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Planning the Program 4

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Pre-Test

1. In early childhood education, the term program is broadly used to describe all the services provided by a school or center. T/F

2. One of the advantages of using an emergent curriculum is that the administrator has an opportunity to determine the theme of each unit ahead of time. T/F

3. The most effective instructional practices are those that are teacher directed. T/F

4. An antibias curriculum is an approach that actively respects and affirms each child’s identity and each family’s culture. T/F

5. Administrators don’t need to know about classroom management because this is the responsibility of the teachers. T/F

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define programming and curriculum in the context of early childhood education.

2. Describe the role of the early childhood administrator in curriculum development, and evaluate the benefits and challenges of using an emergent curriculum as compared to preplanning lessons and activities.

3. Identify examples of effective instructional practices, and explain how an early childhood administrator ensures that teachers implement these practices.

4. Relate the primary goals of an antibias curriculum. Apply these goals to the inclusion of children with special needs.

5. Discuss the importance of classroom management in implementing a high-quality early childhood program, and identify strategies administrators can employ to support teachers’ efforts to manage their classrooms.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 The Basics of a Program

A full month after she took on the role of director at the YMCA Child Care Center, Lindsay Miller walks down the hallway, peeking into each classroom along the way. In the Blue Room, the 3-year- olds are gathered on the rug, listening to the story of the “Three Billy Goats Gruff.” The teacher announces, “After we read the story, we’re going to act it out, so try to remember what each billy goat says to the troll.” In the Red Room, the 4-year-olds are painting. They are dipping the wheels of toy cars in a pan of paint and then rolling the cars across a large piece of paper. “What happens when you roll the cars?” the teacher asks. “We’re making a muddy road!” exclaims one of the children. At the end of the hall, in the Yellow Room, Lindsay sees the 5-year-olds measuring the classroom using their bodies instead of a tape measure. The children are lying on the floor, end to end. One of the teachers stands on a chair and takes a picture of the children all in a row. The other teacher announces, “Our classroom is 8 children wide and 10 children long!”

Lindsay is pleased that the teachers in every classroom are offering engaging activities for the chil- dren. After all, this is the program the center is providing for families—care and education services for young children. She also knows that she has some hard work ahead of her, because even though she’s confident that there’s learning going on in every classroom, in her first few weeks as the direc- tor she’s discovered that most of the teachers are not documenting their curriculum plans on paper. Some teachers use planning forms, some teachers just write up notes each week, and some teachers don’t write down their plans at all. One of Lindsay’s goals as the new administrator is to create a consistent process for planning and documenting curriculum.

Introduction

In this chapter, we will present an overview of programming, the actual content of the services provided by an early childhood program. We will examine the role of the administrator in choosing, developing, and implementing curricula and in leading the staff to use engaging and

appropriate instructional practices and classroom management.

4.1 The Basics of a Program

The term program can be used to describe the actual early childhood center, the organization that is providing early childhood services, or the facility where the services take place; but the term can also be used to describe the learning activities that take place within the center

or organization. When we speak of “programming” in early childhood education, we are referring to the planning of the curriculum, which also includes the instructional practices, the daily sched- ule, the routines for caring for children, and the recreational activities, such as outdoor play.

The early childhood administrator’s role is to ensure that the children’s program represents best practice in our field. Administrators must have knowledge and experience in early childhood cur- riculum planning, teaching practices, and classroom management. Directors, administrators, and other staff leaders are also responsible for staying current in new research and developments in

CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 The Basics of a Program

the field. As discussed in Chapter 1, teachers and caregivers need the leadership of someone who can keep the “big picture” in mind, someone who understands the philosophy and mission of the program and can translate that into practice, someone who has a vision for where the program is going, and someone who can inspire the staff and volunteers to continually improve the quality of the program.

Programming for Learning and Caring When we talk about early childhood programming, most often the conversation is focused on curriculum—what children will learn and how they will learn it. But learning takes place in the context of social relationships. Lev Vygotsy, social learning theorist, stated, “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978). This means that learning first takes place during interactions between people and then, secondarily, within the mind of the child.

This concept is best illustrated by the ways infants interact with their caregivers. An adult hands a bell to a 10-month- old. Before accepting the item, the baby looks into the face of the caregiver. She sees a smile and hears words of encourage- ment, “Go on. Take the bell.” The baby opens her hand and grasps the bell. “Shake it,” says the caregiver. “Give it a ring.” The baby, still watching the caregiver’s face, shakes the bell. She hears the ring and feels the bell vibrating in her hand. The baby is surprised by the sound and feel of the ringing bell, but she sees the pleased look on her caregiver’s face.

The baby has learned something new about sound and music, but this learning took place in the context of a caring relationship. When planning and developing the early childhood program, administrators must always remember that the best learning environment is one in which children feel safe, accepted, and secure.

Questions to Think About 1. How would you define, in your own words, the meaning of the word program? 2. Why would an early childhood administrator need to know that learning takes place in

the context of caring relationships?

Hemera/Thinkstock

Most early childhood professionals believe that learning takes place in the context of caring relationships.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

Everything children learn in an early childhood program is part of the curriculum, a plan for learning or a course of study. In early childhood education the curriculum is usually divided into content areas, such as language and literacy, math, social studies, science, and the

creative or visual arts (music, dance, and painting). The curriculum may also include activities that focus on social-emotional growth, such as learning to make friends and get along with others. Some curricula may even include categories for learning other languages or about other cultures or, particularly if they are part of a congregation or religious organization, religious studies.

To lead the selection or creation of a developmentally appropriate curriculum, early childhood administrators are required to have a good working knowledge of all curriculum content areas. However, unlike primary and secondary education, when the school day is usually divided into discrete subject areas and lessons, an integrated curriculum is often employed in early childhood education, meaning that many curriculum activities address multiple subject areas at once.

Regardless of how the curricu- lum is organized, administrators must assure there is a balance of content areas addressed in the curriculum so that children develop a broad foundation of skills and knowledge that will prepare them for success in kin- dergarten and beyond.

Every early childhood program must have a plan for how the curriculum will be organized and implemented. An administrator, such as a center director, leads this process, either indepen- dently or in collaboration with other staff members.

Choosing or Creating the Curriculum A program’s curriculum should be aligned with the organization’s core beliefs and goals as expressed in the philosophy, mission, and vision statements. If, for example, a preschool’s philoso- phy and mission emphasizes learning through play, the curriculum plans probably include many open-ended activities that will take place during free play, allowing children to make choices and use materials such as blocks and clay. In contrast, in a preschool with a philosophy and mission focused on providing school-readiness experiences for children who have been identified as at- risk for school failure, the curriculum plans probably include many teacher-directed lessons in language or counting skills, activities targeted to help prepare children for the academic demands of kindergarten and the primary grades.

Jupiterimages/Photos.com/© Getty Images/Thinkstock

Language and literacy are core subject areas in any early childhood curriculum.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

Early childhood administrators are responsible for leading and guiding decisions involving the cur- riculum. In some programs the administrator makes these decisions autonomously, while in oth- ers the administrator is accountable to a board, an owner, or an agency leader. For example, the director of a pre-kindergarten program in a public school system would probably be required to consult with the superintendent of the school district regarding major curriculum decisions.

The ongoing development and implementation of the curriculum should be supervised by some- one with training and experience in early childhood education. Usually that person is the early childhood administrator, such as a center director, who has a degree in early childhood education.

If the lead administrator of the program does not have training or credentials in early childhood education, the oversight of the curriculum may be delegated to another staff member; in a smaller program that might be a head teacher, while in a larger program there may be a specific role for a curriculum director who works with teachers to develop and implement curriculum plans.

Purchasing Curriculum When it comes to deciding on a curriculum for use at a given program, the administrator has two options: purchase a ready-made curriculum from any of a number of published plans, or work with her teachers to create a curriculum that is specific and appropriate to their mission, philoso- phy, or community.

Prepared curriculum plans, which are written by early childhood professionals, are widely avail- able for purchase and online. They may or may not be standards based or aligned with develop- mentally appropriate practice. While many include quite detailed and specific daily lesson plans, others are broad conceptual models that describe an organizing set of structures, ideas, and con- cepts that educators can tailor and adapt to meet the unique needs of their own programs.

High Scope and Creative Curriculum are two commonly used models that provide a framework for curriculum planning but do not prescribe each activity or lesson. Both of these models are also aligned with NAEYC developmentally appropriate practices.

Creating Curriculum In some early childhood programs, the early childhood administrator chooses not to purchase any curriculum publications or subscribe to a specific curriculum model. In these programs, teachers and administrators create their own curriculum plans from scratch, using a variety of resources and inspirations.

One advantage of this approach is that the staff members have the flexibility to choose themes or topics that are relevant and interesting to the specific group of children enrolled in the program. For example, if one child’s recent trip on an airplane has triggered an interest in air travel, the teacher may choose to create a curriculum unit about airplanes. When teachers use children’s interests to inform their curriculum planning, they are creating an emergent curriculum.

Creating an emergent curriculum is a process facilitated by teachers but led by children’s interests and questions. One topic is usually explored over a period of time, anywhere from a few days to a few weeks. The primary benefit of an emergent curriculum is that the topics of focus are of great

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

interest to children, thus the activities are relevant and meaningful to their lives in ways that a purchased curriculum might not be.

Figure 4.1 demonstrates how teachers might brainstorm different topics and activities related to a child’s interest in airplanes.

Figure 4.1: Brainstorming Web

Reprinted with permission from the National Network for Child Care - NNCC. Thurman, L. & DeBord, K. (1995-1996). Preschool Planning Guide. University Extension, University of Missouri-Columbia.

This planning web demonstrates how teachers might brainstorm curriculum ideas around the children’s interest in airplanes.

The process usually looks something like this:

1. Teachers observe children’s interests and then meet with each other to brainstorm pos- sible topics of study.

2. Teachers lead activities that reveal what children already know about the topic (dictating stories, discussion, etc.).

3. Children brainstorm questions and conduct research using books and primary sources, such as field trips or nature walks.

AIRPLANES Movement/ Outdoors

Launch paper airplanes from

the top of the slide

What makes things fly?

Make paper

airplanesSing “Ten Little Airplanes”

Sci en

A rt

M usic

Nutrition

Lan gu

ag e

Arts

M ath

Dram atic

Play/Blocks

What do people eat

on airplanes?

Read airplane storybooks at

circle time How big is an airplane?

How far can an airplane go?

Build an airport in the block area

How are birds and airplanes alike?

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

4. Children design ways to share their findings, through drawings, photos, dictation, sculp- ture, and dramatization.

5. Teachers facilitate children’s reflection and self-evaluation. Children review the original questions they asked about the topic and reflect on what they learned.

A number of respected early childhood educators, including Lillian Katz, Sylvia Chard, (Katz & Chard, 2000) and Judy Harris Helm (Helm & Katz, 2010), have written extensively on the topic of emergent curriculum and how to build projects around children’s interests. The greatest chal- lenge teachers often encounter is the amount of time it takes to brainstorm, collaborate, plan, and reflect when developing lesson and activity plans around the children’s interests.

To implement this approach, teachers work with an administrator who understands the benefits of responding to children’s interests and is committed to supporting teachers in their efforts. The role of an early childhood administrator in developing and implementing an emergent curriculum includes creating time and space for teachers to plan and collaborate, providing guidance and mentoring to teachers new to the process, and serving as an enthusiastic ambassador when com- municating with parents about the benefits of the approach.

Understanding Curriculum Structures Regardless of which approach the administrator chooses, the curriculum is usually set out in writ- ing in a plan that is organized on a monthly, weekly, or even daily basis. Within each plan there may be specific activities or lessons designated for each day or each part of the day. Curriculum activities are often planned as formal learning times, such as story time, when books are read aloud to children, or center time, when small groups of children participate in planned games and activities in different areas of the room. However, much learning also takes place during daily routines such as snacks and meals.

Even programs that serve infants and toddlers often have a curriculum. The learning activities may include “floor time,” in which caregivers engage the babies in turn-taking games such as peek-a- boo. Songs and story time are also important. An infant-toddler curriculum plan may also include physical activities, such as setting soft pillows on the floor for babies to crawl over.

Theme-Based Curricula A curriculum plan is often organized around specific themes, topics, or projects. Emergent curri- cula will center on a child-generated theme, but topics may also be selected based on experiences and ideas that are commonly of interest to young children, such as pets or trucks. Or they may be related to the season of the year or events in the community. For example, the curriculum for the month of October may be divided into weekly themes related to the fall season. One week the theme may be “pumpkins”; another week the theme may be “falling leaves.” The curriculum plan would include some activities directly related to the theme, such as baking pumpkin cake.

A theme-based curriculum could be based on a plan purchased from a curriculum publisher, or the plans might be created by the teaching staff. The primary benefit of choosing these kinds of common curriculum themes is that teachers are able to plan lessons and activities ahead of time and can easily find resources and materials related to the theme.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

If an early childhood program uses a theme-based curriculum, one of the tasks of the admin- istrator is to coach teachers in ways to find and develop inter- esting lessons and activities that are engaging the children in their classrooms. Regardless of how the themes or topics are selected, the early childhood administra- tor must continually review and monitor the curriculum plans that teachers select or create, making sure that the curriculum is aligned with the program’s philosophy, is structured to meet the program’s goals, and creates optimal learn- ing outcomes for children.

Emphasizing Best Practices The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) partnered with the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) in 2009 to create a set of recommendations for best practice in curriculum. These recommendations include a list of indicators of effective curriculum. This was a significant step in the process of creating consensus among early childhood educators about what children should be taught from birth through age eight.

According to the NAEYC and NAECS/SDE, indicators of an effective curriculum include the following:

• Children are active and engaged. An effective curriculum is meaningful and develop- mentally appropriate. The activities invite children to develop positive feelings and associations about learning.

• Goals are clear and shared by all. Curriculum goals are discussed among teachers and administrators and fully communicated to families.

• Curriculum is evidence-based. An effective curriculum is based on current research about child development and how young children learn.

• Valued content is learned through investigation and focused, intentional teaching. An effective curriculum invites children to actively explore ideas and concepts through play.

• Curriculum builds on prior learning and experiences. An effective curriculum takes into account the child’s background, experience, and cultural context.

• Curriculum is comprehensive. An effective curriculum engages children by addressing all domains of development—cognitive, physical, social, and even artistic.

• Professional standards validate the curriculum’s subject-matter content. When lessons and activities are subject-specific, the content of the curriculum is aligned with best- practice for that subject area. For example, language and literacy instruction is consis- tent with recommendations of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), math instruction is consistent with recommendations of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), and science instruction is consistent with recommendations of the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA).

Blend Images/SuperStock

When an early childhood curriculum unit is organized around a theme, such as pumpkins, most but not all classroom activities will be related to the theme.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

• The curriculum is likely to benefit children. An effective curriculum takes an approach that has been demonstrated to create positive outcomes for children. (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003, p. 7)

Regardless of what age group is served, what philosophy is followed, or what curriculum model is used, these indicators of effective curriculum are relevant to any early childhood curriculum. It is the responsibility of the early childhood administrator to keep informed about these and other current recommendations when monitoring and evaluating a program’s curriculum content and planning process. Many of these curriculum indicators are incorporated in program evalu- ation processes, such as accreditation, that involve completing documentation such as check- lists, inventories, and observations. In addition, early childhood administrators are responsible for developing a good working knowledge of best practice in the field, through reading, attending conferences, and participating in other professional development activities.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice In the field of early childhood education, most experts and leaders agree that the foundation of best practices is developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). The term was coined by the NAEYC to describe the concepts that early childhood professionals use to guide their work as they teach and care for infants and young children.

As an early childhood administrator, the concept of DAP is one of the most important decision- making tools at your disposal. DAP includes five key areas of practice that, in combination, are relevant to almost every decision and plan an early childhood administrator will face regarding curriculum and programming. The first key concept of DAP has to do with creating a caring com- munity among staff members, children, families. DAP suggests that children will best develop and learn when they are part of a community of learners. The early childhood administrator sets the tone for this by putting structures in place—such as a daily schedule that allows children to develop a consistent relationship with just one or two primary caregivers—that will help ensure consistent, positive, caring relationships between the adults and children, among children, among teachers, and between teachers and families.

The second key area of DAP is focused on teaching practices that enhance development and learn- ing. Developmentally appropriate teaching practices are those that provide a balance between adult-guided and child-guided experiences (which we’ll discuss in more detail later in the chapter). When the balance is off in either direction—either because the adults, the teachers or caregivers, are too directive with the children or because the adults are too passive and not actively engaged with the children—children will not thrive. Early childhood administrators support curriculum structures and teaching practices that help teachers maintain this balance when they train teachers to create and use curriculum materials that are aligned with developmentally appropriate practice.

The next key area of DAP is related to planning curriculum to achieve important goals. In devel- opmentally appropriate practice, the curriculum provides learning experiences that incorporate a variety of structures such as play, small group lessons, large group activities, and rotation through interest centers. The early childhood administrator leads the staff in using what is known about young children in general and about the particular children in their classroom to create a curricu- lum that is consistent with the program’s goals for children. The broad goals for children’s learning are often articulated in a program’s philosophy statement or based on learning standards.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

The fourth key area of DAP is about assessing children’s development and learning. In developmentally appropriate practice, practitio- ners are intentional about using learning goals to create curricu- lum and about using those learn- ing goals to guide assessment. The early childhood administrator oversees and monitors the cur- riculum to ensure that it is linked to the assessment practices. For example, if the program’s child assessment plan includes docu- menting children’s progress in learning to write their names, the curriculum should include plans for teachers to instruct children in how to write the letters in their names and opportunities for chil- dren to practice these skills.

The final key area of DAP is related to establishing reciprocal relationships with families. Develop- mentally appropriate practices suggest that the younger the child, the more important it is that practitioners partner with parents and families to learn as much as possible about the unique characteristics and needs of each child. Early childhood administrators can create and oversee systems of communication that support these relationships between families and the early child- hood program. For example, the administrator might create plan to schedule an extra teacher to work in a classroom where a new child has just enrolled, so the lead teacher might be free to talk with the parents one-on-one at the beginning and end of the school day.

Employing Standards-Based Curriculum In the field of early childhood education today, there is a trend toward aligning curriculum with early learning standards, a set of benchmarks or requirements used to measure progress or growth. Early learning standards are usually aligned with developmental milestones that describe when children should first be able to demonstrate important skills, such as riding a tricycle or identifying colors. In Chapter 3 we discussed program standards that measure the quality of the overall pro- gram. In the field of education, there are also content standards that measure what a child should be able to do or know in any given area of curriculum. Over the last decade, legislative initiatives such as the federal No Child Left Behind Act and, more recently, Race to the Top have increased the pressure and the incentives for documenting specific curriculum standards and child outcomes.

Currently there is no one single set of early learning standards for early childhood education. Rather, early learning standards are usually created or recommended by individual states, or specialized groups, such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. For example, pre-kindergarten programs funded through state block grants are often mandated to use state early learning stan- dards. In these cases, the program’s curriculum model must support the state standards, and the assessment of children’s growth and progress is measured using benchmarks that are aligned with the early learning standards (Table 4.1).

San Diego County of Education

Early childhood programs that endorse developmentally appropriate practice know the value of developing strong partnerships with parents through ongoing communication, both verbally, through conversations between teachers and parents, and in writing, through newsletters and notes.

http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/

http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml

http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/index.html

CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 The Administrator’s Role in Curriculum

Table 4.1: Examples of Early Learning Standards and Benchmarks

State Reading Standards for Literature Math: Counting and Cardinality

Ohio Key ideas and details 1. With prompting and support, ask and

answer questions about key details in a text.

2. With prompting and support, retell familiar stories, including key details.

3. With prompting and support, identify characters and major events in a story.

Craft and structure 4. Ask and answer questions about un-

known words in a text. 5. Begin to demonstrate an understanding

of the differences between fantasy and reality (e.g., talking flowers and ani- mals).

6. With prompting and support, name the author and illustrator of a story, and de- fine the role of each in telling the story.

Know number names and the count sequence 1. Count to 10 by ones. 2. Count forward beginning from a given

number within the known sequence (instead of having to begin at 1).

3. Identify and name numerals 1–9. Count to tell the number of objects 4. Subitize to determine how many: im-

mediate recognition of small quantities up to 6.

5. Understand the relationship between numbers and quantities; connect count- ing to cardinality. a. When counting objects, say the

number names in the standard order, pairing each object with one and only one number name and each number name with one and only one object.

b. Understand that the last number name spoken tells the number of ob- jects counted up to 10. The number of objects is the same regardless of their arrangement or the order in which they are counted.

Utah RL1 CCR Anchor Standard Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text. Preschool Foundational Standard: With prompting and support, state some details of a text. RL2 CCR Anchor Standard Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas. Preschool Foundational Standard: Listen attentively to stories being read; retell simple stories. RL3 CCR Anchor Standard Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop and interact over the course of a text. Preschool Foundational Standard: Answer questions about simple stories using sequencing format (e.g., what happened first, next, and last).

Cluster: Know number names and the count sequence. Preschool Foundational Standard: 1. Begin to recite numbers in order from

1–10 (rote counting). 2. Recognize the difference between let-

ters, numbers, and other symbols.

Sources: Ohio Department of Education; Utah State Office of Education Utah’s Early Childhood Core Standards Utah State Office of Education

CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

Accreditation standards that specifically address curriculum, such as those created by NAEYC, are sometimes used voluntarily by program administrators to assess and monitor the quality of the curriculum used in their programs. Using educational standards helps administrators ensure that the content and quality of the program curriculum is consistent with best practice in the field and across the country. When administrators can use standards as a tool when training teachers, they help teachers understand what knowledge and skills the children will need to develop in order to successfully prepare for kindergarten and the primary grades.

A new trend in using standards to shape and assess curriculum is the movement toward a “com- mon core” curriculum that states can use to define a national set of standards and eliminate the need for individual state standards (Rose, 2012). In 2010, a group called the Common Core State Standards Initiative, sponsored by the National Governors Association (NGA) and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), released K–12 standards for math and English language arts.

There is some debate in the field around how these standards relate to our work with young chil- dren. Samuel J. Meisels, former president of the Erikson Institute, has criticized the Common Core Standards because they were constructed “top down,” beginning at the end of the chronological range. “By the time the authors came to K–3, there was little room for flexibility. Some things that belong were omitted, and some that don’t were included” (Meisels, 2011). Other critics have suggested that insisting that all teachers follow a single set of standards may stifle creativity and individuality (Tampio, 2012).

Questions to Think About 1. Why might an administrator choose to purchase a curriculum from a publisher, rather

than create an emergent curriculum from scratch? 2. What are the benefits of aligning curriculum plans with state or Common Core standards?

4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

The greatest curriculum in the world can’t be successfully implemented if the teachers don’t use effective instructional practices. In other words, quality programming is not just what you teach, it’s how you teach it. One of the important roles of an administrator is to ensure

that the early childhood teachers are using appropriate and effective instructional practices.

Balancing Teacher-Directed With Child-Initiated Activities As mentioned, an important concept in developmentally appropriate practice is the balance of teacher-directed and child-initiated learning experiences.

Reading a storybook aloud to a group of children is an example of a teacher-directed activity. Any time a teacher takes the lead, especially when children are required to sit and listen, is considered a teacher-directed experience.

Suppose a preschool class is learning about hibernation as part of a curriculum unit on bears. The teacher gathers the class together and, using a display of photographs of bears, explains the concept of hibernation and how and why some bears sleep in the winter. This type of lecture-style activity is called direct instruction, because the teacher is conveying the information directly to the children.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

Direct instruction is an important and useful teaching practice. Without it, the children would not have been introduced to the term hibernation and its definition. But considering the short atten- tion span of young children and their developmental need for constructive, hands-on learning experiences, teacher-directed activities should be limited and balanced with child-initiated activi- ties, such as dramatic play. A child-directed activity that would extend children’s learning about hibernation would be a dramatic play session in which children build a bear den out of pillows and pretend to be bears, hibernating in the winter and then waking up in the spring.

The Administrator’s Role in Instructional Practices Early childhood administrators guide instructional practices through a variety of methods and strategies. One of the key ways administrators can ensure the program staff members are able to successfully implement an effective curriculum is by hiring teachers and caregivers who have studied curriculum and instruction and have earned early childhood credentials. But even the most highly trained teachers need ongoing support and supervision from an administrator who will challenge them to continually improve and grow.

Administrators can lead their programs to implement effective instructional practices through techniques like modeling and demonstration, encouraging classroom conversation, and grouping children for optimal learning, as well as making appropriate use of technology.

Modeling and Demonstration As a leader, the early childhood administrator serves as a role model for the staff. One way admin- istrators can help guide and support teachers and caregivers is by visiting their classrooms and modeling or demonstrating effective instructional practices. This can be done both formally and informally.

In a formal modeling or demon- stration session, the administra- tor would schedule a classroom visit ahead of time, letting the teacher know the purpose of the session, such as demonstrating how to assign roles when chil- dren are dramatizing a story. In a more informal demonstra- tion, the administrator might model appropriate interactions between adults and children each time she drops by the class- room, greeting them warmly and asking them questions that stimulate animated conversa- tions. Modeling and demonstra- tion have an added power in that they are parallel processes; the administrator is using these

age fotostock/SuperStock

One way an administrator can train teachers is by demonstrating effective instructional practices, such as reading stories aloud and inviting children to comment on what they heard, while teachers observe.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

techniques to instruct and guide teachers, and the teachers, in turn, use modeling and demonstra- tion to instruct and guide the children.

Modeling and demonstration also allow the children to actively participate in the learning pro- cess. For example, when teaching the children the words to a new song, the teacher may model how the song goes by singing the opening line of the song, then pause and give the children a turn to sing, too.

Encouraging Classroom Conversations During group staff meetings and individual supervision meetings the administrator can stress the importance of asking children open-ended questions to stimulate learning and conversation. Learning to ask open-ended questions is a valued instructional strategy that can lead children to think creatively and independently.

Unlike “closed” questions that have just one right answer (e.g., “How many blocks did you use to make your house?”), “open-ended” questions (e.g., “What do you think might happen if you added more blocks on the top?”) can provoke a variety of responses. They tend to encourage more detailed and complex answers.

Asking open-ended questions is an effective instructional strategy because it encourages children to actively participate in discussions and in the learning process. Administrators can reinforce these teaching practices by observing teachers and caregivers and offering positive feedback and praise for the open-ended questions they use in the classroom.

Grouping Children for Optimal Learning Instructional practices are often influenced by the way children are grouped in the classroom. Leading a large group of children in a song or story requires teacher-directed instruction and guid- ance. When working with smaller groups, pairs, or even individual children, teachers are able to invite more participation and direction from children. The administrator’s role is to monitor the balance of curriculum activities in each classroom, helping teachers plan for a mix of large group, small group, and pairs, and individual learning experiences for the children in the program.

When reviewing written curriculum plans, administrators monitor in advance how many activi- ties or lessons will lend themselves well to different groupings and advise teachers accordingly, encouraging balance. Administrators can also give teachers feedback, based on formal or informal observations, about how well the grouping patterns are working in the classroom.

Size is not the only factor that determines how children are grouped during curriculum activities. Other considerations might be age, developmental level, interests, and personality traits. Admin- istrators can encourage and guide teachers to be intentional about the way children will learn from each other by facilitating how children are paired or grouped together. Decisions about the composition of a group should be made to balance both the needs of the group, for safe supervi- sion and classroom management, and the individual needs of each child. Whether small or large, the two most common types of groups are mixed age groups and ability groups.

A growing body of evidence shows that children benefit from learning in mixed age groups. The younger children, who are usually less mature cognitively or developmentally than older children,

CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

gain from the exposure to older or more advanced children because the older children serve as role models. Studies suggest that the diversity of ability and knowledge in a mixed age group cre- ates a rich and complex learning experience for all the children (Katz, 1995a; Gaustad, 1997).

Ability grouping, on the other hand, involves grouping children together who are at a similar level in development, knowledge, or skills. Grouping children within a classroom according to ability can be beneficial, as long as the group membership is flexible. Flexibility means the group assign- ments are temporary and that children are continually assessed and reassigned to groups as their abilities develop.

For example, suppose a teacher divides her preschool class into three groups according to chil- dren’s ability to write their names. The green group includes children who are able to write their names independently. The orange group consists of children who are able to write one or two letters in their names, while the children in the blue group are just starting to learn to write their names. If the group assignments remain static over time, the children in the blue group (and their parents) may begin to develop a sense that they are behind, and all the children will lose the opportunities to learn from each other in a diverse learning community.

Children may benefit from being part of a group, triad, or pair that is formed based on other fac- tors besides ability, such as shared interests, learning styles, and similar or complimentary tem- perament or personalities.

Focus On: Differentiating the Curriculum Ensuring that the program’s curriculum is effective and engaging requires that administrators lead teachers in differentiating the curriculum. While most curriculum plans describe the activities of a whole group or class, an engaging and successful curricu- lum plan also includes some opportunities for differentiation, the adaptation of experiences, materials, or teaching practices to meet the individual needs of the children.

Most early childhood professionals know that every child devel- ops at a different pace. We are accustomed to differentiating, or individualizing, in our conversations and care of children. For example, some preschool children need help putting on their mittens and others do not.

Many early childhood teachers, however, are not trained or experienced in incorporating differentiation strategies into cur- riculum planning, teaching practices, and preparing the class-

room environment. The most common curriculum planning process among early childhood teachers is to create one curriculum plan for the whole class. These plans are usually not differentiated. Teachers may need support from administrators and supervisors in finding ways to differentiate to meet the needs of the children who are struggling and those who are advanced and have already learned most of the content of the lesson. Administrators may need to model how to write differentiated lesson plans or work with teachers to revise their plans to include differentiation.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock In any early childhood classroom there will be a broad range of ability levels. Differentiation is necessary to ensure that the curriculum is responsive to each child’s individual learning needs.

(continued)

CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

Technology Every day there are new applications and ideas for the way early childhood teachers can use not just computers but also cameras, projectors, audio and video recorders, Smart boards, iPads, phones and mobile devices in their classrooms. Technology can play a key role in teacher planning and preparation, for example, when teachers use the Internet to gather resources and informa- tion for curriculum plans and then use email to send drafts of their plans to the administrator for feedback.

Tablets like the iPad might be used in classroom instruction with applications that allow children to draw circles and other shapes with their fingers. Technology can also play a key role in assess- ment, as when samples of digital audio files are used to measure growth in one child’s language development over time.

Leaders of early childhood programs should research these options carefully, using professional organizations like NAEYC to help determine where these new technologies fit in developmen- tally appropriate practice. Further, any decisions about the use of technology with young children should also be aligned with the individual’s program’s mission, vision, and philosophy.

In 2012, NAEYC teamed with the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent College to create a new position statement on Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8. The statement acknowledges that there is conflicting evidence on the value of technology in the lives of young children and in the early childhood classroom. According to the statement, developmentally appropriate uses of technology would be those that are empowering to children, giving them control, and are used as just one of many options to support children’s learning. So, for example, when a teacher uses a Smart board to project images of trees and forests on a classroom wall and invites children to pretend they are bears and other forest animals, casting shadows on the wall behind them as they play, the technology is enhancing the children’s play while the children are still taking an active, kinesthetic role in the experience. When used intentionally, technology and interactive media can be effective tools in early childhood programming (NAEYC, 2012).

Focus On: Differentiating the Curriculum (continued) For example, suppose a preschool teacher developed a curriculum plan with the goal of helping chil- dren learn to write their names. An activity described in the curriculum plan might be having children copy their names from name cards onto a lined sheet of paper. Many of the children in the group would benefit from this activity, but there will be some who might struggle to form the shapes of the letters and others who are already comfortable writing their names, even without using the name cards.

This curriculum activity could be differentiated for both the struggling beginners and the advanced writers. For the struggling beginners, the teachers could write an example on the lined paper and invite the children to trace over their letters. The advanced writers could be invited to learn to write the names of their friends or family members. These kinds of adaptations for differentiation are an important part of any curriculum plan.

http://ele.fredrogerscenter.org/

CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Guiding Instructional Practices

What Would You Do? Marisha is the director of a child care center serving children between the ages of two and five. Each week Marisha leads a curriculum planning meeting with teachers during nap time. During one of these meetings, Bonnie, one of the teachers in a class for 3-year-olds, states that she would like to make applesauce with the children as part of a curriculum unit on fruits and vegetables. Bonnie also mentions that she has found a website with a video that shows how applesauce is made, and she would like to show the video to the children before they make their own. Marisha wonders whether showing the children the online video is an appropriate use of technology.

If you were in Marisha’s position, what would you do?

a. Tell Bonnie she can’t use any online videos in the class- room until they have a chance to fully research the bene- fits and possible drawbacks of using this technology with 3-year-olds.

b. Ask all the parents of the children in the class what they think of using the video. If most of the parents are in favor of it, go ahead and show the video.

c. Show the video during free play when children are allowed to make choices about what they want to do. If some children are not interested in the video, they don’t have to watch it.

d. Suggest to Bonnie that instead of watching a video the class should make their own video. Borrow a video cam- era from one of the parents, and make a narrated record- ing of each step in the applesauce-making process.

Explanation: As the administrator, Marisha’s role is to help Bonnie make informed and reflective decisions about the use of technology in her classroom. Marisha might discuss some of the following questions and issues with Bonnie: How would showing the video enrich the children’s learning experi- ence? How well does this practice align with our program’s philosophy and mission? How might the children’s parents feel about the use of the video in the classroom? If we use the video, how can we introduce it and view it so that it is part of an active, rather than passive, learning experience for the children? Whichever path Marisha chooses regarding this decision, the discussion of these issues with Bonnie will help guide Bonnie in making wise choices regarding the curriculum and programming.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Mobile devices and touch screens provide opportunities for very young children to interact with technology. Early childhood administrators should be informed and intentional about the ways their programs allow children to use technology.

Assessment Child assessment is the process for evaluating and measuring the growth and progress of indi- vidual children. Child assessment practices should be closely linked with curriculum development. The process of developing both curriculum and assessment should be guided by broad questions such as, “What do we want children to know? How will we measure if they have learned it?” The assessment process is often aligned with specific early learning standards.

The implementation of developmentally appropriate and authentic assessment practices is key to any high-quality early childhood curriculum. Authentic assessment is based on play and behaviors that occur routinely and spontaneously in an early childhood classroom, rather than created arti- ficially through a formal test or evaluation. Teachers can use classroom observations and artifacts,

CHAPTER 4Section 4.4 An Inclusive Curriculum

such as children’s artwork, writing samples, and dictated stories, to provide the most useful infor- mation for authentic assessment.

Children’s artwork and their experiences in the creative arts can be used for assessment. For example, at the beginning of the curriculum unit on apples, children could be asked to draw a picture of an apple tree. This activity serves as a preassessment, a demonstration of what children already know about the topic. Later, after children have been studying apples and have visited the apple orchard, the teachers can compare the children’s beginning drawings to sketches they made at the orchard, which are likely to be more detailed and accurate. The contrast between the first work of art and the later work of art demonstrates the child’s progress during the unit in a way that the child would probably not have been able to express in words.

In early childhood centers and schools, curriculum is often planned first, and then assessment practices are developed to measure progress based on the curriculum plan. Sometimes, however, the assessment is created first, and the curriculum is developed to support the acquisition of skills and knowledge already identified as important in the assessment process. When the curriculum is developed to align with the assessment, this is called backward design. Educators who use this begin by asking, “What do we want children to learn?” They start with a plan for the goals and outcomes they want to measure and then develop a curriculum that will support those goals and outcomes. Many educators advocate for backward design as the most effective way to ensure that what we are teaching children is essential for their development and growth.

Questions to Think About 1. In what ways is the administrator’s role in program development different from the role

of the teacher? In what ways is it similar? 2. If you were just hired as a teacher in a preschool classroom, what kinds of questions

might you ask about the use of technology in your new position?

4.4 An Inclusive Curriculum

Among the important considerations for developmentally appropriate practice is creating an inclusive community of learners, a place where everyone feels welcome and included, regardless of background and ability. Administrators charged with leading the develop-

ment of a program that fosters this sense of community may wonder, How can we be sure we are creating meaningful, relevant, and respectful learning experiences for every child and family? One way to begin answering that question is to integrate concepts of antibias into the program curriculum.

Antibias Curriculum Antibias curriculum is a curriculum approach that actively respects and affirms each child’s iden- tity and each family’s culture. The concepts of respect and acceptance include factors such as language, racial identity, gender identity, economic class, family structures, and different abilities. Antibias curriculum includes the process of looking at curriculum, evaluating it for effectiveness in confronting bias, and the incorporation of specific curriculum activities that promote the develop- ment of respect and acceptance of others.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.4 An Inclusive Curriculum

According to the authors Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie Olsen Edwards (2010), who helped pioneer the field of antibias education, four goals comprise an antibias curriculum:

1. Nurture each child’s sense of identity. In an antibias curriculum, identity includes both individual and group identity.

2. Encourage children to learn about how they are different from other children and how they are similar. In an antibias cur- riculum, respect for differences and affir- mation of our similarities are at the core of learning to treat people fairly.

3. Help children understand and talk about situations that are hurtful, inaccurate, or unfair. This goal emphasizes critical think- ing and discussion.

4. Taking action. In an antibias curriculum, children learn tools and strategies for stand- ing up for themselves and others in the face of bias.

The administrator’s role in implementing an antib- ias curriculum includes several tasks. One is serving as a model of inclusive and antibias practices. The administrator warmly welcomes each family and demonstrates an interest and an openness to learn as much as possible about each family, their values, traditions, and hopes for the future. The administrator can also model reflection and conversation among staff members about the chal- lenges inherent in examining issues of fairness, equity, and bias.

These discussions can often be difficult for staff, but when led by an empathic and knowledgeable administrator, they can also be very fruitful. When antibias issues arise in curriculum planning and implementation, such as questions around whether or not boys should be allowed to wear dresses in the dramatic play area, the administrator’s role is to lead a collaborative process that allows teachers to actively participate and make decisions about how to respond in the classroom.

Adapting the Curriculum for Children With Special Needs A discussion of best practice in early childhood programming would not be complete without con- sideration of the inclusion of children with special needs, those who have a physical or mental con- dition that might require adaptations to the curriculum and the learning environment. Conditions can range from mild to severe and can include medical conditions, such as asthma, physical disabili- ties, such as cerebral palsy, or learning disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

While some early childhood programs are set up to serve only a specific population of children with special needs, most early childhood settings serve a general population, where typically abled chil- dren learn and are cared for alongside their special needs peers. One of the important roles of early childhood administrators is to lead the program in the inclusion of children with special needs and

Creatas/Thinkstock

Making sure the materials and images in the classroom reflect the culture of the children is one way early childhood administrators can support the goals of an antibias curriculum.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.4 An Inclusive Curriculum

ensure that the programming and curriculum serve the best interest of every child. At times, this may mean adapting the curriculum, the instructional practices, or the environment to better meet the individual needs of a specific child. Administrators, as program leaders, make decisions about what accommodations should be made and guide teachers in how to implement the accommodations.

A joint position statement by the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the NAEYC on inclusion of children with special needs can provide guidance as to how an administrator can best implement inclusion practices (DEC/NAEYC, 2009). The statement begins,

Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, policies, and practices that support the right of every infant and young child and his or her family, regardless of ability, to participate in a broad range of activities and contexts as full members of fami- lies, communities, and society. The desired results of inclusive experiences for chil- dren with and without disabilities and their families include a sense of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and development and learning to reach their full potential.

The defining features of inclusion that can be used to identify high quality early childhood programs and services are access, participation, and supports.

Excerpted from DEC/NAEYC, “Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC),” Position statement, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, 2009). Copyright (c) 2009 DEC/NAEYC. Reprinted with permission. Full text of this position statement is available at www.naeyc.org/files /naeyc/file/positions/PSDAP.pdf.

The collaboration between DEC and NAEYC resulted in the following set of core recommendations to guide how early childhood professionals shape their programs, curriculum, and practices:

1. Create high expectations for every child, regardless of ability, to reach his or her full potential.

2. Develop a program philosophy on inclusion to ensure shared assumptions and beliefs, and to identify quality inclusive practices.

3. Establish a system of services and supports that reflects the needs of children with vary- ing types of disabilities and learning characteristics, with inclusion as the driving prin- ciple and foundation for all of these services and supports.

4. Revise program and professional standards to incorporate key dimensions of high quality inclusion.

5. Improve professional development across all sectors of the early childhood field by determining the following: who would benefit from professional development on inclu- sion; what practitioners need to know and be able to do in inclusive settings; and what methods are needed to facilitate learning opportunities related to inclusion.

6. Revise federal and state accountability systems to reflect both the need to increase the number of children with disabilities enrolled in inclusive programs as well as to improve the quality and outcomes of inclusion. (DEC/NAEYC, 2009)

The concepts of differentiation and antibias curriculum, as discussed earlier, are especially rel- evant to the inclusion of children with special needs. A curriculum planning process should include differentiation for children with special needs so teachers are well prepared to fully include and challenge all the children in the group. The goals of an antibias curriculum help address issues of fairness and respect that naturally arise in an inclusive early childhood classroom.

www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSDAP.pdf

CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Classroom Management

Resources for additional information about the inclusion of children with special needs can be found at the end of this chapter. Also, a discussion of policies and practices for welcoming and serving families of children with special needs is included in Chapter 8 of this textbook.

Questions to Think About 1. Do you feel the use of an antibias approach to curriculum is something that should be

optional, or should it be required of every early childhood program? Why or why not? 2. If one of the children in a preschool classroom was hearing impaired, how might the

staff make changes in curriculum and instructional practices to accommodate for this child’s special need?

4.5 Classroom Management

Classroom management is an essential component of effective early childhood program management because children need a safe and orderly environment in which to learn. The primary components of classroom management include the safe supervision of children,

the resolution of conflicts between them, the teacher’s responsiveness to children’s challenging behaviors, and the establishment of daily routines and schedules. The director’s role in classroom management is to train and coach teachers to keep children safe and to keep their classrooms running smoothly.

Establishing Safety Policies and Procedures The safe supervision of children includes the proac- tive establishment of policies and practices that pro- tect children’s safety and well-being. As discussed in Chapter 2, many of these are created to align with licensing standards and other mandatory codes.

An example of a policy or practice that supports safe supervision and effective classroom manage- ment is the establishment of playground rules. The rules may be divided into rules for children to follow, such as, “Go down the slide, not up,” and guidelines for safe supervision that teachers must follow, such as, “When the monkey bars are in use, at least one teacher must be positioned within five feet of the structure and provide direct supervision to children who are climbing.”

Conflict Resolution After the health and safety of the children, a sec- ondary consideration in classroom management is how teachers resolve conflicts between children.

Creatas Images/Thinkstock

The term classroom management refers to creating a safe and orderly learning environment, both indoors and out.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Classroom Management

Disagreements and conflicts are normal for young children; developmentally they are still learning basic skills for getting along with their peers. Teachers and caregivers are responsible for facilitat- ing the resolution of these conflicts. They can do this by organizing materials in ways that reduce the frequency of conflicts, such as providing multiples of popular items, by facilitating negotia- tions and compromise between children who disagree, and by separating children who might try to push or hurt each other.

For example, when two preschool children both want to play with the same toy at the same time, it may be very difficult for them to figure out a way to share the toy or take turns. Instead, the two children might both grab for the toy and perhaps even push the other child away. The teacher’s role is to keep the children safe by intervening and keeping the children from hurting each other, encourage them to use words to explain what they want and how they feel, and propose possible solutions for the children to resolve the issue (if the children are not able to think of their own solutions, which is often the case for young children), such as taking turns or finding another simi- lar toy so they can play together.

One of the roles of the early childhood administrator is to observe classrooms and take note of these conflicts. There may be patterns that provide ideas for reducing the number of conflicts in a certain area of the room or certain time of day. For example, the administrator may observe that in one classroom there are almost daily conflicts over who will get to play with a particular toy truck. Perhaps by purchasing an additional truck, or rearranging the distribution of trucks among several classrooms, some of the conflicts can be avoided. No early childhood classroom is ever completely without conflict, but sometimes these kinds of solutions help diminish the frequency of conflicts.

Challenging Behaviors In early childhood education, the term challenging behaviors is used to describe many of the things children do that we wish they wouldn’t—breaking classroom rules, ignoring or defying the teacher’s instructions, or hurting and teasing other children. One way to prevent many of the challenging behaviors is to establish rules that young children can easily understand. Sometimes the rules are as simple as, “No hurting: You can’t hurt others with words or actions. You can’t hurt yourself by doing something that is not safe. And you can’t hurt the school by damaging or mis- treating the toys and materials.”

One of the administrator’s roles in helping to diminish challenging behaviors is to make sure that a clear and responsive discipline policy is in place. Some programs choose to avoid the term disci- pline because of its punitive connotations and choose to call the policy by another name, such as “Expectations for Classroom Behavior.” The policy describes the classroom rules and how teachers will respond when a child breaks a rule.

Developmentally appropriate responses to challenging behavior might include redirecting the child to another activity or briefly removing the child from the group (while still keeping the child in safe supervision). State licensing and other codes may explicitly require that programs do not use corporal punishment and do not withhold food as punishment.

The role of the administrator is to make sure the policies are complete and current. This process involves a regular review of policies as documented in staff, family, and administrative handbooks to make sure they are consistent with each other and fully aligned with licensing requirements

CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Classroom Management

and other mandates, such as agency discipline policies. Administrators are also responsible for making sure parents and staff are aware of the policies and to lead the staff in carrying out the policies consistently.

A regular review of policies at staff meetings and parent meetings can be helpful. Newsletter articles can also highlight specific policy questions that parents may commonly ask, such as, “Do you use time out when children break classroom rules?”

Working closely with teach- ers and other staff members to ensure that children’s challeng- ing behaviors are addressed con- sistently and appropriately takes more time than writing a short newsletter article. Professional development activities such as workshops or seminars on the topic of challenging behaviors can provide new insights and strategies. Sometimes adminis- trators hire a consultant such as a psychologist or a master teacher to visit a program and observe a classroom where behaviors have been especially challenging and offer suggestions that are spe- cific to the needs of that group of children.

Daily Routines and Schedules The final piece of classroom management is establishing daily routines and schedules. Develop- mentally appropriate practice suggests that young children benefit from consistent and predict- able routines. A consistent schedule is important for children’s social and emotional development. They feel safe and secure when they know what to expect and what will happen next. This is why so many preschool children seem to enjoy singing a cleanup song when it is time to pick up their toys—the song is part of their predictable, familiar routine.

The role of the administrator is to help the staff establish these routines. In a program that serves more than one group or classroom there is always a coordination of schedules necessary for the functioning of the program. Important care routines like lunch and naps are anchors in the daily schedule and usually can’t be changed or delayed. If the outdoor playground space must be shared between several groups, the administrator will coordinate a schedule that allows everyone to have a regular time on the playground.

A typical daily schedule (Figure 4.2) in a full-day preschool or child care program is organized around a few important considerations. One is meeting the physical needs of children for meals, exercise, and rest. Breakfast, lunch, and snacks are anchors of the daily schedule that occur at the

Comstock/Thinkstock

When a child is having trouble behaving appropriately at school, the administrator can help facilitate communication between teachers and parents.

CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Classroom Management

same time each day. Outdoor play, weather permitting, is another essential. Full-day programs are also required to include a nap period. Around these basic needs, administrators must create a daily schedule that allows opportunities for curriculum activities.

Figure 4.2: Sample Daily Schedule

This sample daily schedule provides for a balance of active and quiet play as well as a balance of teacher- directed and child-directed activities.

While every staff member, from teachers to food service aides to bus drivers, share the responsi- bilities for ensuring the daily schedule and routines go smoothly and that the school or center as a whole runs a successful program, it is the unique role of the early childhood administrator to lead

7:30-9:00 a.m. Parents drop off their children

Breakfast available (optional)

Puzzle table, dramatic play, and writing table open for children’s choice

9:00-9:15 a.m. Morning meeting and calendar time

9:15-10:15 a.m. Center time: Free choice

Curriculum-related activities available in block area, dramatic play, science table, art table, and puzzle table

10:15-10:45 a.m. Morning snack

10:45-11:30 a.m. Outdoor play

11:30 am -12:00 p.m. Story time (small groups)

12:00 pm -12:45 p.m. Lunch time

12:45-2:45 p.m. Nap time

2:45-3:00 p.m. Afternoon snack

3:00-3:30 p.m. Story time (small groups)

3:30-4:30 p.m. Outdoor play

4:30-5:30 p.m. Center time: Free choice

Curriculum-related activities available in block area, dramatic play, science table, art table, and puzzle table

5:30-6:00 p.m. Parents pick up their children

Puzzle table, dramatic play, and writing table open for children’s choice

Daily Schedule: Butterfly Room

CHAPTER 4Chapter Summary

the process and guide everyone toward the vision of a high-quality, developmentally appropriate program. Sometimes a busy early childhood program may seem like a three-ring circus with so many different activities going on simultaneously. The administrator is the ringmaster, overseeing all aspects of the program, from curriculum to instructional practices, from technology to daily schedules. All of these elements make up the program, the services provided for children and families.

Questions to Think About 1. How might the classroom management challenges in an infant/toddler program be dif-

ferent from the challenges in a preschool program? How might they be similar? 2. Why do you think most administrators choose to create the daily schedules for the

whole school or center, rather than letting each teaching team decide their own unique schedule?

Chapter Summary • The term programming in early childhood education refers to the curriculum, the

instructional practices, the classroom management, and the schedules and routines. • Curriculum is a plan for teaching and learning that is often organized by the week or

month and describes activities in both academic subjects, such as language and literacy, and nonacademic subjects, such as creative arts.

• Early childhood curricula often align with early learning content standards. These are produced on a state-by-state basis by school boards and departments of education; standards are also often recommended by professional organizations. Currently, there is a trend toward the development and use of common core standards.

• Administrators will be involved in either selecting or creating a curriculum for their program, depending on program philosophy and priorities. Selecting a program usually involves choosing from among a selection of published curricula; creating a curriculum is often a process shaped by children’s emergent interests.

• An important administrative role in early childhood programs is ensuring that the teach- ers implement a balanced variety of instructional practices. Administrators are respon- sible for training and guiding teachers to use instructional practices like modeling, asking questions, creating groups, and incorporating technology.

• An antibias curriculum approach is based on a commitment to help every child and fam- ily feel welcome and valued.

• The inclusion of children with special needs may involve differentiating the curriculum or adjusting instructional practices in order to accommodate for children’s unique abilities.

• Child assessment practices should be closely linked with curriculum development. The process of developing both curriculum and assessment should be guided by broad ques- tions such as, “What do we want children to know? How will we measure if they have learned it?”

• The primary components of classroom management include the safe supervision of children, the resolution of conflicts between children, the teacher’s responsiveness to children’s challenging behaviors, and the establishment of daily routines and schedules. The director’s role in classroom management is to establish policies and practices to train and coach teachers.

CHAPTER 4Post-Test

Post-Test

1. Which of the following activities is NOT part of early childhood programming? a. balancing the budget b. serving snacks and meals c. reading stories d. going on field trips

2. Which of the following is NOT a content area included in an early childhood curriculum? a. math and reading language arts b. art and music c. science and social studies d. infants and toddlers

3. When purchasing curriculum materials from a publisher, administrators should consider whether the materials are a. similar to the school calendar. b. aligned with developmentally appropriate practices. c. no more than a hundred pages in length. d. helpful in preventing children’s allergies and medical conditions.

4. A concern about the Common Core Curriculum standards is that they a. tend to vary from state to state. b. were not created with early childhood in mind. c. include too much emphasis on art and music. d. have been in use for more than 20 years.

5. Which of the following is the best example of a child-directed activity? a. pretend play b. story time c. afternoon snack d. brushing teeth

6. Parallel process means that an interaction between an administrator and a teacher is similar to an interaction between a. teacher and child. b. teacher and teacher. c. administrator and board member. d. child and parent.

7. An inclusive curriculum is one that creates a welcoming learning environment for all, regardless of a. the location of the playground. b. the center’s tuition rates. c. the teacher’s training and credentials. d. a child’s language and culture.

CHAPTER 4Answers and Rejoinders to Pre-Test

8. Making accommodations for a child with special needs will often include a. closing the center early each day. b. differentiating the curriculum. c. eliminating parent meetings. d. charging additional fees.

9. In their efforts to help teachers develop classroom management skills, early childhood administrators may consult experts in a. school architecture. b. state standards. c. fiscal management. d. conflict resolution.

10. The daily schedule for an early childhood program should include time for a. outdoor play. b. parent meetings. c. accreditation review. d. staff development.

Answers: 1 (a); 2 (d); 3 (b); 4 (b); 5 (a); 6 (a); 7 (d); 8 (b); 9 (d); 10 (a)

Discussion Questions

1. Do you think an administrator must have teaching experience in order to effectively lead the development of curriculum and supervise teachers? Why or why not?

2. Suppose an administrator decides to make a major change in how the program develops and plans curriculum, such as switching from a theme-based curriculum to an emergent curriculum. How might the administrator introduce this change to the teaching staff?

3. What might be some of the benefits and challenges of implementing an antibias curricu- lum approach?

Answers and Rejoinders to Pre-Test

1. True. In early childhood education, the term program is broadly used to describe all the services provided by a school or center.

2. False. One of the advantages of using an emergent curriculum is that the themes or top- ics of each project are based in the children’s interests and questions.

3. False. The most effective instructional practices are those that balance teacher-directed and child-directed activities.

4. True. An antibias curriculum is an approach that that actively respects and affirms each child’s identity and each family’s culture.

5. False. Administrators need to know about classroom management, because they are responsible for supervising and training teachers to manage their classrooms.

CHAPTER 4Key Terms

Additional Resources

Web sites Assessment in Early Childhood http://www.getreadytoread.org/screening-tools/supportive-materials-for-elors/ assessment-in-early-childhood This resource page for Get Ready to Read!, one of the National Center for Learning Disabilities’ family of websites, presents a general overview of assessment practices and tools for early child- hood educators.

Creative Curriculum http://www.creativecurriculum.net/ Creative Curriculum, published by Teaching Strategies, Inc., is one of the most widely used cur- riculum models in the field of early childhood education.

Technology in Early Childhood (TEC) Center of the Erikson Institute http://www.teccenter.erikson.edu/ The TEC Center at Erikson Institute supports early childhood educators in their efforts to make informed decisions about the appropriate use of technology with children from birth to age 8. The website offers resources that help strengthen educators’ ability to intentionally select and use technology in the classroom.

Further Reading Derman-Sparks, L., & Olson Edwards, J. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and our- selves. Washington DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

This book is the successor to Anti-Bias Curriculum, and offers practical guidance to con- fronting and eliminating barriers of prejudice, misinformation, and bias about specific aspects of personal and social identity.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) & National Association of Early Childhood Specialists (NAECS) in State Departments of Education (SDE). (2003). Early childhood curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation: Building an effective, accountable system in programs for children birth through age 8 (position statement with expanded resources).

The full NAEYC and NAECS/SDE 2003 position statement “Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation—Building an Effective, Accountable System in Pro- grams for Children Birth Through Age 8” is available to download from: http://www.naeyc .org/files/naeyc/file/positions/pscape.pdf

Key Terms ability groups Groups of children intention- ally organized by teachers or administrators to place children of similar levels of ability together for the purpose of delivering more efficient and effective instruction.

antibias curriculum A curriculum approach that actively respects and affirms each child’s identity and each family’s culture.

http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/pscape.pdf

CHAPTER 4References

References

Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (2009). Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement. Retrieved Janu- ary 15, 2013, from http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/DEC_NAEYC_EC_ updatedKS.pdf

Gaustad, J. (1997). Building support for multiage education. ERIC Digest 114. Retrieved January 15, 2013, from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED409604.pdf

authentic assessment Assessment based on play and behaviors that occur routinely and spontaneously in an early childhood class- room, rather than created artificially through a formal test or evaluation.

backward design When the curriculum is developed last, to align with the assessment goals and process.

child assessment The process for evaluating and measuring the growth and progress of individual children.

children with special needs Children who have a physical or mental condition that requires special care or assistance.

content standards The expectations or goals for what a child should be able to do or know in any given area of curriculum.

curriculum A plan for learning or a course of study; in early childhood education the curriculum includes everything a child experi- ences in the program.

developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) The concepts, as defined by NAEYC, that early childhood professionals use to guide their work as they teach and care for infants and young children.

differentiation The adaptation of experi- ences, materials, or teaching practices to meet the individual needs of the children.

direct instruction An instructional strategy in which the teacher conveys the information directly to the children.

early learning standards The benchmarks or requirements used to measure progress or growth in early childhood.

emergent curriculum A method of develop- ing curriculum plans by using children’s cur- rent interests to determine the topics.

inclusion The practice of including children with special needs in classrooms that serve a general population of children.

integrated curriculum The blending of multiple curriculum subjects into curriculum activities.

mixed age groups Groups of children inten- tionally organized by teachers or administra- tors, made up of children of different ages for the purpose of learning and socializing together.

program The learning activities that take place within the center or organization and may also include the instructional practices, the daily schedule, the routines for caring for children, and the recreational activities, such as outdoor play.

http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/DEC_NAEYC_EC_updatedKS.pdf

http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED409604.pdf

CHAPTER 4References

Helm, J. H., & Katz, L. G. (2010). Young investigators: The project approach. New York, NY: Teach- ers College Press.

Katz, L. G. (1995a). The benefits of mixed-age grouping. ERIC Digest. Retrieved January 15, 2013, from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED382411.pdf

Katz, L. G., & Chard, S. C. (2000). Engaging children’s minds. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Press.

Meisels, S. J. (2011, November 29). Common Core standards pose dilemmas for early childhood. Washington Post. Retrieved December 20, 2012, from http://www.washingtonpost .com/blogs/answer-sheet/post/common-core-standards-pose-dilemmas-for-early- childhood/2011/11/28/gIQAPs1X6N_blog.html

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) & National Association of Early Childhood Specialists (NAECS) in State Departments of Education (SDE). (2009). Where we stand on curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation (position statement). Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/ PDFs/resources/position-statements/StandCurrAss.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and The Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent College. (2012). Position statement: Technology and interactive media as tools in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Retrieved January 10, 2013, from http://www.naeyc.org/files /naeyc/file/positions/PS_technology_WEB2.pdf

Ohio Department of Education. (2012). Ohio’s early learning and development standards. Retrieved December 28, 2012, from http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages /ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRelationID=1389&ContentID=1629&Cont ent=135483

Rose, S. (2012, March 22). Aligning early childhood education with the Common Core. Core Commons: Emerging strategies and issues in implementing the Common Core. Retrieved December 10, 2012, from http://www.ecs-commoncore.org/?p=441

Tampio, N. (2012, May 7). Do we need a Common Core? Huffington Post. Retrieved January 15, 2013, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nicholas-tampio/do-we-need-a-common- core_b_1497854.html

Utah State Office of Education. (2012). Early childhood core standards. Retrieved January 12, 2013, from http://www.uen.org/core/prek/downloads/EarlyChildhoodStandards2012.pdf

http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED382411.pdf

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/post/common-core-standards-pose-dilemmas-for-early-childhood/2011/11/28/gIQAPs1X6N_blog.html

https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/StandCurrAss.pdf

http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PS_technology_WEB2.pdf

http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRelationID=1389&ContentID=1629&Content=135483

http://www.ecs-commoncore.org/?p=441

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nicholas-tampio/do-we-need-a-common-core_b_1497854.html

http://www.uen.org/core/prek/downloads/EarlyChildhoodStandards2012.pdf