we want to expose students to through reading, hearing, exploring, or viewing that can be learned if there is time.
The knowledge and skills we want students to accomplish to gain a working knowledge of a concept.
What we want students to walk away with and apply in their lives.
Section 4.2 Stage 1: Identify Desired Outcomes and Results
Identifying Enduring Understandings Ultimately, we want students to learn concepts that are core to the discipline and that they will remember long after the class is over. To do this, we establish enduring understand- ings that provide a conceptual foundation for studying the content area. These enduring understandings are important ideas that have lasting value beyond the classroom and that students can apply to various situations throughout their lives. If students learn the big ideas and can discuss essential questions, then they will more likely be able to address content trivia and smaller questions, where the reverse is not usually true. To prioritize content, con- sider spending the bulk of your time on the big ideas and enduring understanding at the center of your discipline. Teach those concepts and skills that are important to know and do to reach that big idea. Assign the lowest priority to content that is worth being familiar with or can provide background knowledge.
For example, a teacher might choose the idea the genre of a text influences its meaning as an enduring understanding for the lesson. The knowledge and skills that are important to know to reach that enduring understanding are determining the meaning of a piece by reading it silently; listening to the words; noticing the emotions that are expressed in the melody, voice, or words; and feeling the rhythm or beat. It may be worth being familiar with other genres that have been used to express identity through song, such as folk, country music, jazz, rock and roll, or classical music, but this could be used as background knowledge or additional examples if there is time. Figure 4.1 depicts this model.
Figure 4.1: Prioritizing learning goals ሁ Big ideas and enduring understandings are the conceptual foundations for a content area. These
concepts are core to the discipline and students should remember such concepts long after the class is over.
Source: Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design: Professional development workbook (Expanded 2nd ed.). Reprinted with permission from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Worth being familiar with
Important to know and do
Big ideas and enduring
understandings
Information we want to expose students to through reading, hearing, exploring, or viewing that can be learned if there is time.
The knowledge and skills we want students to accomplish to gain a working knowledge of a concept.
What we want students to walk away with and apply in their lives.
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Section 4.2 Stage 1: Identify Desired Outcomes and Results
Using Standards to Inform and Shape Curriculum Planning A good place to begin to identify enduring understandings is the Content Standards and Com- mon Core Standards. As in other design professions, standards are used to inform and shape our work. For example, architects are guided by building codes, customer budgets, and aes- thetics. Graphic artists are guided by client needs, marketing climate, and intended use of work. Likewise, the Common Core Standards, Next Generation Science Standards, or similar national, state. or district academic standards guide teachers and curriculum writers. How- ever, “standards by themselves are not a curriculum; a curriculum works with the standards to frame optimal learning experiences” (Wiggins & McTighe, 2012, p. 3). Darling-Hammond (2009/2010) stresses that standards for learning must be matched with standards of prac- tice to guide teacher development and teaching itself. As discussed in Chapter 3, to use the standards as a frame, look for key concepts that relay the big idea, key verbs that identify skills, and key nouns that identify content. Consider putting the idea through a series of “fil- ters” to distill the idea into a workable enduring understanding by asking these questions:
Filter #1: Does the idea for the enduring understanding have lasting value? The answer is “yes” if:
• The idea has applications that are universal. • The idea has a timelessness that will carry through the ages. • The idea will have value for years to come.
Filter #2: Is the idea for the enduring understanding transferable? The answer is “yes” if:
• The idea has applications that are beyond the classroom. • The idea can be applied to new or novel situations. • The idea could be used creatively by students on their own or in other subjects.
Filter #3: Is the idea for the enduring understanding substantial enough for uncovering? The answer is “yes” if:
• The idea is complex and abstract with many nuances. • The idea requires “uncoverage” by the learner. • The idea stimulates thinking and taking different perspectives.
If the idea will pass through all three filters, then it is a good one to use as an enduring under- standing. If not, then the idea is not central to the discipline.
Enduring understandings articulate important ideas and core processes that are central to a discipline. They give meaning and lasting importance to such discrete curriculum elements as facts and skills. And, ultimately, enduring understandings convey what students should revisit over the course of their lifetimes in relationship to a particular content area. From the enduring understandings, essential questions can be developed that effectively frame cur- riculum goals and guide lesson planning.
C O N S I D E R T H I S
Respond to the following concern expressed by a colleague: “Teaching for understanding takes too much time. I can barely get through the textbook now.”
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Section 4.2 Stage 1: Identify Desired Outcomes and Results
What Makes a Question Essential? According to Wiggins and McTighe (2012), the use of the term “essential” has three different overlapping meanings. One meaning of “essential” has to do with the importance and time- lessness of the question. Essential questions are broad in scope and universal by nature and perpetually arguable (e.g., What is justice? To what extent is art a matter of taste or prin- ciples?). There are multiple answers to the questions depending on one’s perspective. These are lifelong questions that are not just about providing the answer, but also about learn- ing how to view multiple perspectives, ask relevant questions, and continually learn to find an answer.
A second connotation for “essential” refers to foundational. Essential questions in this sense are at the heart of the discipline. They are historically important and yet still resonate with those working in the field. For example, the question “To what extent is science compatible with religion?” has been debated among scholars since Charles Darwin’s time, and yet today, the question can still spark social, scientific, and historical discussions from novices and experts alike. This type of question remains at the forefront of debate about evolution in biol- ogy and creationism in theology. It reflects the key inquiries with each respective discipline and offers relevance and transferability across disciplines.
The third association for the term “essen- tial” refers to what is vital or necessary for personal understanding. In this sense, a question is essential if it helps students with meaning making. For example, “In what ways does light assume characteristics of waves?” By engaging in inquiry around the essential question, learners are able to con- nect isolated facts and skills and arrive at important understandings, as well as trans- fer applications for that knowledge.
Essential questions are important for stim- ulating student thinking, initiating debate, and leading to inquiry. The answer to an essential question cannot be “Googled.” These types of questions serve as lenses through which students can better see key concepts, themes, theories, issues, and problems that exist within the content. A question is considered “essential” if it fits certain criteria. An essential question:
• Goes to the heart of a discipline. • Recurs naturally through one’s learning and in the history of the field. • Has no simple “right” answer; these questions are meant to be argued. • Is designed to provoke and sustain student inquiry, while focusing learning and final
performances. • Often addresses the conceptual or philosophical foundations of a discipline.
Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock
ሁ Essential questions stimulate student thinking, initiate debate, and lead to inquiry.
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Section 4.2 Stage 1: Identify Desired Outcomes and Results
• Raises other important questions. • Stimulates vital, ongoing rethinking of big ideas, assumptions, and prior lessons.
There is no formula for writing an essential question. As Wiggins and McTighe (2013) state, “Intent trumps form.” That is to say, if only the wording of a question is examined out of con- text, then we cannot determine whether the question is essential. This is because not all essential questions necessarily begin with the stems why, how, in what ways, to what extent, etc. Likewise, not all questions that begin with the stems who, what, when, and where are necessarily closed-ended questions asking for factual answers. For example, “Who is a friend?” is an essential question, while “Who invented the light bulb?” is not. So, you must examine the intent of the question—the discussion that the question will generate matters more than how you phrase the question.
Try It!
Which of the following questions would fit the criteria of an essential question? Why?
1. What is the relationship between popularity and greatness in literature? 2. What determines value? 3. When was the Magna Carta signed? 4. Crustaceans—what’s up with that? 5. What is foreshadowing? Give an example. 6. In what ways can motion evoke emotion? 7. Who is a winner? 8. How would life be different if we could not measure time? 9. How many minutes are in an hour?
10. How does an elephant use its trunk? 11. What can we learn about our own culture from studying another’s culture? 12. Which U.S. president has the most disappointing legacy?
Answers:
Questions 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 11, and 12 would be considered essential questions because these questions:
• Go to the heart of the discipline • Recur naturally through one’s learning and in the history of a field • Have no simple “right” answer; they are meant to be argued • Are designed to provoke and sustain student inquiry • Address the conceptual or philosophical foundations of the discipline • Raise other important questions • Stimulate vital, ongoing rethinking of big ideas, assumptions, and prior lessons
Questions 3, 4, 5, 6, 10 are not essential questions because these questions:
• Have a single answer that can be “Googled” or looked up • Are too vague to be considered essential; see question 4 • Are topical questions that are more narrow in scope • Can be answered with a list or a specific “right” answer • Do not raise other questions
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Topic or Content Standard
Enduring understandings
Essential questions
Big ideas
Section 4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
Overarching vs. Topical Essential Questions In the backward design arena, the more general essential questions are referred to as over- arching while more specific essential questions are referred to as topical. That is to say that essential questions can differ in their scope and size. Overarching essential questions are meant to be perpetually open or unanswerable and lead to transfer of understanding. Examples of overarching essential questions include: “What is fair in economics? How does language shape culture? How does what we measure influence how we measure?” Topical essential questions lead to more specific understandings and skills, but still resist simple answers and require explanation and justification. Examples might include: “When should we require DNA samples from convicted criminals? What is the value of place value?” These types of questions promote inquiry but are specific enough to a topic to guide individual units of learning. When designing curriculum or creating lesson plans, we can create related sets of overarching and topical questions. For example, the overarching question “How do authors use different story elements to establish mood?” can be paired with the topical question “How does John Updike use setting to establish mood?” (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 114).
Making the Connection The end of stage 1 in the backward design process is a conceptual overview of learning as the big idea, from which we can identify the enduring understand- ing. We use the desired understanding to guide instruction and learning. While pertaining to general or abstract ideas, these understandings should be stated in clear and explicit terms so that learn- ers and instructors are on the same page. And, finally, these understand- ings can be expressed in terms of essen- tial questions that are either topical or overarching. Topical essential questions are content-specific, while overarching essential questions are broader and offer a bridge to other content and disciplines. Figure 4.2 depicts these connections.
4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
Clarifying expected outcomes for students allows students to be more involved with their assignments (Good & Brophy, 2008). Toward this end, the backward design practice encour- ages educators and curriculum designers to think like assessors, not necessarily like teach- ers. In stage 2, as assessors, we identify the assessment evidence needed to validate whether learners have a full understanding of the content and concepts, as well as the ability to transfer
Figure 4.2: Connection between big ideas, enduring understandings, and essential questions
ሁ Identifying the big ideas can help identify the enduring understandings and essential questions that should be considered.
Source: Adapted from Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2004). Understanding by design: Professional development workbook. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved from http://slideplayer.us/slide/228742/
Topic or Content Standard
Enduring understandings
Essential questions
Big ideas
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Section 4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
their knowledge to new situations. These assessment pieces and performance tasks confirm that students have achieved the targeted learning. Wiggins and McTighe (2005, p. 150) sug- gest three basic questions to help us think like assessors:
1. What kinds of evidence do we need to find hallmarks of our goals? 2. What specific characteristics in student responses, products, or performances
(i.e., rubrics, exemplars, answer keys) should we examine to determine the extent to which we achieved the desired results?
3. Does the proposed evidence enable us to infer a student’s knowledge, skills, or under- standing? In other words, does the evidence align with goals?
So instead of asking, as a teacher, “How will I give students a grade and justify that grade to their parents?” an assessor asks, “Against what criteria will we appropriately consider work and assess levels of quality?” (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 151). However, in our role as an assessor, it is important to distinguish between evidence of learning and evidence of achievement.
The Distinction Between Learning and Achievement The media focus on the declining international rankings of U.S. student performance prompted Secretary of Education Arne Duncan to call the 2012 PISA scores “a brutal truth that must serve as a wake-up call for the country” (Layton, 2013). Add to that the overwhelm- ing pressures that students feel to perform well on state-mandated assessment instruments, and it is no wonder that teachers are “teaching to the test” and emphasizing achievement over learning.
Alfie Kohn (1999) makes an important distinction between “learning” and “achievement.” He claims that learning is the process of gaining knowledge or skills and can be likened to the journey toward a destination. For deep learning to occur, the learners need to self- evaluate and reflect on the processes they are using to learn and to question how they can apply the learning to other contexts. Achievement refers more to the successful completion of the journey and arrival at the destination as measured by the time it took to travel, appear- ance at arrival, and a checklist of things seen along the way. Sometimes achievement is driven through objectives such as student motivation (grades used as rewards to encourage students to work harder) or the competition promoted by norm-referenced tests that rank students. Kohn argues that as the motivation to get good grades goes up, learner motivation to explore ideas tends to go down. He also observes that students try to avoid challenging tasks when- ever possible, partly because the more difficult assignments would get in the way of getting a good grade.
This over-emphasis on achievement is a major concern for the Common Core program as it becomes a reality in practice, as opposed to just a program on paper (Lee, 2011). Poskitt and Taylor (2008, p. 14) make the distinction clear with this example:
Achievement is when a child can correctly answer that 3 1 5 5 8. Learning can be shown when the child is able to demonstrate or explain several strate- gies for finding the answer (including manipulating concrete materials in sev- eral ways, explaining verbally or in writing), and then use this knowledge in a variety of different contexts.
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Pre-assessment
Finding out
Pre-test
Survey
Informal checks for understanding
Observations and dialogues
Formative
Keeping track & checking up
Guided practice data
Progress monitoring
Tests and quizzes
Academic prompts
Summative
Making judgment
Unit exam
Performance task
Standardized tests
Student self-assessment/ teacher reflection
Section 4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
Understanding the assessment continuum—the purpose and value of specific assessments— is critical to student learning. The assessment systems being developed to correlate with the new standards promise to focus on learners demonstrating what they have learned, not what they have achieved. For example, both the PARCC (Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers) and the Smarter Balanced assessments provide diagnostic/prescriptive formative assessments to guide student placement and ongoing instruction. These assess- ments enable teachers to provide appropriate instruction for a range of students by introduc- ing concepts and skills in different ways and in different sequences.
The Assessment Continuum Assessment is the systematic observation and evaluation of student performance. A contin- uum of assessment provides a broad picture of student understanding. It is not just a snap- shot of learning, but rather, an entire portfolio of learning. In Figure 4.3, we can see how attention to multiple types of assessment contribute to building that broader picture.
It is also important to consider types of assessment teachers can use to evaluate learning. Tra- ditional assessments would include paper-and-pencil exams and quizzes, standardized tests, and essay writing. Alternative assessments would include portfolios, projects, interviews, presentations, self-assessments, demonstrations, journals, and performance evaluations. Within this alternative-assessment category are authentic assessments. With an authen- tic assessment, students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of understanding. For example, a lab practical is an authentic assessment, and presenting an oral history of a place would be performing authentically, as real historians
C O N S I D E R T H I S
Implicit in the use of standardized tests is the assumption that learning and achievement are equivalent concepts and that achievement is modifiable through instruction. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
Figure 4.3: Assessment continuum ሁ A continuum of assessment provides a broader picture of student understanding.
Pre-assessment
Finding out
Pre-test
Survey
Informal checks for understanding
Observations and dialogues
Formative
Keeping track & checking up
Guided practice data
Progress monitoring
Tests and quizzes
Academic prompts
Summative
Making judgment
Unit exam
Performance task
Standardized tests
Student self-assessment/ teacher reflection
moodboard/Thinkstock
ሁ Authentic assessments require students to apply their knowledge by performing a real- world task.
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 100 3/3/15 2:24 PM
Section 4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
would. As we distinguish between learn- ing and assessment, we realize that a basic requirement of assessment for understand- ing is that we need to know the learners’ thought processes along with the correct answers or solutions. We also need to pro- vide time for self-assessment and metacog- nition. Selected response formats such as multiple-choice, matching pairs, or true/ false often provide insufficient or mislead- ing evidence about a learner’s understand- ing, or lack thereof. Wiggins and McTighe’s (2005) Six Facets of Understanding sig- nal the types of performances we need to observe as valid measures of understand- ing; they can also be used as scaffolds to deconstruct “understanding.”
The Six Facets of Understanding In their book Understanding by Design, Wiggins and McTighe (2005) outline how the idea of “understanding” can be deconstructed into what they call the Six Facets of Understanding: explanation, interpretation, application, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge. The fac- ets are lenses through which a learner’s understanding can be examined. Each one of these six facets has direct implications for how such understanding is revealed and represents different ways of demonstrating or measuring a learner’s level of understanding. A learner who understands a topic would demonstrate one of the following (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, pp. 161–167).
Explanation
In this type of understanding, a learner can put the concept, principle, or process in his or her own words; teach it to others; justify the answers; and show the reasoning used. Providing an explanation describes the who, what, when, where, why, and how aspects of the topic.
Interpretation
In this type of understanding, a learner makes sense of data, text, and experience through images, analogies, stories, and models. When interpreting, a learner uses prior knowledge to make meanings that have personal value.
Application
In this type of understanding, a learner can effectively use and adapt what he or she knows in new and complex contexts.
Perspective
In this type of understanding, a learner can see the big picture and recognize and develop dif- ferent points of view on a topic.
Understanding the assessment continuum—the purpose and value of specific assessments— is critical to student learning. The assessment systems being developed to correlate with the new standards promise to focus on learners demonstrating what they have learned, not what they have achieved. For example, both the PARCC (Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers) and the Smarter Balanced assessments provide diagnostic/prescriptive formative assessments to guide student placement and ongoing instruction. These assess- ments enable teachers to provide appropriate instruction for a range of students by introduc- ing concepts and skills in different ways and in different sequences.
The Assessment Continuum Assessment is the systematic observation and evaluation of student performance. A contin- uum of assessment provides a broad picture of student understanding. It is not just a snap- shot of learning, but rather, an entire portfolio of learning. In Figure 4.3, we can see how attention to multiple types of assessment contribute to building that broader picture.
It is also important to consider types of assessment teachers can use to evaluate learning. Tra- ditional assessments would include paper-and-pencil exams and quizzes, standardized tests, and essay writing. Alternative assessments would include portfolios, projects, interviews, presentations, self-assessments, demonstrations, journals, and performance evaluations. Within this alternative-assessment category are authentic assessments. With an authen- tic assessment, students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of understanding. For example, a lab practical is an authentic assessment, and presenting an oral history of a place would be performing authentically, as real historians
C O N S I D E R T H I S
Implicit in the use of standardized tests is the assumption that learning and achievement are equivalent concepts and that achievement is modifiable through instruction. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
Figure 4.3: Assessment continuum ሁ A continuum of assessment provides a broader picture of student understanding.
Pre-assessment
Finding out
Pre-test
Survey
Informal checks for understanding
Observations and dialogues
Formative
Keeping track & checking up
Guided practice data
Progress monitoring
Tests and quizzes
Academic prompts
Summative
Making judgment
Unit exam
Performance task
Standardized tests
Student self-assessment/ teacher reflection
moodboard/Thinkstock
ሁ Authentic assessments require students to apply their knowledge by performing a real- world task.
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 101 3/3/15 2:25 PM
Section 4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
Empathy
In this type of understanding, a learner can walk in someone else’s shoes and demonstrate sensitivity. The learner is able to provide insights from another role or stakeholder.
Self-Knowledge
In this type of understanding, a learner shows metacognitive awareness, using productive habits of mind, and reflects on the meaning of the learning experience.
Comparing the Six Facets of Understanding and Bloom’s Taxonomy As discussed in Chapter 3, Benjamin Bloom’s research in the 1950s established what is com- monly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning domains. These are cognitive (mental skills), affective (growth in feelings or emotional areas), and psychomotor (manual or physi- cal skills). The category educators use most often is the cognitive domain that involves the development of intellectual skills. These intellectual skills are organized into six categories, beginning with the simplest skills in the “Remembering” category and ending with the most challenging skills in the “Creating” category. To review Bloom’s Taxonomy, see Section 3.4.
Both the Six Facets of Understanding and Bloom’s Taxonomy attempt to incorporate stu- dents’ lived experience, go beyond the textbook, and highlight creativity, communication, critical thinking, and collaboration. Whether using Bloom’s Taxonomy or the Six Facets of Understanding to guide assessment planning, it is critical to check the alignment between stages 1 and 2 to ensure that all important goals are appropriately assessed. This approach results in a more coherent and cohesive lesson plan or curriculum design.
Once again, critical-assessment filter questions are offered by Wiggins and McTighe (2005):
1. How do you check for “the degree of understanding” in class, rather than checking only for the correctness of student response?
2. Do you have different types of assessments for different students to meet all of their needs?
3. Are students a part of the rubric-making process? 4. What is the role of the facets in the design of the assessment? 5. How is self-knowledge incorporated with assessment throughout the module, as
opposed to just the summative assessment at the end of the unit? 6. Is interest encouraged through authentic assessments that challenge students to
think deeper than they are used to thinking? 7. Is problem-solving blended with learning facts and skills? 8. How does the rubric discriminate between levels of student learning? 9. How will you know if your assessment is successful or unsuccessful?
C O N S I D E R T H I S
How should we determine which of the Six Facets of Understanding apply best in develop- ing a particular assessment?
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 102 3/3/15 2:25 PM
Section 4.3 Stage 2: Determine What Constitutes Evidence of Competency (Assessment)
(continued)
Using Rubrics to Determine Acceptable Evidence A rubric is an easily applicable set of criteria, which define and describe the important compo- nents of the assignment being evaluated. For example, students designing and implementing a model might be graded in the categories of content, display, and presentation. A given crite- rion is then stated in each category at different levels of proficiency or completion. For exam- ple, a level 1 proficiency indicates that the learner is not competent for that criterion, while a level 4 might indicate that the learner has demonstrated understanding through explaining and applying. The criteria are clearly defined in gradations from beginning to accomplished skill levels and give the learner a clear target of proficiency to aim for. As an assessment tool, a teacher might use the rubric to evaluate a learner’s performance and achievement. That is, the rubric scores can chart students’ progress against key performance traits such as critical thinking, effective problem-solving, reading and writing fluently, etc. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) suggest two questions as a practical test to ensure that the assessment is truly mea- suring understanding. The goal is to answer no to both of these questions
1. Could the performance be accomplished (or the test passed) without in-depth understanding?
2. Could the specific performance be poor, but the students still have a firm understand- ing of the big ideas in question?
Validity and reliability of the assessments (as scored by a rubric or not) is essential to getting an accurate measurement of student learning. It is also a good idea to consider the rubric as a constructive instrument. Provide commentary in the criteria that would assist the learner in moving from one level of understanding to a higher level of understanding. For example, third graders conduct an experiment to determine how to make a banana ripen faster. At the con- clusion of their experiment, they design a brochure to display in the grocery store next to the bananas. A sample rubric for this project is shown in Table 4.2. Notice how the learner could score a 2 in one category and have constructive comments on how to improve their product to move to the next higher level of performance.
Table 4.2: Sample rubric
Name _______________
Going Bananas Rubric
Apprentice grocer (2 points)
Grocery clerk (3 points)
Master grocer (4 points)
Information on speed- ing up ripening
Be clear about what exactly will speed up the ripening of a banana and how you know that it works.
You claim a particular action will speed up ripening, but how can you be sure?
You are able to back up the information pro- vided on speeding up ripening with evidence and data!
C O N S I D E R T H I S
In what ways do you see the lens of Bloom’s Taxonomy or the Six Facets of Understanding affecting Common Core curriculum and assessment?
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 103 3/3/15 2:25 PM
Section 4.4 Stage 3: Plan Instructional Strategies and Learning Experiences
Name _______________
Going Bananas Rubric
Apprentice grocer (2 points)
Grocery clerk (3 points)
Master grocer (4 points)
Information on ripen- ing at a normal rate
Can you tell us what to expect when leaving a banana on the counter to ripen?
Could a banana go from green to yellow with brown flecks while sitting on the counter overnight? Why or why not?
This is clear, accurate information on the nor- mal pace of a banana going through stages of ripening.
Aesthetics Consider the use of white space as well as text to draw attention in your flyer.
Is it possible to add graphics or text fea- tures to enhance the look of you flyer?
Looking at your work is like enjoying a banana split—a pleasure!
Organization Your ideas will flow better if you cluster similar ideas together and sum up each sug- gestion for a quick read.
In this format, a reader wants to be able to pick up the main ideas at a glance. The flyer must be organized so this can happen.
Your ideas are orga- nized logically and summarized for quick reading necessary in a flyer.
Conventions Banana lovers are counting on you for great spelling, gram- mar, and punctuation! Review the parts of a banana and what hap- pens to those parts in the ripening process.
Bana, bana, bo, fanda, be sure to run spell check before printing handout. Use vocabu- lary to paint a picture of banana ripening.
This flyer is ready for publishing and distributing at the grocery store or library. Good use of descriptive vocabulary.
Source: Buczynski, S., and Fontichiaro, K. (2009). Story starters and science notebooking: Developing children’s thinking through literacy and inquiry. Westport, CT: Teacher Ideas Press.
Once assessment is determined, the next step in the backward design process is to plan the learning activities.
4.4 Stage 3: Plan Instructional Strategies and Learning Experiences
At the heart of everyday classroom life are the learning activities, and developing or select- ing these activities is at the core of stage 3 in the backward-planning process. Given the desired results (stage 1) and the targeted performances that serve as evidence for under- standing (stage 2), what activities, instructional approaches, resources, and experiences are required to achieve these goals? The learning plan should be derived from the goals of stage 1 and the assessment pieces of stage 2 to ensure the alignment of the plan with the desired learning outcomes.
Figure 4.4: Engaging and effective activities ሁ The goal of stage 3 is to develop and select learning activities. The strongest activity designs are
both engaging and effective.
Engaging Activities
Playing games Videos Role play
Effective Activities
Authentic experiences Skill practice
Engaging AND Effective Activities Group discussion with graphic organizers,
guest speakers, field trips
Table 4.2: Sample rubric (continued)
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 104 3/3/15 2:25 PM
Engaging Activities
Playing games Videos Role play
Effective Activities
Authentic experiences Skill practice
Engaging AND Effective Activities Group discussion with graphic organizers,
guest speakers, field trips
Section 4.4 Stage 3: Plan Instructional Strategies and Learning Experiences
A lecture, it is said, may be compared to a process where the “words of the teacher quite often do go into the notes of the student without passing through the minds of either” (Gilstrap & Martin, 1975, p. 7). We have known for some time that transmitting knowledge from an authority (the teacher) to a learner (the student), generally by lecture, is ineffective and unengaging. According to Wiggins and McTighe (2005), the best activity designs are engaging and effective (see Figure 4.4). If an activity is engaging, then diverse learners find it thought-provoking, fun, interesting, relevant, and meaningful. Students enjoy and therefore engage in interesting and varied activi- ties that are appropriate to their abilities. You know students are not engaged when they are off task, talk among themselves off topic, become disruptive, look confused, or lack a clear idea of what they are meant to be doing. If an activity is effective, diverse learners find that it is value- added learning and they have achieved something of intellectual substance. Effective lessons build on prior knowledge, encourage students to use various skill sets, involve students in active learning, and include constructive feedback. To find the intersection of engaging and effective, Wiggins and McTighe (2005, p. 197) suggest developing or selecting activities that:
• Have clear performance goals, based on an authentic and explicit challenge • Use a hands-on approach that is student centered and learning centered • Focus on important, relevant ideas, questions, issues, and problems • Are obvious real-world applications • Include a powerful feedback system with opportunities to learn from trial and error • Use a personalized approach with more than one way to accomplish the major tasks • Provide clear models and modeling • Set aside time for focused reflection • Employ variety in methods, grouping, and tasks • Provide a safe environment for taking risks • Emphasize the big picture clearly throughout the activity
To guide teachers in refining the learning plan, Wiggins and McTighe (2012) suggest using the acronym WHERETO to represent key qualities of effective instruction that will result in more engaging and effective activities. The WHERETO template, outlined in Figure 4.5, serves
Name _______________
Going Bananas Rubric
Apprentice grocer (2 points)
Grocery clerk (3 points)
Master grocer (4 points)
Information on ripen- ing at a normal rate
Can you tell us what to expect when leaving a banana on the counter to ripen?
Could a banana go from green to yellow with brown flecks while sitting on the counter overnight? Why or why not?
This is clear, accurate information on the nor- mal pace of a banana going through stages of ripening.
Aesthetics Consider the use of white space as well as text to draw attention in your flyer.
Is it possible to add graphics or text fea- tures to enhance the look of you flyer?
Looking at your work is like enjoying a banana split—a pleasure!
Organization Your ideas will flow better if you cluster similar ideas together and sum up each sug- gestion for a quick read.
In this format, a reader wants to be able to pick up the main ideas at a glance. The flyer must be organized so this can happen.
Your ideas are orga- nized logically and summarized for quick reading necessary in a flyer.
Conventions Banana lovers are counting on you for great spelling, gram- mar, and punctuation! Review the parts of a banana and what hap- pens to those parts in the ripening process.
Bana, bana, bo, fanda, be sure to run spell check before printing handout. Use vocabu- lary to paint a picture of banana ripening.
This flyer is ready for publishing and distributing at the grocery store or library. Good use of descriptive vocabulary.
Source: Buczynski, S., and Fontichiaro, K. (2009). Story starters and science notebooking: Developing children’s thinking through literacy and inquiry. Westport, CT: Teacher Ideas Press.
Once assessment is determined, the next step in the backward design process is to plan the learning activities.
4.4 Stage 3: Plan Instructional Strategies and Learning Experiences
At the heart of everyday classroom life are the learning activities, and developing or select- ing these activities is at the core of stage 3 in the backward-planning process. Given the desired results (stage 1) and the targeted performances that serve as evidence for under- standing (stage 2), what activities, instructional approaches, resources, and experiences are required to achieve these goals? The learning plan should be derived from the goals of stage 1 and the assessment pieces of stage 2 to ensure the alignment of the plan with the desired learning outcomes.
Figure 4.4: Engaging and effective activities ሁ The goal of stage 3 is to develop and select learning activities. The strongest activity designs are
both engaging and effective.
Engaging Activities
Playing games Videos Role play
Effective Activities
Authentic experiences Skill practice
Engaging AND Effective Activities Group discussion with graphic organizers,
guest speakers, field trips
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 105 3/3/15 2:25 PM
W H
E R
E T
O
W W
h e re
a re
w e
g o in
g ? W
h y ?
W h
a t
is e xp
e ct
e d ?
W h e n p
la n n in
g ,
co n si
d e r
th is
f ro
m th
e s
tu d e n ts
’ p e rs
p e ct
iv e s;
t h e y
sh o u ld
b e c
le a r
a b o u t th
e g
o a ls
a n d e
xp e ct
a tio
n s
o f th
e u
n it.
H H
o w
w ill
w e
h o
o k a
n d h
o ld
st u d e n t in
te re
st ?
U se
a v
a ri
e ty
o f
a p p ro
a ch
e s
to e n g a g e s
tu d e n ts
in t h e t o p ic
.
E
C re
a tin
g
o p p o rt
u n iti
e s
fo r
e xp
lo ra
tio n
th a t w
ill e
q u ip
st u d e n ts
w ith
th
e t o o ls
n e ce
ss a ry
t o
d e m
o n st
ra te
le a rn
in g .
R
M a ki
n g c
h e ck
p o in
ts a
lo n g
th e w
a y
fo r
st u d e n ts
t o
g a u g e t h e ir
p ro
g re
ss u
si n g
va ri
e d s
o u rc
e s
o f fe
e d b a ck
.
E H
o w
w ill
st u d e n ts
se lf-
e v a lu
a te
a n d r
e fle
ct o n t h e ir
le a rn
in g ?
G u id
in g s
tu d e n ts
th ro
u g h s
e lf-
re fle
ct io
n t h ro
u g h
o p e n -e
n d e d
q u e st
io n s.
T H
o w
w ill
w e
ta il o
r le
a rn
in g
va ri
e d n
e e d s,
in
te re
st s,
a n d s
ty le
s?
A t th
e b
e g in
n in
g o f a u
n it,
a ss
e ss
p ri
o r
kn o w
le d g e
a n d s
ki lls
, a n d
d e ve
lo p
d iff
e re
n tia
te d
a ct
iv iti
e s,
e n co
m p a ss
in g
co n te
n t, p
ro ce
ss ,
a n d p
ro d u ct
, to
a cc
o m
m o d a te
d iff
e re
n t
kn o w
le d g e
sk ill
s a n d le
ve ls
.
O H
o w
w ill
w e
o
rg a n
iz e a
n d
se q u e n ce
t h e
le a rn
in g ?
C re
a tin
g a
se q u e n ce
in a ct
iv iti
e s
u si
n g
a v
a ri
e ty
o f
a p p ro
a ch
e s,
in cl
u d in
g b
o th
d ir e ct
a n d
in d ir e ct
f o rm
s o f in
st ru
ct io
n .
H o w
w ill
w e
e q
u ip
s tu
d e n ts
fo r
e xp
e ct
e d
p e rf
o rm
a n ce
s?
H o w
w ill
w e
h e lp
s tu
d e n ts
re th
in k a
n d
re v is
e ?
Section 4.4 Stage 3: Plan Instructional Strategies and Learning Experiences
as an analytic tool for brainstorming and provides a set of criteria for checking the elements of the learning plan. It does not represent a step-by-step sequence for how to teach.
Figure 4.5: WHERETO template for designing effective and engaging activities
ሁ WHERETO is an acronym that represents qualities of instruction teachers may use to develop activities that are more engaging and effective.
Source: Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2004). Understanding by design: Professional development workbook. Reprinted with permission from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
W H
E R
E T
O
W W
h e re
a re
w e
g o in
g ? W
h y ?
W h
a t
is e xp
e ct
e d ?
W h e n p
la n n in
g ,
co n si
d e r
th is
f ro
m th
e s
tu d e n ts
’ p e rs
p e ct
iv e s;
t h e y
sh o u ld
b e c
le a r
a b o u t th
e g
o a ls
a n d e
xp e ct
a tio
n s
o f th
e u
n it.
H H
o w
w ill
w e
h o
o k a
n d h
o ld
st u d e n t in
te re
st ?
U se
a v
a ri
e ty
o f
a p p ro
a ch
e s
to e n g a g e s
tu d e n ts
in t h e t o p ic
.
E
C re
a tin
g
o p p o rt
u n iti
e s
fo r
e xp
lo ra
tio n
th a t w
ill e
q u ip
st u d e n ts
w ith
th
e t o o ls
n e ce
ss a ry
t o
d e m
o n st
ra te
le a rn
in g .
R
M a ki
n g c
h e ck
p o in
ts a
lo n g
th e w
a y
fo r
st u d e n ts
t o
g a u g e t h e ir
p ro
g re
ss u
si n g
va ri
e d s
o u rc
e s
o f fe
e d b a ck
.
E H
o w
w ill
st u d e n ts
se lf-
e v a lu
a te
a n d r
e fle
ct o n t h e ir
le a rn
in g ?
G u id
in g s
tu d e n ts
th ro
u g h s
e lf-
re fle
ct io
n t h ro
u g h
o p e n -e
n d e d
q u e st
io n s.
T H
o w
w ill
w e
ta il o
r le
a rn
in g
va ri
e d n
e e d s,
in
te re
st s,
a n d s
ty le
s?
A t th
e b
e g in
n in
g o f a u
n it,
a ss
e ss
p ri
o r
kn o w
le d g e
a n d s
ki lls
, a n d
d e ve
lo p
d iff
e re
n tia
te d
a ct
iv iti
e s,
e n co
m p a ss
in g
co n te
n t,
p ro
ce ss
, a n d p
ro d u ct
, to
a cc
o m
m o d a te
d iff
e re
n t
kn o w
le d g e
sk ill
s a n d le
ve ls
.
O H
o w
w ill
w e
o
rg a n
iz e a
n d
se q u e n ce
t h e
le a rn
in g ?
C re
a tin
g a
se q u e n ce
in a ct
iv iti
e s
u si
n g
a v
a ri
e ty
o f
a p p ro
a ch
e s,
in cl
u d in
g b
o th
d ir e ct
a n d
in d ir e ct
f o rm
s o f in
st ru
ct io
n .
H o w
w ill
w e
e q
u ip
s tu
d e n ts
fo r
e xp
e ct
e d
p e rf
o rm
a n ce
s?
H o w
w ill
w e
h e lp
s tu
d e n ts
re th
in k a
n d
re v is
e ?
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 106 3/3/15 2:25 PM
Section 4.5 Cases From the Classroom
From the Desk of: Lori
November 10
I am so tired! So are the students. And Thanksgiving is still 2 weeks away! To think that I thought I could just walk off that stage with my diploma and walk straight into a classroom and change the world—every day that passes tells me I have so much more to learn. At least the others in our group feel the same way—just won’t admit it outright. Seriously, if it were not for Olivia, my mentor teacher, I am not sure I would make it. She has been such a help, showing me how to follow that curriculum guide, write lesson plans, and manage these seventh-grade kids.
OK, so this year our school has adopted one major theme for professional development: “Begin with the end in mind.” We had outside consultants and the curriculum specialists from the central office promoting this idea at in-service meetings, and our PLCs are all working on it. But implementing this way of doing is harder for me than I thought it would be. I’m always thinking, “What am I going to do with my class tomorrow,” before I think about what it is that I want them to know. I keep seeing those little faces, those 301 pair of eyes each period, and all I can think about is what to do next. It’s like I have to learn to think in reverse.
The district decided to incorporate as much “backward design” as possible when they devel- oped the curriculum maps for the new standards. So this has been a big resource. Instead of listing the material that we are to “cover” for the year, the curriculum guide breaks the year into units that correspond to the grading period. The standards and goals that we are to work on are listed for each unit, along with a theme, a list of potential enduring understandings, essential questions, and suggested reading materials. For example, the unit for this quarter focuses on the concept of identity. The long range goal was that by the end of the unit, the stu- dents would develop a complex understanding of identity from various forms of narrative and informational text. Two performance assessments were listed for the unit. The students were to determine the central idea or theme of a text, using textual evidence to support their claim. They also were to write a personal narrative describing a connected set of personal experi- ences that helped them form their identity. Now, I had to think, what does this mean, for me and for my students? Complex understanding of identity? I think they are all struggling with identity in their adolescent ways—they just don’t know what to call it yet. How could I deter- mine if their understanding is complex or not?
The requirements for the unit were to read one extended text and 2–3 shorter informational texts from a suggested list that dealt with this theme. At this point, I must admit, I had to read ahead to the suggested materials to make the performance assessment statement come alive for me. And then I saw it—and knew exactly how I would introduce this unit, and provide a hook that could last the entire time. I am not my hair! The song and lyrics were listed as a potential resource for the standards and the assessment task. I know and love this song— even though it was more from the time of my own adolescence, it is still relevant, and most of the students know it.
Given this context, the rest of the unit made sense to me and I was ready to plan out the les- sons. I tweaked the list of enduring understandings provided in the unit outline to come up with just 2 for the first lesson:
Personal narratives, when crafted well, express a central idea or theme. The genre of a text inf luences its meaning.
4.5 Cases From the Classroom
(continued)
han82148_04_c04_089-114.indd 107 3/3/15 2:25 PM
Section 4.5 Cases From the Classroom
The unit outline suggested some essential questions, which I used to tweak these 2:
How and why do writers express their ideas and experiences through personal narratives? How do personal experiences inf luence identity?
The standards for this unit were listed:
RL.7.1 Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text. RL.7.2 Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text. RL.7.7 Compare or contrast a written story, drama or poem to its audio, filmed, staged or multi-media version analyzing the effects of techniques unique to each medium. W.7.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, relevant descriptive details, and well-structured event sequences.
So now I was ready to plan the rest of the unit, with the song as the introductory resource. So, I guess I really did a backward design, but I did it more in a circular fashion, going back and forth between the standards, assessments, understandings, and the materials that I could use. The idea was not to cover the reading material, but to complete activities that led to success- ful performance assessment results. Having a list of suggested texts and readings from which to choose helped in this regard. When thinking about how to plan this, it was not about cover- ing the material, it was about how to use the material as a means to get at the standards. I had to unpack the standards with my own students in mind in order for me to understand what that meant and what it would look like if the students really “got it.”
For example, I knew that if I were going to use I am not my hair, in order to write about the central theme of the song, the students would have to go beyond just listening. They would need to read the lyrics, first with the music in the background and then without it. We would have to do a lot of initial discussion, as most were really not ready to write about a statement without some verbal interaction. Culturally, the song had content that would be very familiar to African American students, but not so for the White or Hispanic students, so I had to plan for that. Then they would have to write about their experiences that helped them form their own identity. While these performance tasks were for the entire unit, I thought that we would do a smaller version using this song in order to get them started with a simple but highly rel- evant example as a formative assessment.
Then, I was ready to think about the content. There are two versions of the song, and I used the version with both India.Arie and Akon because it talked about reactions to various hair- styles for African American males as well as females. I decided to just play the song first, and then get into the lyrics and its analysis after that.
Well, half the class got it and were grooving. The other half had no clue. First of all, the vocab- ulary words were familiar to some and foreign to others: nappy headed, gumdee curly top, twist dreadlocks, Jheri curl. Then came a discussion of hair styles and what they meant to African Americans. The phrase, “Good hair means curls and waves, bad hair means you look like a slave,” began the discussion about inferences. The African American students nodded in understanding, the White and Hispanic students hadn’t realized that significance. Fatima, newly arrived from Syria, could not understand why hairstyles in the song were so important
From the Desk of: Lori (continued)
(continued)
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Section 4.5 Cases From the Classroom
to the woman singing it. From her cultural perspective, a woman was supposed to cover her hair in public. But she finally got it—stating, “I am not my scarf!” The song lyrics are so rich— ”It’s not what’s on your head its what’s underneath—does the way I wear my hair make me a better person, friend, determine my integrity? I am not my hair, I am not this skin, I am a soul that lives within.” Most students had never read the lyrics before, so this got the entire class rolling. Would these statements be just as powerful if they were stated in a poem or narra- tive? How did the rhythm of the song inf luence the expression of these thoughts? How did the chorus help to build the central theme?
We were able to move on from the discussions to begin writing about the ideas in the song— but not right away. The students were more animated than I had ever seen them. It took 3 days, with multiple listening and reading of lyrics, to get this initial writing task completed, there was so much to talk about. Then we moved on to writing about their own experiences, and what gives them a sense of identity—Clothes? Hair? Music? Athletics?
They showed me that they understood this form of identity—and we were finally ready to move on with the rest of the unit. I chose “On Turning Ten” by Billy Collins as the next short text. We would have to leave time for similar discussions with that one—since this poem describes the angst that a child from an otherwise delightful childhood feels upon becom- ing an age with 2 digits. Some of my kids have not had delightful childhoods and have had adult responsibilities from a very early age—and others had frightening childhoods, escaping conf lict torn regions to the relatively quiet (by comparison) life in Middle America. I have to figure out how to get them to understand the author’s central theme, and support or counter with their own examples. My only problem is, what next after that? I have not read all of the recommended selections for the extended texts—so I am trying to read ahead and check with Olivia on which ones she recommends.
So, I guess the point in all of this is, you start with the end in mind, AND you use the end results to help you choose the content and the activities. Sometimes you have to go back and forth a little to get it right. Planning backward guides the content and activities, but the con- tent and activities you choose makes the end result come alive.
Going back to what I said at the beginning—yeah, I am tired. But good tired. The kids are fine. It’s me who is questioning. I know I was well trained in all the latest methods and had a great time student teaching with wonderful mentors, but this is different. You close that door, and you are there with those 30 pairs of eyes looking back at you, and you are all alone. I thought I knew it all—or most of it. But my first few weeks of teaching got rid of that notion. I am barely ahead of the students with some of the reading selections—thank goodness for the curricu- lum guides and maps. They outline questions to ask and potential activities. But I noticed that these suggestions don’t always fit the summative assessment, so I have to re-work them to stay true to our mission of backwards design. I am learning something new every day. Every day, Dr. Z.! Will I ever feel like I really know what I am doing?
—Lori Note: Lyrics and audio for I am not my hair can be accessed from this site and a number of others: http://rap.genius .com/Indiaarie-i-am-not-my-hair-lyrics
The unit on identity was adapted from the Chicago Public Schools Literacy Content Framework: Seventh Grade Toolset: http://www.cps.edu/commoncore/Documents/Toolset_Seventh_Grade_v1.0.pdf
From the Desk of: Lori (continued)
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Section 4.5 Cases From the Classroom
Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz
November 11
It is now the 13th week of school, and although the first-year teacher mentoring project is going well, the teachers are reporting increasingly complex issues.
This week, they are all posting comments related to their struggles with the curriculum— keeping up with it, deciding how to present it, trying to figure out what is most important. As they begin to advance in their teaching practice, they are trying to reconcile their own ideas of “what should be” with the realities of “what is” and their own capacities for solving prob- lems. These are very typical issues for first-year teachers.
When we get down to their curriculum concerns, they talk about the pressure (real or imag- ined) that they feel to cover the curriculum, and they all feel the stress of assessments, espe- cially now, having experienced first-quarter benchmark assessments and their results. All are feeling the force of the calendar.
Given the content of their posts, when I met with them last Friday at “appy” hour, I brought up the topic of backward design as an effective way of curriculum planning. Most of the schools are committed to this process, working first from an understanding of the concepts and stan- dards, to the assessments, and finally to the activities. Some schools and departments are better organized than others and have developed effective curriculum maps from themes and concepts, with lists of suggested resources from which to pull. Others are still a work in prog- ress, offering lists of standards, but leaving much of the analysis to the individual teachers. What struck me the most about our conversations was the complexity of the seemingly simple process of backward design. In order to design effective lessons, one must know the concepts being taught in depth, as well as what the students are ready to learn.
For the most part, the cohort has bonded and the teachers are becoming a great support to each other. This is especially important now, because, to a person, everyone is stating how tired they are. Some are becoming disillusioned. They are beginning to realize how multifac- eted teaching is, and beginning to wonder if they are up to the job. While an unpleasant feel- ing, this questioning is somewhat expected. Emotionally, many are beginning to experience that first-year teacher slump. The intensity and expression of this phase varies among the teachers. Lori is realizing that things are probably not going as smoothly as she wants them to and is questioning her own competence. Travis (HS English) and Ingrid (third grade) are still trying to get a handle on teaching’s extensive time commitment. Melanie is occasionally overwhelmed by her concern for some of her kindergarten children who come from difficult family situations.
Here are my concerns.
While they are using the backward design process in developing their lessons, many are still not able to explain what the term “understanding” looks like for their students. I continue to challenge them, “how do you know when a student understands?” We talked about the Six Facets of Understanding (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005), but many are unable to apply this concept when developing measurement statements. While the answer, “I can tell by the look in their eyes,” may be intuitive, it can be deceptive and has little permanence. For example, Lori was not sure what a “complex understanding of identity” would look like in the students’ writing, and Melanie was convinced that her students were not ready for more sophisticated insights into numbers and how they worked. I found a further explanation of the Six Facets of Understanding along with a rubric online, and sent it out to them. I asked that they attempt to
(continued)
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Summary & Resources
Summary & Resources
Chapter Summary
Backward design may be thought of as building a travel itinerary, using a map: Given a desti- nation, what is the most effective and efficient route? The destination is the goal; it is identi- fied first. Then we determine how we will know if the destination has been reached. And, finally, we plot various routes to that destination from taking the interstate or traveling the back roads. In the end, we arrive at our destination and are richer for the travel experience.
Discussion Questions
1. If you were one of Dr. Z.’s first-year mentees, explain how you intend to use the backward design process as an organizing method for planning lessons. Give an example using a concept from a particular grade level or subject area. Use con- cepts from the Six Facets of Understanding rubric to provide an example of an assessment statement.
2. Explain how “beginning with the end in mind” can reduce the cognitive load and pressures of “covering” the curriculum.
3. How can teachers learn to support each other during their first year, and especially during the typical disillusionment stage? What do you think would help to keep your perspective during this stage of novice teacher development?
identify what learning their latest assignment produced using this rubric. (Rubric is retrieved from http://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewMaterial.htm?id=85623.) I am hoping this rubric helps them to further define the end results of their students learning.
I am concerned that many still feel the pressure of time in their teaching. They are still con- cerned about the calendar, even when the curriculum maps and pacing guides are well orga- nized into units with standards to be addressed instead of materials to be covered. I need to develop a way for them to determine the most important concepts and ideas and to concen- trate on that. For a novice, this is harder to know. I suggested closer conversations with their on-site mentors to help here.
My final concern is this. After 13 weeks of teaching, they are entering a disillusionment phase. While this is normal for first-year teachers, I feel obligated to help them see it through. Once they gain some perspective, it will not be as bad as it may seem now. So, I am urging them to reach out for support from one another and look for opportunities to collaborate with other first-year teachers. Their mentor teachers can also help them to keep their perspective and to fight the isolation that often accompanies feelings of being overwhelmed. Also, I am urging them to take care and be patient with themselves, and to try to develop a life outside of their career, one that has the potential to strengthen their relationships and feed their spirit.
—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.
Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz (continued)
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Summary & Resources
Key Ideas
1. The backward design process is a framework for improving student learning. 2. Effective lesson planning and curriculum development follows a three-stage design
process: (1) identify desired results; (2) determine acceptable evidence; and (3) plan learning experiences and instruction.
3. Six Facets of Understanding (explain, apply, interpret, perspective, empathy, self- knowledge) provide a means to determine if learners have achieved the desired results and met the Content/Common Core Standards.
4. Student and school performance gains are enhanced through regular reviews of results (achievement data and student work), followed by targeted adjustments to curriculum and instruction.
5. Learning activities are the vehicle through which students develop the generaliza- tions they need to understand a subject.
6. Like any other tool, the value of a curriculum or lesson plan depends on how it is used. Organize content according to natural sequences, simple to complex, or sequences that facilitate students’ understanding of the material.
authentic assessment An assessment task designed to simulate or replicate a real-world performance in a realistic con- text with genuine purpose, audience, and constraints.
backward design A planning process that begins by defining the desired learning results so that the curriculum/lesson plan is not activity-oriented or coverage-oriented, but rather is learning-oriented.
big idea The transferable concept, theme, issue or debate, paradox, process, authentic problem, underlying assumption, principle, or theory that serves as a focal point for planning, instruction, and assessment.
criteria The qualities a learner’s per- formance and/or product must meet for work to measure up to a particular level of accomplishment.
enduring understanding The important ideas that are central to the discipline and transferable to new contexts, and that have lasting value beyond the classroom.
essential question An open-ended, pro- vocative question with no single, correct answer; it is at the heart of the discipline and meant to stimulate inquiry, debate, and further questions.
formative assessment Ongoing evalu- ations of learner’s knowledge and skills that provide feedback to the learner and information to guide teaching for improv- ing learning and performance (quizzes, oral questioning, observations, reviews of draft work, exit tickets, etc.).
rubric A scoring guide, built on a scale of performance skills and content knowledge that enables the teacher to make reliable judgments about student work.
Six Facets of Understanding Meant to reveal a learner’s understanding of a con- cept or content through explanation, appli- cation, interpretation, perspective, empathy, and self-knowledge.
uncoverage Using an inquiry-based approach to go into depth to discover, con- struct, or infer understanding through well- designed learning experiences.
Key Terms
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Summary & Resources
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What will we accept as evidence of student proficiency? 2. Are textbooks alone an adequate source of information for curriculum planning?
Why or why not? 3. Is evaluation is the same as the sum of a student’s test scores? Why or why not?
Additional Resources
Websites
Backward Design: Robot Discussion: This website uses animated robots to illustrate the issues associated with backward design. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=xTA0IO68b2s
What Is UbD?: In this presentation, Grant Wiggins answers this question, using video cases. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsDgfC3SjhM&list=PLic7oF77Hhy4t518fnpQ BNQwMinlsN4NJ&index=3
What Is Backward Design?: This presentation uses a cartoon analogy to illustrate backward design. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Xzi2cm9WTg&list=PLic7oF77Hhy 4t518fnpQBNQwMinlsN4NJ&index=4
Alignment and Backward Design: Steps for Course Design: This presentation walks viewers through the process of alignment. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTv2HR2 ckto&index=6&list=PLic7oF77Hhy4t518fnpQBNQwMinlsN4NJ
Understanding by Design Exchange Website: If you join as a member (free) you can share with other faculty and develop online curriculum using their online instructional design templates. https://ubdeducators.wikispaces.com/
Understanding by Design Template: This PDF file is a template for instructors to develop an outline of a topic or unit of instruction using the Wiggins and McTighe model. http://jaymctighe.com/resources/downloads/
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