Annotated Bibliography

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Module 4 Effectively Organizing and Presenting Information

Learning Outcomes

• Describe several desktop and digital tools for organizing research.

• Discuss the many digital note-taking tools available.

• Explain the differences between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.

• Explain how to organize information conceptually, chronologically, and hierarchically, including by using an outlining tool.

• Discuss a variety of formats for presenting written, oral, and audiovisual information.

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Introduction This module explains how to organize and present information effectively. As you learned in Module 1, organizing information is the fourth step of the research process; however, this step overlaps with steps 1 through 3. That is, even as you begin to explore and define your topic and then locate, access, and evaluate information on that topic, you’ll be organizing the information you gather in a way that enables you to refer back to it quickly and use it to build a logical, coherent presentation. In fact, organizing even includes how you cite and list your sources, as we discuss in the next module. Because of this, it’s safe to say that organizing infor- mation is a fundamental information literacy skill.

This module provides strategies and tools for organizing your information during steps 1 through 4 of the research process. As you read about each tool, try it out. Remember, practice makes perfect and most people learn best by doing. Think about the academic courses you have left to take, and how developing a new organizational method that works for you will save you hours of time in the long run. A well-organized presentation will also save your read- ers or audience members’ confusion, frustration, and anxiety and will increase their compre- hension and enjoyment of your work.

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 4.1 Learning Outcome: Describe several desktop and digital tools for organizing research.

Why is this important?

Using several desktop and digital tools for organizing research will help you keep track of information in an efficient manner and across multiple devices. Consider Lee, for example. Lee has a computer at work and another one at home. He also has a smart phone and often uses the tablet at his sister’s house. He uses all four of these devices to research things for school, work, and just fun things to do on the weekend. But he could never remember where he had stored information—that is, until he learned about cloud storage and other tools for organizing in his GEN 103 course.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning. Master- ing this learning outcome is essential to your success as a student—it will increase your

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

Module 1 introduced the threshold concept information creation as a process, which acknowl- edges that the purpose, message, and delivery of information are deliberate acts of creation. In that module we focused on how information is presented in different formats due to the purpose or reason it was created. We also discussed how considering the creation process of various information formats will help you select appropriate sources to answer your research question. Now that your research is complete and you’ve gathered the appropriate sources to address your research question, it’s time for you to engage in the process of information creation.

Students who are developing their abilities in the information creation as a process threshold concept

• develop, in their own creation processes, an understanding that their presentation choice impacts the purposes for which the information product will be used and the message that it conveys.

• transfer their knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of information formats into new types of information formats.

• understand that different methods for disseminating information with different purposes are available for their use.

The remainder of this module helps you through the process of using your research to create your own information by organizing it for presentation.

As you progress through steps 1 through 3 of the research process, you will collect various pieces of information that you will need to organize. Generally, it is recommended that you organize this information as you find it, as opposed to trying to pull it together into some sort of system at the end. Again, keeping yourself organized from the beginning of the research process will save you valuable time. It will also help you identify gaps in your research that you might otherwise miss.

Here are some common mistakes both students and professionals make while conducting research:

• Not taking notes or not writing down a source at the time you find it because you think you will remember the information and the location.

• Losing track of research articles you’ve read. • Not writing down ideas or thoughts you’ve had while reading.

Tools to avoid these pitfalls include desktop files and bookmarks, tools within the Ashford University (AU) Library, and cloud storage. These options offer you a variety of ways to orga- nize your information.

chances of getting good grades and will increase your capacity to learn to your full potential in your academic, personal, and professional lives.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

When we last saw Irwin, he was finishing up his research and preparing to write his paper on the benefits of social networking in the workplace (Table 4.1). Let’s take a closer look at the organizational tools that are available to him.

Table 4.1: Irwin’s completed KWHL chart

K What do I know?

W What do I want to know?

H How do I find out?

L What have I learned?

Social networking has been around for at least 10 years.

It’s useful for staying in touch with friends and family.

It helps me keep up with groups and organizations I’m interested in.

Some of the gaming systems I use have social networks built in.

How do others use social networking?

Has it been around for longer than 10 years?

Does it impact my life the same way as it does others in society?

Has social networking evolved with society?

What are popular social networking tools in the workplace?

How are companies using social networks to enhance their organizations?

Background research: Wikipedia & Google

Scholarly sources from the library/ FindIt@AU: 1 e-book, 3 scholarly articles

Internet sources: government site, podcast

SNs have been around since the late 1800s.

Currently, many SNs exist for a wide range of purposes.

SN in the workplace has positive global implica- tions for organizations.

SN, when used cor- rectly, can enhance partnerships and communication.

Desktop Folders and Bookmarks When you were in school, you may have been taught to use notecards to help keep your- self organized while researching. This system is cumbersome for digital information such as research articles you’ve downloaded and websites you’ve found helpful. This section provides some suggestions for organizing your digital information.

When beginning a new research project, create a new folder on the desktop of your com- puter. Name the folder and begin placing the articles you save here. Try using Microsoft Word or Pages to create a document recording your thoughts and ideas. You can also use Word or Pages to create a running list of citations and record your thoughts about each source. This list, called an annotated bibliography (see Module 5), will help you keep track of the

Quick Tip!

Keeping Track of Information Keeping track of information as you go will help you stay focused on what you are doing and what you are looking for. It also will keep you from going off into research tangents and forgetting where you found a resource.

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information you are collecting. You can also list websites you’ve visited, along with notes about the information you found and how you plan to use them. Save each of these documents with a name that is meaningful to your project into the desktop folder you created. Now, all of your information is in one place. Here is an example of Irwin’s desktop folder.

Bookmarking websites can also be helpful especially if you find yourself returning to the same site repeatedly. Instead of bookmarking sites in your web browser, try using social media bookmarking sites like Delicious (https://delicious.com), Kippt (https://kippt.com/), and Diggo (www.diggo.com). Since these sites allow you to save your links on their website, you’ll be able to access them from any computer. Here is an example of how Irwin used Delicious to bookmark the websites he used to answer his research question. Notice that he was able to tag each of the sites he saved. These tags help Irwin to remember what each site discussed and why he decided to save it.

Quick Tip!

Note Taking from Print Sources If you plan to use a combination of print and digital resources, you can still use the annotated bibliography suggestion. Just add your physical resources to the list and make a note that they are in a print form so that you don’t lose track. As you highlight and make notes in the margins of these resources, you can still add them to your digital list of notes and ideas.

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

Tools in the AU Library Databases As you learned in Module 2, the Ashford University Library is made up of databases contain- ing information in a digital format. Databases often contain tools to help keep your research organized. While each database is a bit different, you usually can save your articles in folders, email yourself the article, or download the article to your computer. It’s important to note that these features are usually available only for articles and not for e-books or videos.

Database Folders Databases such as EBSCOhost and ProQuest allow you to save articles, search results, search histories, and more to a folder that you can use anytime you are in the database. To make use of this tool, you must first set up a personal account in each database. For instance, if you plan on conducting research in both ProQuest and FindIt@AU (EBSCOhost), you would need to set up an account with both databases. Once your account is established, you can begin saving articles to your folder in that database. Keep in mind you must sign in each time you use the database to gain access to the information you have saved. Once you begin collecting and add- ing materials to your folder, you will have the option of organizing your saved materials by title or by the date you added them.

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One of the benefits of using the folder tool is that it enables you to access the saved informa- tion from any computer. This offers increased flexibility if you use many different computers. A possible negative to saving your research in a database folder is your dependence on being able to access that specific database to get to it. If the database goes down, or you forget your user name and password, you will not be able to access your information.

Emailing From AU Library databases, you also have the option to email articles to yourself. This feature does not require you to set up a personal account within a database; instead, you email arti- cles to yourself by simply clicking an icon. Most databases also allow you to email the citation along with the article in whatever format you choose, such as APA or MLA. In the AU Library, you can email only articles, not e-books or videos.

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

Once the articles have been emailed to you, it’s up to you to keep them organized. Try setting up a folder in your email account where you can save all of your database research. Keeping your articles saved in your email will allow you to access them from any computer. If you’re not concerned with accessing these resources from multiple computers, you could simply download them to add to your desktop folder.

Downloading You can also download database articles directly to your computer’s Downloads file. They will download as Portable Document Format (PDF) files, and you will need to have Adobe Reader (http://get.adobe.com/reader/) installed on your computer to be able to open and read them. This free software application takes up very little memory on your computer’s hard drive. Updated versions of the Adobe Reader software are released quite often, so be sure to down- load newer versions as they become available.

Once you have downloaded an article, you will need to find a safe place to store it. If you plan on downloading multiple articles for the same project, consider saving them in a desktop folder, as advised earlier. All of your research will be in one folder that you can quickly locate and access. Let’s look at Irwin’s desktop folder, which now includes PDFs of the articles he has downloaded from the AU Library. Notice that he has included tags to remind himself what each article discusses.

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Database folders, email, and downloading each use different technologies. Initially, you may feel more comfortable emailing an article to yourself as opposed to using the folder option within a database. Make sure that you try exploring each tool to see which one works best for you.

Cloud Storage When you hear the term cloud storage, you may imagine storage boxes or file folders float- ing in the sky. Despite its fanciful name, cloud storage is simply the storing of digital content on a remote server. If you’ve always saved files on your own computer’s hard drive, you might be wondering why you would want to save them remotely. Actually, there are many reasons:

• Space: Saving files to your desktop takes up space in your computer’s memory. The less available space you have, the slower your computer will run.

• Access: If you’ve saved a paper you’re writing on your home computer, you can’t then access it from your smart phone while you’re riding the subway.

• Backup: If you want to make backup copies of key files on your hard drive, saving them to the cloud is a great choice. Storing your data in both the cloud and the hard drive of your computer is an extra precaution worth taking to keep your data safe.

• Sharing: Say you’re working on a project with two other students. Using cloud storage allows you to create a shared account where you store files. This way, you and your colleagues are able to quickly access the revisions you’ve made to your shared files.

• Organizing: Cloud storage is also a valuable tool for organizing your information, because it offers many options for arranging and classifying information. You can organize your files alphabetically, categorically, and hierarchically (see section 4.2).

For all these reasons, instead of saving files to a hard drive, more and more people are saving to websites that store files on their server. Three popular cloud storage services are Google Drive (www.google.com/drive), Microsoft OneDrive (https://onedrive.live.com/), and

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

Dropbox (www.dropbox.com). Each of these free services offers differing amounts of storage space. If you need more than your allotted free space, you may have to pay for it. Obviously, you can’t access cloud storage services without an Internet connection. Broadband service is highly recommended: dial-up Internet service may have too narrow a bandwidth to enable you to upload or download files.

Irwin has decided to use Google Drive to back up his research. Here’s a look at how he has organized his information using Google Drive. Notice that the same information that was located in his desktop file can be found in his Google Drive folder. This will help guarantee that his information is safe.

One concern with using cloud storage services is the debate over data ownership. Ques- tions to consider are: Does the information I store in a cloud system still belong to me, since I originally uploaded it? What happens to my data if the company suddenly goes out of business? Can the cloud storage service I use delete my data? Look for the answers to these questions in the terms of service agreement used by the cloud storage service you’re considering. Whereas this concern about data ownership is important, it shouldn’t deter you from using cloud storage services. After all, with one hard-drive crash, you could lose everything stored on your personal computer. It’s unfortunate, but imperfect technology— and imperfect users—means that digital information is vulnerable. Bear in mind, however, that even print information can easily be misplaced, stolen, or lost in a fire or flood. Cloud storage is a helpful tool, even if you use it only as a backup to the information you store on your personal computer.

Section 4.1 Knowledge Check Quiz 1. The author recommends that information be organized

A. at the beginning of the research process. B. at the end of the research process. C. as you find information.

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4.1 How Can I Keep Track of Information Effectively?

2. In which program is the annotated bibliography built? A. Microsoft Word B. Photoshop C. Excel

3. Which icon must you click to save an item in FindIt@AU? A. A journal and pen B. A file folder with a plus sign on it C. An envelope with an arrow

Answers: 1 (C), 2 (A), 3 (B)

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Your Roadmap to Success: Section 4.2 Learning Outcome #1: Discuss the many digital note-taking tools available.

Why is this important?

Note-taking tools will help you organize the vast amounts of information you encounter in your academic, professional, and personal lives. Consider Kirsten, for example. At first, Kirsten thought taking notes while she researched her assignment would be a waste of time, so she didn’t do it. But when she started writing her assignment, she realized she was spend- ing a lot of time just trying to remember where all her sources were located. So she took notes for her next assignment and discovered that note taking is actually a timesaver in the long run. Kirsten was able to complete her second assignment much faster because she was able to quickly find her sources when she needed them. Additionally, the note-taking tools are helping her keep track of her ideas for the business she wants to start.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning

4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

Learning Outcome #2: Explain the differences between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.

Why is this important?

Knowing the difference between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing will help ensure that you are able to give credit where credit is due, while maintaining your academic integ- rity. Consider Rachel, for example. Rachel was glad to learn the differences between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing because she felt she had some really good ideas, and she wanted to be able to clearly distinguish between her ideas and other people’s ideas in her research papers.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

Learning Outcome #3: Explain how to organize information conceptually, chronologically, and hierarchically, including by using an outlining tool.

Why is this important?

Effectively organizing information will ensure you can express yourself in ways that other people will be able to follow and understand where you’re coming from. Consider Alan, for example. Alan, an active volunteer at his daughter’s school, was asked to create a series of flyers promoting events at the school. He would need to create almost 40 flyers for a variety of events over the course of a year. He was overwhelmed at first! But by using the organizing skills he learned in his GEN 103 course, he was able to plan for, design, and write effective flyers that communicated important information in a clear, easy-to-read manner.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

You now have some practical strategies and tools for collecting information for your research papers and other sources. But—in addition to reading the materials—what do you do with them? How do you move from a collection of sources to a coherent academic paper, oral report, or video? Effectively presenting your information takes some preplan- ning and organization. The steps to get you there are note taking and framing. These steps are explained here.

Note Taking When you’re researching, it’s important that you keep track of your resources. Nothing is more frustrating than having a great quotation or the perfect statistic and not remembering where it came from. This is just one reason to develop a good, consistent system for taking notes and keeping them organized.

We introduced a few digital note-taking tools in Module 2 (see section 2.5) within the context of gathering information. These tools can also be used to take notes as you prepare to orga- nize and present information. Here are a few others to consider.

• Quicklyst (https://quicklyst.appspot.com/) is a free web-based note-taking tool that includes a search engine and dictionary for enhanced note taking. Notes are taken in an outline format and include a search tool that allows you to easily locate informa- tion within the notes you’ve recorded.

• Workflowy (https://workf lowy.com/) is a free web-based note-taking/outlining tool that is simple to use. It allows you to create your own system for tagging your entries, so they are easily searchable using their search platform. It also includes a checklist feature that could be a useful tool for keeping you on track for meeting deadlines.

• Zotero (www.zotero.org/) is a free tool that collects, manages, and cites research sources. It also has a note-taking feature that allows you to create standalone notes and notes attached to resources.

• Scriblink (www.scriblink.com/) is free online note-taking tool that functions like a digital whiteboard. It allows you to share your notes, drawings, or diagrams with others. It also allows you to save, send, or print your notes.

Some of these tools, like Zotero, also function as citation management tools and will be dis- cussed further in Module 5. Let’s see how Irwin uses Zotero for note taking.

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(https://workflowy.com/

www.zotero.org/

4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

Now that you are aware of some digital tools for note taking, let’s explore the type of infor- mation you should include in your notes. At times, note taking can be quite agonizing and time consuming. While completing the process may always take a bit of time, note taking can be less painful if you have a solid strategy in place for extracting the necessary information. According to Badke (2014) and Presnell (2013), part of that strategy is being able to include specific types of information from the research you’ve gathered to include in your notes. These types of information are common knowledge, quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing. Let’s take a closer look at each one.

Common Knowledge Common knowledge is considered something that seems to be commonly known. Common knowledge will vary country to country and from discipline to discipline. For instance, the citizens of China will have a very different set of common knowledge among its population

Quick Tip!

Taking Notes for References Every academic discipline requires that you submit with your paper a bibliography or reference page. Recording this information in your notes will make it easier for your readers to find the resources you used in your paper and also help you avoid committing plagiarism. Here are some key items to make sure you include in your notes:

• If your resource is a book, make note of the title, author, publisher, date, and city of publication.

• For articles, make note of the article title, author, title, series number, volume number, and date of the publication.

• For websites, make note of the author, title of the document, title of the complete work, date of publication or last revision, URL, and date that you accessed the site.

• To cite a lecture, video, film, radio program, or other less usual source, consult a style manual to find out what information you will need to complete your bibliography or works cited page.

You will explore these topics in greater detail in Module 5. Source: Adapted from Institute of Writing and Rhetoric (2015).

Depending on the situation, you may discover that you need to use multiple methods of note taking. For example, you may find typing out your notes works best for your academic needs, but that paper and pencil notes work well in your personal life. Finding a system that works for you is the ultimate goal, so spend time exploring different note-taking methods and tools until you find one that most effectively meets your needs.

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than those in the United States. Another example could be the fields of chemistry and history. Both of these disciplines will have a different set of common knowledge that will not be com- monly known to others outside their field.

Determining what is common knowledge within the discipline or field you are researching could be difficult if you are new to the topic. However, seeing or reading the same facts and assumptions over and over could establish the information as common knowledge. Common knowledge can be valuable for adding context and background to support the topic of your paper. This type of information may not need to be cited in your paper. Here are some basic examples of common knowledge:

• Washington D.C. is the capital of the United States. • Thomas Edison was a well-known American inventor. • Washing your hands prevents the spread of germs.

As you gather information and begin adding it to your notes, be careful not to confuse com- mon knowledge with detailed information that includes common knowledge, which would need to be cited. Compare the preceding common knowledge examples with the following detailed information that includes common knowledge:

• Washington D.C., also known as the District of Columbia, was originally created through the donation of land from Maryland and Virginia. In the 1840s, a downturn in the Virginian economy led to the state petitioning Congress to return the land they ceded. Congress granted their request in 1846 and returned all the territory Virginia originally donated.

• Thomas Edison, a well-known American inventor, amassed a record 1,093 patents before his death in 1931.

• Cold and flu germs can live on any surface for 2 hours or more. Washing your hands for at least 20 seconds can reduce the spread of cold germs by 21 percent.

Quoting Quoting is using an author’s exact words. You may find that an author expresses something so perfectly that you want to include the original wording. Maybe you oppose an author’s point of view and need to use his or her exact wording to form your counter argument. Either way, you need to include the full citation in your notes. Keep track of the direct quotations you use in your notes by placing quotation marks around the information. Here is a quote Irwin used in his notes. Notice that he included the citation with the quote, so he remembers to include it in his paper.

“Professional uses for social networking software have been identified in the workplace. However, the reluctance for employees to combine work and pro- fessional connections are occurring within management at all organizational levels.”

Lewis, C. (2014). Social networking in the workplace: constraints among man- agement. The Journal of Social Networking, 121.

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Summarizing Summarizing involves reading a block of information and then putting it into your own words. The point of summarizing should be to take pages of information and condense them into a paragraph of notes or a paragraph into a sentence. Summarizing information allows you to process the information by forcing you to think about the information to make it your own. Summarizing large pieces of material can be challenging if the topic is complex or hard to understand. Therefore, summarizing is not ideal for every note-taking situation.

Paraphrasing Paraphrasing is taking an author’s ideas and putting them into your own words. This dif- fers from summarizing, which is the condensing of information and not the rewriting of sentences in your own words. Paraphrasing usually involves replacing words in an author’s sentence with synonyms. While this approach may be okay as a method of note taking, it is generally not recommended because most students do not change enough of the author’s original wording for it to be included in their research paper. Incorrectly paraphrasing could be considered a form of plagiarism. Here are examples of both summarizing and paraphrasing.

Original text

“The exact reasons for Vikings venturing out from their homeland are uncer- tain; some have suggested it was due to overpopulation of their homeland, but the earliest Vikings were looking for riches, not land. In the eighth century A.D., Europe was growing richer, fueling the growth of trading centers such as Dorestad and Quentovic on the Continent and Hamwic (now Southampton), London, Ipswich and York in England. Scandinavian furs were highly prized in the new trading markets; from their trade with the Europeans, Scandi- navians learned about new sailing technology as well as about the growing wealth and accompanying inner conflicts between European kingdoms.” (History.com, 2009)

Summarizing

According to History.com (2009) Viking exploration in the 8th century resulted in many monetary and informational gains that directly enhanced the success of their raids. Through their profitable trading relationships with England, the Vikings learned about new sailing innovations, European wealth, and territory conflicts that proved to be fruitful.

This is an example of correct summarizing. Incorrect summarizing would either be just as long as the original passage or so short that the essential pieces of information were missing.

Incorrect paraphrasing

While the exact reasons Vikings branched out from their homes is uncertain, it has been suggested that overpopulation of their homeland may be the cause. It is known that the earliest Vikings were seeking wealth, and not land. With

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

Europe prospering in the eighth century, their trading centers began expanding, especially in England. Furs from Scandinavia were greatly coveted in the new trading markets with the Europeans. These interactions taught the Scandina- vians about new sailing expertise, and the prosperity and conflicts between the various European kingdoms.

This example sounds too much like the original text. The sentence structure is very similar, and the original wording has been replaced with synonyms. You should avoid this type of paraphrasing at all costs.

Correct paraphrasing

As discussed on the website History.com, Viking exploration in the eighth cen- tury led to many discoveries that directly enhanced their level of prosperity. Not only did their exploration lead to prosperous trade with English territo- ries, it also led to an increased understanding of European innovations and complex disagreements between monarchies. Both of which directly enhanced the Vikings’ success and dominance over the region (History.com, 2009).

Taking notes is an essential part of the research process. Therefore, following the preceding note-taking guidance will provide you with an opportunity to think, reflect, and understand the information. Another benefit of note taking is that it may ultimately help your recall of the information (Bui, Myerson, & Hale, 2013). Additionally, if you organize your notes as you go, you’ll avoid losing track of your research and will be able to identify where more information is needed. Consider organizing your notes by the subtopics you would like to discuss in your paper. These could be the topics you listed on your concept map or KWHL chart.

During the note-taking process, it’s easy to make mistakes if you are not diligent. Here are a few common errors to avoid:

• Avoid copying information word for word directly from a resource, unless it will be used as a quotation. Copying information not only keeps you from fully processing the information but can also lead to plagiarism if the notes end up in your paper.

• Avoid adding too much detail to your notes. This will slow you down. Keep your notes concise by including only the most significant information.

• Remember to include the page numbers of the resource you are using in your notes. Overlooking this step will result in spending valuable time searching for this infor- mation and could leave you open to making mistakes.

Framing As you begin thinking about how best to present your notes, you may begin feeling a bit over- whelmed. If so, it often helps to take a step back and analyze them. Have you found out every- thing you wanted to learn about your topic? If not, you’ll need to conduct another search to fill in any gaps in the notes you’ve gathered.

Next, weed out any irrelevant information—that is, information that’s off topic or doesn’t address your research question. Instead of entirely deleting these notes and files, place them in a separate folder until you’ve finished your presentation and are certain that you won’t need them.

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

Once you’ve completed these two steps, you’re ready to begin putting your information into a logical framework—in a sense, a blueprint for your paper or other presentation. Creating a framework that will enable you to unfold your thoughts, ideas, and researched information in an organized and effective way takes time and care. Here are a few things to consider in this planning stage to help you create this framework. Let’s see how Irwin addresses these ques- tions in the creation of his framework.

• Purpose: What is the purpose of my presentation? Am I educating, analyzing, sum- marizing, persuading, inspiring, or entertaining? Make sure that the information you include helps you reach this goal. Include information from the resources you’ve gathered that is essential to fulfilling your purpose, but avoid trying to include every minor detail. Finally, as noted earlier, leave out anything that you decide is irrelevant.

As Irwin evaluates the notes he’s taken and the research he’s gathered, he notices that he has quite a bit of information on societal uses of social net- working and social media. Since this is not the specific focus or purpose of his paper, he decides to keep only the information that will provide a background and context for his research question, which is focused on the workplace.

• Audience: Who is receiving this information? What information can I assume they already know about my topic? Is there any technical information or language in my presentation that my audience might not understand? Make sure your audience has the prior knowledge to understand the information you’re presenting.

Since Irwin’s audience is his professor, he’s fairly certain she has prior knowl- edge on the topic of his paper. Nonetheless, Irwin decides to include enough background information in his paper to ensure she understands his topic and can follow his train of thought.

• Structure: How can the structure of my presentation best showcase the information I’m sharing? What are the essential pieces of information that must be included? College-level writing requires that you use sophisticated and complex methods for structuring your information. The required method is usually tied to the assignment instructions or the required citation format (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago). Make sure you include what you found or uncovered during your research and why this is important (University of Melbourne, 2013).

Irwin takes another look at his assignment instructions to make sure he is on track. He also wants to make sure he structures his paper according to the requirements of the assignment. He already has the required resources syn- thesized and ready to use. His next step will be organizing his information into a cohesive framework to write his paper from.

Once you’ve answered these questions, you’re ready to choose a process for effectively fram- ing your information. The following sections provide you with options for how to do this.

Conceptual Frameworks Module 1 briefly introduced the idea of organizing your ideas through concept mapping. A concept map is a graphic organizer that allows you to organize your thoughts, ideas, or in this case research notes to see relationships between concepts. When framing a particular

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How are companies using SN tools?

Externally Internally

What is the difference between “Social networking” and “Social media”?

Social networking is about engagement by creating

relationships and communicating

Social media is media content you upload

What SN tools are available in the workplace?

Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

What are the benefits of using SN tools in the workplace?

Global partnerships

Increased communication

Connecting with others

Social networking in the workplace

4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

topic by concept, you would begin by introducing your main concept and then cluster your supporting ideas for backup. The information is structured so that the supporting ideas are broken down to show how they contribute to the main concept.

Irwin used a KWHL chart instead of a concept map in Module 1 to organize his ideas. Using the ideas he had for his research assignment, let’s see what his concept map would have looked like (Figure 4.1).

Chronological Frameworks Information organized chronologically is presented as a sequence—for example, the steps in a process of repairing a flat tire or baking a quiche. Often, the information is organized by time (chronos refers to time), with the purpose of showing a pattern of events that led to a spe- cific outcome. Organizing your information chronologically is usually effective when covering historical or scientific topics. This method also works well when you want your audience to observe changes over time or make comparisons. For example, say Irwin wanted to discuss the evolution of social networking in the workplace in his paper. He could begin by organizing his information in the form of a timeline like this:

I. 2003 1. LinkedIn launches

II. 2005–2008 1. Blogs and wikis gain in popularity for networking and connecting workers to

jobs. 2. Twitter launches 3. Facebook gains popularity with working adults and companies.

Figure 4.1 Irwin’s possible concept map

How are companies using SN tools?

Externally Internally

What is the difference between “Social networking” and “Social media”?

Social networking is about engagement by creating

relationships and communicating

Social media is media content you upload

What SN tools are available in the workplace?

Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

What are the benefits of using SN tools in the workplace?

Global partnerships

Increased communication

Connecting with others

Social networking in the workplace

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TreesFlowers

Conifers DeciduousAnnuals Perennials

Plants

4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

III. 2009–2010 1. SharePoint is launched to connect and enhance collaboration among employees. 2. Google+ launches as a possible tool for workplace collaboration and networking.

Hierarchical Frameworks A hierarchy is an arrangement of topics by level of inclusiveness or importance. For example, in biology, a hierarchy of the plant kingdom, which includes all plants, would be more inclu- sive than one showing particular types of plants, such as flowering plants (see Figure 4.2). A common example of a hierarchy of importance is an organizational chart at a place of employ- ment. Usually, an org chart places the head of the company or department at the top and lists the employees reporting to this person directly below in order of authority.

In an academic presentation, organizing information by hierarchy is useful when you would like to show the order of inclusion, importance, or value. For example, you might open a video on a program of community development by introducing the city, then the neighborhood, then the community center where the program meets, then the volunteers and the people they serve. Or you might structure a paper on chemical elements by presenting elements from lightest to heaviest, or a review of proposed innovations in public education by present- ing them from most to least expensive.

You likely already use each of these three methods, albeit subconsciously, in many ways. When gathering and organizing information to file your taxes, you first organize your receipts and other documents by time (chronologically) to ensure they fall within the cor- rect calendar year. Next, you look at what category the information belongs to: receipts for office supplies might go into one pile and charity donation receipts in another. You use the same principles—whether or not you’re aware of them—when you organize your closets, kitchen, DVD collection, and even your laundry.

When it comes to organizing information, however, you need to apply these principles con- sciously. Spend time considering which method for organizing your information works best and helps to create the structure and cohesiveness you need for successful presentation.

Figure 4.2 Basic hierarchical chart example

TreesFlowers

Conifers DeciduousAnnuals Perennials

Plants

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

Ashford Student Profile: Ashley

Ashley’s final paper for her New Media & Society course was due in a week. She was excited when she discovered her topic would be on e-books and the digital divide. Both topics interested her, and she felt as though she’d have a lot to say. Her excitement and desire to meet the paper deadline caused her to jump straight into researching without creating an organized plan. In her haste, she simply jotted down a few ideas of topics she wanted to include in her paper and developed her research question without much thought. She figured she could adjust her question as she researched.

After researching for a week, Ashley found so much information on the topic of e-books and the digital divide that she had close to 20 resources for her paper, and her assignment required only 8. Talk about information overload! She ended up changing her research question repeatedly and could never settle on an exact question or direction.

When Ashley located a resource, she would scan and skim it looking for information that interested her. If it was a digital resource such as a website, e-book, or journal article, she would copy the information she wanted to use word by word into a Word document, making sure to cite where it came from so that she wouldn’t forget. Now, she had gathered 10 pages of information, and much of it was redundant. For her physical resources, she highlighted in yellow information on the digital divide and highlighted in blue information on e-books. She even made notes on each physical resource on how she planned to use the highlighted information in her paper. She ended up with five physical resources and pages and pages of information highlighted. Ashley felt completely overwhelmed and out of touch with the information she had gathered because there was so much of it. It all seemed like such interesting information at the time she was collecting it; however, now she had no idea how to organize it to form a cohesive paper. Without a solid research plan, she couldn’t identify what the gaps were in her paper or even which point of view to take. Instead, she just had a collection of copied information or highlighted notes.

Ashley thought her methods for gathering and organizing her resources meant she had an organized research process; however, she had overlooked the importance of creating an organized plan for research. This meant she was going to have to use valuable time to create that plan now by starting at the beginning of the research process. She decided to begin by conducting background research on her topic and creating a concept map to help her develop a solid research question. Once her research question was set, she began using the information from her concept map to create a preliminary outline. Her initial outline looked like this:

I. Introduction II. The Digital Divide Explained III. The Increasing Popularity of the E-book IV. The E-book’s Effect on the Digital Divide V. The Role of the Library in the E-book Revolution and Its Responsibility to the Digital

Divide VI. Bridging the Gap in the Digital Divide

This outline allowed Ashley to organize the information she had already collected under each numeral, and then quote, summarize, and paraphrase that information for her notes. Now she was able to see the gaps in her research and reorganize her outline based on the extra information she found. Here is her revised outline:

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Outlines At the beginning stages of your research, you should decide on your points of interest and the direction of your argument. You can achieve this by creating an outline. An outline is an ordered list of the main topics and subtopics you plan on covering in your paper. Writers use these tools to help them organize their thoughts before writing a first draft. Outlines are important at this stage of the research process, as they serve as a foundation or blueprint for the structure of your paper. The way you assemble the information in your paper is crucial for how readers will receive it. If the topics you discuss in your paper get out of order or are unclear to readers, your paper will be considered ineffective. Using an outline will not only prevent this from occurring, but can also help identify gaps in your thinking and help you address areas in your paper that need more research.

Let’s look at a detailed example of an outline from the Ashford Writing Center (AWC; https:// cdmsmedia.bridgepointeducation.com/MediaSer v ice/MediaSer v ice.svc/constellation /book/AUWC.12.4/%7Bhandouts%7Da.1_sample_outline.pdf ). Creating an outline like the example from the AWC takes some practice and quite a bit of thought. Keep in mind that every outline you create will not need to be that detailed. Following a set of steps can help you in the creation of your own outline:

1. Identify the topic of your paper. You can do this through your research question, which will help you identify the goal of your paper. Keep your research question concise, ideally to one sentence. This will ensure your paper stays focused on your main topic.

2. Identify the main topics to be covered. Consider the goal of your paper, and based on your concept map or KWHL chart, list the main topics you would like to include. These points should be briefly addressed in the introduction of your paper. The remainder of your paper can expand on those points.

Question: What is the effect of the e-book on the digital divide?

I. Introduction A. The Digital Divide Explained

II. The Increasing Popularity of the E-book A. E-book Consumers B. E-book Accessibility

III. The E-book’s Effect on the Digital Divide A. Economic B. Usability C. Empowerment

IV. The Role and Responsibility of the Public Library A. E-book Revolution and the Public Library B. E-book Access to the Digital Divide

V. Bridging the Gap in the Digital Divide A. Role of the Government B. Social Benefits

With her revised outline, notes she created in her own words, and renewed clarity, Ashley felt prepared to write a successful research paper.

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https://cdmsmedia.bridgepointeducation.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUWC.12.4/%7Bhandouts%7Da.1_sample_outline.pdf

4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

3. Create the first main topic. Here you should include any background knowledge your audience needs to understand your topic. This can be a complicated word that needs defining or a theory that needs a basic explanation.

4. Create subtopics. List subtopics under each of your main topics. They provide sup- port for each of your main topics. The number of subtopics you include will depend on the topic. However, you should provide at least two subtopics for each main topic to offer enough support.

5. Think about your outline. After constructing your outline, refrain from immediately writing the first draft of your paper. Instead, spend some time thinking about how you’ve organized your outline and if it will make sense for your readers.

It’s rare that the first draft of an outline will be on target, so keep reworking it until it’s just right. A well-formed outline should take your readers from the introduction of your topic all the way through to your conclusion in an efficient manner (Badke, 2014). You can test whether your outline is in its final draft by asking a few questions to check its strength and validity.

Here are some questions you might ask:

• Does my thesis or research question control the direction of my outline? • Are all of my main points relevant to answering my research question? • Can any of these points be moved around without changing something important

about my research question? • Does the outline seem logical? • Does my argument (the statement of response to my research question) progress, or

does it stall? • Do I have sufficient support for each of my points? • Have I made room in my outline for other points of view about my topic? • Does this outline reflect a thorough, thoughtful argument? Have I covered enough

ground on my topic to sufficiently answer my research question? (Adapted from the Institute for Writing and Rhetoric, 2015)

In Module 5, you’ll learn how to format main headings and subheadings in an academic paper. For now, explore one or more of the following outlining tools, which are available free. This is a very small sampling of the many outliner tools available online. Notice that two of these tools were also mentioned in the previous section on taking notes.

• Quicklyst (https://quicklyst.appspot.com/) is a free web-based note-taking tool that also creates outlines. It offers an outlining template and allows you to store multiple outlines on different subjects. Quicklyst includes a search tool to allow you to locate specific information within your outline or notes.

• LooseStitch (http://loosestitch.com/) is a free web-based outlining tool that allows you to collaborate on the creation of an outline and also export an outline to Micro- soft Word or other software platform.

• Workflowy (https://workflowy.com/) is a free web-based note-taking/outlining tool that is simple to use. It allows you to create your own system for tagging your entries, so they are easily searchable using their search platform. It also includes a checklist feature that could be a useful tool for keeping you on track for meeting deadlines.

In addition to these tools listed, Microsoft Word (https://support.office.com/en-ca/article /Create-an-outline-87e44e0d-ecba-4ec1-b1c9-b9fa46a230fc) also has an outlining tool that can help you organize your information.

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

While the majority of this section focused on how to create an outline for an academic paper, there is an option for outlining when creating a presentation. It’s called a storyboard, and it provides the layout for a presentation. Storyboarding is best used when you’re creating a visual presentation, such as a PowerPoint or Prezi. The following example shows what a story board looks like for a Prezi. You also can locate free storyboarding software, such as Story boardThat (www.storyboardthat.com/), online.

Quick Tip!

Making an Outline Ideally, you would start your research by sketching out a preliminary outline that lists a few points you would like to cover in your paper. Your concept map or KWHL chart can work as an informal outline, since it provides a direction and context for your research. This type of outline can be flexible and change as needed depending on where your line of research takes you. It can also guide you in the construction of your formal outline.

Source: The PresentationSchool.com. Reprinted with permission from Martha Denton.

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4.2 What Are the Best Methods for Organizing Information?

Section 4.2 Knowledge Check Quiz 1. Information that does not address your research question should be

A. weeded out and saved. B. weeded out and tossed. C. incorporated into your paper.

2. The following illustration is an example of organization.

A. outline B. chronological C. hierarchical

Answers: 1 (A), 2 (C)

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Your Roadmap to Success: Section 4.3 Learning Outcome: Discuss a variety of formats for presenting written, oral, and audiovisual information.

Why is this important?

Presenting written, oral, and audiovisual information will enable you to “show off ” what you’ve learned and to express yourself in a variety of forums and formats. Consider Clara, for example. Clara works as a manager at a popular restaurant chain and is required to submit monthly sales reports to corporate headquarters. After learning more about using graph- ics to display information visually in her GEN 103 course, Clara decided to add some extra tables and charts to her sales reports to better illustrate the data. The corporate staff found them so helpful that they now require all restaurant locations to submit similar charts and tables in their monthly sales reports.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning

4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

Part of being information literate is effectively presenting the information you’ve researched in a variety of formats. For an academic course, the format in which you present your informa- tion will be determined by your instructor and explained in the assignment instructions. At work or in other situations, you may be required to present information in a technical report, a conference presentation, or a video. The remainder of this module discusses different formats for presenting information. Generally, you’ll present your information in a written form, as an oral presentation, or as an audiovisual. At times, you may need to use a combination of all three. What is shared here is not an exhaustive list of all the presentation options available to you, but simply a few you are likely to encounter in your academic, professional, or personal life.

Written Presentations When you’re presenting information in a written form, certain rules or standards apply as to what is and is not acceptable, and these rules vary with each type of writing. For instance, academic papers have a more formal set of rules and guidelines to follow than blogs. No matter the format, your writing must successfully communicate your message. If it doesn’t effectively communicate your message, you risk losing your readers’ attention. They may even disengage entirely from your message and stop reading it (Bernard et al., 2014).

Academic Paper As you progress in your academic courses at Ashford University, you will be required to write many formal academic papers. The length of each paper will vary by assignment, as will the depth and complexity of the topics you will be expected to write about. When you are writing a paper of this nature, the audience is generally your professor, and the goal is to dem- onstrate your ability to understand and synthesize course-related information. One of the best ways to demonstrate your understanding and mastery of the topics in your course is to include information from course readings in your paper. Often, students over- look these resources and jump straight into research- ing on the Internet. Keep in mind that the materials posted in your classroom are there for a reason and can be a valuable asset to your papers. In your AU classroom, you can locate these resources under the Course Materials tab.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

An academic research paper should be formal, not only in its layout (see Module 5), but also in its tone. It should also focus your arguments to a very specific conclusion. William Badke (2014) provides some tips to assist in the process of writing an academic research paper.

Let’s check in with Irwin and see how he’s using these suggestions in the construction of his own academic paper.

• Introduce your paper well. Spend time crafting a well-written introduction as it serves two purposes, to provide your readers with a working knowledge of your topic and to share your research question or thesis statement.

For Irwin’s introduction, he includes his research question, defines the term social networking and provides the differences between social networking and social media so that his readers have working knowledge of his topic and can apply his definition to the remainder of his paper.

• Keep focused. A solid research question and well-organized notes provide a path to keep you focused toward your conclusion. If you are unclear on the direction your paper is going to take, resist the temptation to begin writing it. Try reorganizing your information and reworking your notes until you have clarity on the direction your paper should take. Initially, Irwin struggled with keeping his paper only on the topic of social network- ing in the workplace. He had discovered so much great information on his topic that he felt it should all go into his paper even though it wasn’t on his initial topic or didn’t answer his research question. After quite a bit of thinking and reorganiz- ing his notes, he decides to follow up his introduction by sticking to the main points: These are popular workplace social networking tools, the benefits of using these tools in the workplace, and how companies and organizations are using social net- working tools to gain these benefits.

• Describe before you analyze. Provide background information on your topic so read- ers can analyze the information you present. Irwin does this in his introduction and also when he introduces popular social net- working tools for the workplace.

• Be respectful. Any disagreements you may have with an author or viewpoint should be handled with a level of professionalism and respect. Avoid using language that ridicules an opposing point of view. As Irwin was conducting his research, he came across quite a few negative articles and points of view on the use of social networking in the workplace. He plans to address a couple of these negatives through his discussion on the benefits of social networking and reminds himself to be professional in his tone and writing.

• Be logical. Keep your readers in mind at all times. They do not know where you are going, so abrupt subject changes risk derailing your focus and losing your readers. Use transitions in your writing when switching topics and have a clear sense of your research question and outline. Make sure each paragraph you write contributes to the solution of your research question. To keep his readers on point and reduce any confusion they may have, Irwin includes headings in his paper and transitions to lead his professor in the direction he wants her to go. He’s confident this will keep both of them on track.

• Be explicit. Your readers cannot read your mind. Carefully and clearly explain ideas or topics that are not common knowledge. Irwin created a list of topics and terms that he was unfamiliar with at the start of his research and then removed what was considered common knowledge after

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

completing his research. As he progresses through his paper, Irwin carefully intro- duces and explains each concept or term on his list.

• Be concise. Communicate complicated information using plain language. Say what you mean and avoid using long words and ambiguity. Irwin avoids writing run-on sentences and using contractions in his paper. Since he can sometimes be long winded in his writing, he spends extra time proofreading his paper to ensure he presents his ideas clearly and concisely.

• Watch out for flawed arguments. Avoid misrepresenting the authorities you are using to support your arguments and make sure you use only arguments that include evidence to support your claims. When writing your paper, imagine your audience is hostile and resistant to the ideas you are presenting. Make sure you include enough evidence in your paper to not only support your claims, but also to convince your readers. If not enough evidence exists, then admit it in your paper by stating so. You could phrase this point as, “Currently, more evidence is needed before a clear con- sensus can be reached on this issue.” Irwin is confident in his research; he was sure to support the benefits for using social networking in the workplace through his research. He made sure that each benefit he discussed in his paper was supported by at least one resource.

• Know when to quote and when not to quote. This issue will be covered more thor- oughly in Module 5. For now, make sure you use quotations in your paper only to back up your view by a notable scholar or when someone states something in a striking way. Avoid using quotations when you can make your point just as well in your own words, when you have already included quite a few quotations in your paper, or when the material you wish to quote is over five to six lines long. Irwin learned in his first few classes at AU that placing too many quotes in a paper was not a good idea. He initially thought that using quotes in his papers was not only a good way to save time, but also an easy way to reach the assignment page require- ment. His instructors felt otherwise through their feedback on those assignments. Irwin now makes sure that he includes only one quote per page, or one quote every two pages, if needed.

• Watch your conclusions. An effective conclusion summarizes the main points in your paper and makes your position clear. Avoid long conclusions that use elaborate language. In the past, conclusions have been a struggle for Irwin. He was never sure how much information to include or not include. He didn’t want to restate everything in his paper, and before the end of it, he honestly was quite tired, so he would skip the conclusion. One of his professors pointed out that a good conclusion leaves readers feeling satisfied. Without it, your paper can often feel unfinished or incomplete. This time, Irwin waits to write his conclusion until the very end, right before he finishes proofreading it. After reading his paper so many times, he feels that he is better equipped to write a satisfying yet concise conclusion.

• Make it look professional. Proofread your work. Look for typos, grammar errors, and awkward wording. Try reading your paper out loud slowly, as this can help you detect errors. Use the proper citation format required (APA, MLA, and so on). If you are using Zotero, EndNote, or another citation management tool, be sure to double- check the citations it creates. These tools can be a huge help with the organization of your information, but they are not fool proof. Irwin practiced a number of techniques for proofreading his paper. He tried reading it slowly and then reading it aloud. Before submitting it, he even had his wife read

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

it just to double-check him. Irwin used Zotero for his citations and notes. He was sure to double-check each citation based on the information he found in the Ashford Writing Center.

Proposals and Grants At some point in your academic life or professional career, you may have to write a pro- posal or grant. A proposal presents an idea for a program or a plan of action. Grants request funding for a particular program or initiative. Both require a very specific pre- sentation of information. Each one is written for a specific audience that will review the information for approval. This makes the acceptance of your ideas by your audience key to your success.

The information requirements for proposals and grants will vary based on the institutions you are working with or applying to. Many proposals and grants require some basic informa- tion such as an introduction, background, description of the program or need, your goals or vision for the program, and a plan of implementation. Proposals and grants should be written at a high level, using descriptive yet concise language. The actual writing of the proposal or grant is often the most challenging piece of the process, so partnering with colleagues who are experienced in proposal and grant writing can be helpful.

Technical Reports Technical reports are frequently used to communicate the results of research or to access a problem. They are most often found in the workplace and are usually formatted based on a set of criteria specific to each field or discipline. Here is a closer look at some common types of technical reports.

Research Findings. These reports explain how information was collected in the field. They vary from basic data logging to a detailed description of the problem or issue under

Quick Tip!

Practice Makes Perfect Like most things in life, practice makes perfect. The same is true for academic writing. The more opportunities you have to write academic papers, the more opportunities you have to improve your writing process. The following suggestions can help you develop stronger academic writing skills:

• Pay close attention to the feedback and suggestions you receive on your writing assignments. Don’t take these comments personally. Instead, use the feedback from your instructors as opportunities to learn and grow.

• Carefully read the scholarly articles you gather, looking closely at the structure of the authors’ writing. How do they write their introductions and conclusions? Can you follow their lines of thinking and the structure of their arguments? Learn what you can from these articles and try applying it to your own writing.

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

study. Often, they include the method or equipment used, the data collection process, and the implications.

Simple Technical Information Report. This type of report provides information on a spe- cific topic with the goal of ensuring the audience has a clear understanding of the subject.

For example, a technical report on investing in the production of new LED technol- ogy would most likely explain how this technology has evolved, how it works, and the specific vocabulary indicative to this field. This type of report does not lean in favor for or against investing in this technology or provide recommendations.

Technical Specifications. Specification sheets usually include descriptions of a product’s features, materials, uses, and mechanisms. An effective specification sheet includes visual elements such as graphics, data, and illustrations, instead of large amounts of text to share information about a product. An example would be a specification sheet for a new LED light from a lighting manufacturer.

Technical Evaluation Reports. These reports are sometimes called feasibility reports because they present technical information in a reasonable manner with the goal of determining the likelihood of its occurrence. For example, a technical evaluation report would provide the steps needed to implement a new manufacturing process and list any potential problems. It would not recommend if the process was valid and if the manufacturer should implement it.

Technical Recommendation Reports. This type of report builds on the evaluation report by offering specific recommendations to aid in the decision of the best solution. At times, some reports include both the evaluation and recommendation reports integrated into one report.

Technical Manuals and Instructions. These manuals provide step-by-step instructions using language appropriate for the general public. An example would be appliances, equipment, or program manuals (Wright, 2014).

Whereas the actual structure, content, and organization of a technical report will vary by field, many industries follow the same guidelines when writing the actual report. Here is a list of common guidelines:

• Write the report in active voice using third person. Avoid using personal pronouns, as this will cause your report to sound as if you are presenting subjective, instead of objective, information.

• Always use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation at all times to give your report a professional tone.

• Present diagrams neatly and include a number and title for all figures. • Cite all sources used in the creation of the report. • Never use Wikipedia as a source in your paper. Likewise, evaluate all websites you

would like to use with the CRAAP test or other evaluation tool before including their information in your report (Wright, 2014).

Social Media At times, you may need to present information using a social media tool. Especially in work- place settings, corporate blogs, Facebook pages, Twitter feeds, and other tools are relatively new methods of presenting information. Researchers have also recently taken to social media to share their findings and learn more about each other’s work through social media outlets

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like Academia.edu and other open access repositories. When presenting information on a social media site, even your own personal blog, ask yourself the following questions:

• Who is my target audience with this information? • Will I be able to effectively present my information in this medium, or should I com-

municate it elsewhere? • Have I proofread the information I’m sharing and double-checked my spelling? • Does it matter who sees this? Or is it okay if everyone sees this? • Have I presented my information in a way that ensures others will understand my

message?

Oral Presentations Presenting information orally takes careful planning and attention to detail just as writing does. You not only need to take into account the information you’d like to share, but also need to determine your audience, organize that information, and practice your delivery. Depending on your level of experience, presenting orally can be a bit challenging. From the pace of your presentation to your ability to answer impromptu questions, public speaking takes quite a bit of practice and a deep understanding of your topic.

Types of Oral Presentations One of your first experiences presenting orally is likely a class presentation you did in grade school. In a class presentation, you have the luxury of being familiar with your audience, and the topic of your presentation has most likely been assigned. You also have a built-in support system with your fellow students. Since each one of you is in the same position, you can prac- tice with each other and offer valuable feedback to help each other succeed.

Many people hone their presentation skills in the workplace, where they may be required to train employees on a new computer system, make a sales presentation to a potential cli- ent, inform stakeholders on quarterly projections, or present a departmental budget to upper management. In many cases, presentations are used to communicate important information about the company or organization. Improving your oral presentation skills can make you more valuable to your department and organization.

Presentation Strategies When you are giving any oral presentation, whether in a classroom or at a conference, it’s common to feel nervous. Fortunately, focusing on the quality of your preparation and infor- mation can help. Follow these guidelines from Princeton University when giving an oral presentation.

Preparation will help you deliver an effective presentation and possibly help control your nervousness. Know your topic well. See yourself as an expert. This will boost your self- confidence. Create a good introduction, focus on the most important points, and end with a strong conclusion.

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

• Know your topic and become an expert. • Learn as much about the topic as you can to boost your self-confidence. • Find out who your audience is to determine how much detail to go into and what

vocabulary you may have to define. • Prepare an outline of your topic with bullets or numbers of the main points. • Write out your presentation if you need to organize your thoughts, but outline the

text for the actual presentation.

Visual aids (maps, photos, film clips, graphs, diagrams, and charts) can enhance a presentation.

• Keep visual aids simple and uncluttered. • Use color and contrast for emphasis but use them in moderation. • Use a font large enough to be seen from the back of the room. • Avoid using sound effects, graphics that move, and dramatic slide transitions.

Handouts provide structure and supplemental material, and are a nice take-a-way for your audience. Handouts should be attractive and inviting to read. Leave enough white space on the handout for audience members to take notes. A handout should be one to two pages long and consist of

• your name • title of course • date of presentation • title of your presentation • a brief outline of your presentation including your major points • a bibliography of references used to compile the presentation

Delivery of your presentation requires knowledge of room conditions. Good preparation should relieve most of your nervousness. Everyone feels nervous before a presentation. If you are using any kind of technology (such as an overhead projector or PowerPoint), be prepared for something to go wrong and have a backup plan. Delivery tips include the following:

• Guide your audience stating what your topic is and what you will be covering at the start of your presentation.

• Avoid reading your remarks or the information you have on slides. • Dress neatly and appropriately. • Speak in a clear, audible voice loud enough to be heard in the back row. • Stand up straight; don’t slouch or drape yourself around the podium. Moving around

the room will cause the audience to pay attention, but don’t fidget. • Never apologize to your audience for the state of your knowledge or your degree of

preparation. The audience wants to have confidence in you as the authority, so do nothing to undermine that authority.

• Make frequent eye contact with the audience. Engaging them directly with your eyes transfers a bit of your energy to them and keeps them focused on your content.

• If you use PowerPoint or other slides, avoid the tendency to speak to the screen instead of to the audience. Be so familiar with your visual aids that the only reason you look at them is to point out something.

• Never turn your back on the audience and try to avoid walking in front of the projector.

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

• Adhere strictly to your time limit. Organize your main points and rate of speech. • At the end of your presentation, summarize your main points and give a strong con-

cluding remark that reinforces why your information is of value. • Show some enthusiasm.

Equipment tips:

• Work out details with equipment before the day of your presentation. • Know how to operate the equipment you plan to use. • Make a Plan B for equipment or technology failure. • Do not expect an Internet or Wi-Fi connection to work when you need it. Have web-

sites you plan to use available as offline copies. Work offline whenever possible to avoid slow connection speeds.

Audiovisual Presentations Audiovisuals can have a huge impact on how your audience responds to and understands your presentation. In fact, poorly chosen audiovisuals have the potential to ruin an other- wise stellar presentation. Well-chosen audiovisuals are visually appealing, clarify the mes- sage you are communicating, and hold the audience’s attention. Before selecting any type of audiovisual for presentation, make sure it will increase your audience’s engagement with or comprehension of the information you are presenting. Your ability to effectively create and use audiovisuals contributes to your overall visual literacy, which will positively impact your information literacy skills.

Graphics Graphics include charts, tables, photos, and illustrations. They can help you illustrate difficult concepts or add visual appeal. A well-placed graphic can impress your readers or audience and make your presentation memorable. Before including any graphics in your presenta- tion, keep in mind the purpose of your paper should always be to accurately and clearly com- municate your information, so the graphics you include should be meaningful (Sperandei, 2014). Meaningful graphics are connected to the topic of your presentation and enhance your message. They should never distract your audience or detract from the information you are communicating.

Here are some things to keep in mind when using graphics:

• Use graphics such as charts, graphs, or figures to illustrate complex numerical data. • Avoid using images simply to extract an emotional appeal from your audience that is

unrelated to your presentation topic, such as a cute cat picture. • Use or create only graphics that are instructional or visually appealing. • Avoid using graphics that are of a poor visual quality. • Cite any graphic you use from a source. Try creating your own graphics instead of

using someone else’s.

Different types of graphics have different strengths depending on how you use them to pres- ent information. Here are some examples of common graphics.

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BachelorAssociate

Highest level of education

Unemployment rates of persons 25 years old and over, by highest level of education: 2004

% u

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p lo

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Some college

High school

Less than high school completion

7.5

2.5

8.5

5 4.5

3.7 2.7

4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

Bar graphs can also be called histograms or column bar charts. They are useful for clearly displaying categorical data and illustrating comparisons. Bar graphs can be displayed vertically, horizontally, or even stacked (Figure 4.3). You can create these graphs using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Line graphs show trends through the slope of lines. They can be used to display longitu- dinal data and also to track changes over short and long periods of time. When smaller changes in the data exist, line graphs are more effective to use than bar graphs. Line graphs can also be used to compare changes over the same period of time for more than one group (Figure 4.4). You can create these graphs using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.3 Vertical bar graph

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, Current Population Survey. (2004).

BachelorAssociate

Highest level of education

Unemployment rates of persons 25 years old and over, by highest level of education: 2004

% u

n e m

p lo

y e d

Some college

High school

Less than high school completion

7.5

2.5

8.5

5 4.5

3.7 2.7

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U.S. natural gas use by sector Tr

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Residential

Commerical

Industrial

Electric

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Sales by region

$35,000 (14%) $20,000 (8%)

$27,500 (11%)

$17,500 (7%)

$87,500 (35%)

$62,500 (25%)

West

Northwest

Southwest

Midwest

Southeast

Northeast

4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

Pie charts, also known as circle charts, work well when comparing parts of a whole using numbers. The data on a pie chart is divided into slices to illustrate its numerical pro- portion (Figure 4.5). These charts do not show changes over time and do not work well when the categories are smaller than the human eye can distinguish. As with bar and line graphs, you can create these charts using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.4 Line graph

Source: Reprinted with permission from Gail Tverberg, http://ourfiniteworld.com.

Figure 4.5 Pie chart

U.S. natural gas use by sector Tr

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19 9

2 0

0 0

2 0

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2 0

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0 4

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2 0

0 6

2 0

0 7

2 0

0 8

2 0

0 9

2 01

Residential

Commerical

Industrial

Electric

Vehicular

Sales by region

$35,000 (14%) $20,000 (8%)

$27,500 (11%)

$17,500 (7%)

$87,500 (35%)

$62,500 (25%)

West

Northwest

Southwest

Midwest

Southeast

Northeast

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http://ourfiniteworld.com

Price per square foot in relation to original list price Single family homes between $800,000 and $2.5 million

Feb through Oct 2009

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00 0

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650

450

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4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

Scatter charts, or scatter plots, provide a way to “identify relationships between two con- tinuous variables” (Sperandei, 2014). These charts can identify different types of cor- relations between variables (Figure 4.6). As with the other graphs and charts, you can create scatter charts using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.6 Scatter chart

Infographics, like the ones used in this textbook, are effective for displaying large quan- tities of information quickly and clearly. A good infographic uses engaging pictures and an easy-to-follow layout to catch the readers’ attention. You can create infograph- ics online using special websites like Piktochart (http://piktochart.com) and Easel.ly (www.easel.ly/).

Video We currently live in a world saturated with video options, with websites such as YouTube and Vimeo allowing the average person to become an Internet sensation. With numerous tools available, it is possible to make a decent video to present information without a lot of money or training. “New online tools are constantly being introduced (and retired, unfortunately) which enable you to enter your content (words, images, video, etc.), and have it processed into a completed video in a short amount of time” (Bernard, et al., 2014). Video hosting sites like YouTube and Vimeo allow you to host your videos on their sites for free.

Price per square foot in relation to original list price Single family homes between $800,000 and $2.5 million

Feb through Oct 2009

80 0,

00 0

1, 00

0, 00

1, 20

0, 00

1, 40

0, 00

1, 60

0, 00

1, 80

0, 00

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850

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Total sales: 773

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http://www.easel.ly/

4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

Making a video presentation may initially seem like an easy task. However, to create some- thing of quality is actually time-intensive and can be complex. Again, organization is the key to creating a successful video. The first step in designing a video is to write a script, making sure to highlight your key points. Next, the storyboarding process begins, in which you sketch out each scene in the video. This process takes a bit of time and is constantly updated as needed. After that, it’s time to rehearse and start filming, followed by editing and refilming any scenes, if necessary. Producing anything of value takes time, and just like most things, the process of making a quality video should not be rushed. If creating a video is new for you, before decid- ing on a video presentation, consider taking a class in videography.

Presentation Software When people discuss presentation software, most automatically think of PowerPoint, the most popular presentation software available. PowerPoint has been around for over two decades, and in the past few years, newer presentation tools such as Haiku Deck (www .haikudeck.com/) and Prezi (www.prezi.com) have been gaining in popularity. Each of these tools uses a slideshow format to communicate information to an audience. However, Haiku Deck and Prezi allow you to create and save your slides on their website, making them accessible from any computer. On the other hand, PowerPoint is created using a software program attached to a computer. Once the presentation is complete, it must be uploaded to Slideshare (www.slideshare.net) or another hosting program before it can be accessed from anywhere.

Presentation software works best when a speaker discusses the topics presented on each slide, instead of reading each slide verbatim. Here are more tips for creating effective slide presentations.

• Include only a few statistics on a slide. If you have large quantities of data to share, try saving it on a separate handout instead of including it in your presentation. Dis- tribute the handouts at the appropriate time during your presentation or wait until the end.

• Avoid long paragraphs of information. Keep the information you present on each slide clear and concise. Try displaying information on each slide using a bulleted list, sharing only one or two key ideas per slide. This technique helps keep your informa- tion organized and ensures the audience can follow you as you verbally explain the ideas you’re sharing.

• Embed technology in your slides to enhance your presentation. This can be links to websites, videos, or other tools. Make sure that what you include is on topic and does not deter from the focus of your presentation.

• Avoid using moving images or graphics that distract from your presentation. This includes slide transitions and sounds.

• Spend time selecting a legible font and background. Beware of using a light font on a light background and a dark font on a dark background. Make sure you vary the size of your font. For example, headings on slides should be slightly larger than the information presented on each slide (Presnell, 2013).

In Module 5, we will meet back up with Irwin as he puts the finishing touches on his paper and completes his reference list.

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www.haikudeck.com/

4.3 How Should I Present My Information?

Section 4.3 Knowledge Check Quiz 1. A is written to request funding of a particular program.

A. grant B. technical report C. proposal

2. In an oral presentation, which of the following fonts is the best for visual aids? A. Arachnids B. Arachnids C. Arachnids

3. Prezi uses a(n) format to communicate information to an audience. A. video B. audio C. slideshow

Answers: 1 (A), 2 (A), 3 (C)

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Summary & Resources

Key Concepts • Keeping track of information will save you time as you conduct research. Using desk-

top folders and bookmarks as well as using cloud storage can help you keep track of information.

• The databases in the Ashford University Library have additional tools to help you keep track of information. These include database folders, emailing, and downloading.

• Note taking is one method that can help you organize information as you begin to write your papers. Many digital tools are available to help you take notes. As you take notes, be sure to distinguish between common knowledge, quoting, summariz- ing, and paraphrasing.

• Creating a framework is another method of organizing information in preparation of writing your papers. You can frame your information conceptually, chronologically, or hierarchically. Using an outline can help you to create a blueprint for your work.

• There are three main formats for presenting your information. The first is the writ- ten presentation, which can include academic papers, proposals and grants, techni- cal reports, and social media. The second type is the oral presentation, and the third is the audiovisual presentation.

Key Terms bar graphs Graphics used to display cate- gorical data and illustrate comparisons. Also known as histograms or column bar charts.

cloud storage The storing of digital content on a remote server as opposed to your com- puter’s hard drive.

grants Written documents used to request funding for a particular program or initiative.

infographics Graphics used to display large quantities of information quickly and clearly. A good infographic uses engaging pictures and an easy-to-follow layout to catch the readers’ attention.

line graphs Graphics used to show trends through the slope of lines. They can be used to display longitudinal data and also to track changes over short and long periods of time.

outline An ordered list of the main topics and subtopics you plan on covering in your paper. Writers use these tools to help them organize their thoughts before writing a first draft.

paraphrasing Taking an author’s ideas and putting them into your own words. This dif- fers from summarizing, which also involves condensing the information.

pie charts Graphics used to compare parts of whole numbers. The data on a pie chart is divided into slices to illustrate its numerical proportion. Also known as circle charts.

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Summary & Resources

proposal A written document used to pres- ent an idea for a program or a plan of action.

quoting Using someone else’s exact words. Quoting requires the use of quotation marks.

scatter charts Graphics used to identify different types of correlations between vari- ables. Also known as scatter plots.

summarizing Condensing a large amount of information and putting it in your own words.

technical reports Documents used to com- municate the results of research or to assess a problem.

Putting It All Together

Module 4 Quiz

1. Which of the following is NOT one of the three ways to present information? A. Oral B. Written C. Text message D. Audiovisual

2. You are considering writing a paper on World War II and have saved several articles in your database folders. Which of the following is unrelated to your research topic and should be removed? A. Germany before 1930 B. Soldiers’ rations during the Second World War C. The economic impact of World War II on the United States of America

Answers: 1 (C), 2 (A)

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von82384_04_m04_151.pdf

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