need summary from 4 & 5 chapters

Suresh-

04_lang_OB_8e_pp_ch041.pptx

Home >Business & Finance homework help >Operations Management homework help >need summary from 4 & 5 chapters

Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications

Eighth Canadian Edition

Chapter 4

Theories of Motivation

4 - ‹#›

If this PowerPoint presentation contains mathematical equations, you may need to check that your computer has the following installed:

1) MathType Plugin

2) Math Player (free versions available)

3) NVDA Reader (free versions available)

Chapter Outline (1 of 2)

What Is Motivation?

Needs Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Motivation-Hygiene Theory

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Summarizing Needs Theories

Process Theories of Motivation

Expectancy Theory

Goal-Setting Theory

Self-Efficacy Theory

Reinforcement Theory

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “SnapShot Summary” at the end of the chapter

Chapter Outline (2 of 2)

Responses to the Reward System

Equity Theory

Fair Process and Treatment

Self-Determination Theory

Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation for Whom?

Putting It All Together

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “SnapShot Summary” at the end of the chapter

Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)

Describe the three key elements of motivation.

Evaluate the applicability of early theories of motivation.

Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.

Describe goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement theory.

Describe why equity and fairness matter in the workplace.

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.

Learning Outcomes (3 of 2)

Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory.

Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

Discuss the ethics behind motivation theories.

Summarize the essence of what we know about motivating employees.

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.

What Is Motivation?

Motivation

The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal:

Intensity: How hard a person tries

Direction: Where effort is channelled

Persistence: How long effort is maintained

4 - ‹#›

LO1: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”

Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Assumptions

Employees dislike work

Employees attempt to avoid work

Employees must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.

Theory Y Assumptions

Employees like to work

Employees are creative, and seek responsibility

Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.

4 - ‹#›

LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”

Motivators

Intrinsic Motivators

A person’s internal desire to do something

interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction

Extrinsic Motivators

Motivation that comes from outside the person

pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards

4 - ‹#›

LO1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What Is Motivation?”

Ask students whether they’re motivated more by intrinsic or extrinsic factors, and the conditions where this would vary.

Needs Theories of Motivation

Basic idea

Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Note: This is an introductory slide to introduce the Needs Theories of Motivation. Further slides will provide detail on each theory.

The early needs theories, developed in the 1950s, are often heavily attacked and are now questionable in terms of validity. However, these are probably the best-known explanations for employee motivation, and they do represent the foundation from which contemporary theories have grown. Also, practising managers use these theories in explaining employee motivation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1 of 2)

Physiological

Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs

Safety

Includes security and protection from physical & emotional harm

Social

Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

Esteem

Includes internal esteem factors: self-respect, autonomy, and achievement

Includes external esteem factors: status, recognition, and attention

Self-actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming

Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Abraham Maslow’s theory is perhaps the best known of all. He hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (2 of 2)

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Motivators

Sources of satisfaction

Intrinsic factors (content of work)

Achievement

Recognition

Challenging, varied, or interesting work

Responsibility

Advancement

Growth

Hygiene factors

Sources of dissatisfaction

Extrinsic factors (context of work)

Company policy and administration

Unhappy relationship with employee’s supervisor

Poor interpersonal relations with one’s peers

Poor working conditions

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Motivation-Hygiene Theory was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg after investigating the question, “What do people want from their jobs?” Factors affecting job attitudes were tabulated and classified. Herzberg concluded that the replies people gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad.

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Herzberg’s data suggested that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. The factors that were cited as leading to extreme dissatisfaction had very little relation to those factors cited as leading to extreme satisfaction.

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Herzberg proposed the existence of a dual continuum: The opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No Satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction.”

Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Procedure Herzberg used is limited by its methodology.

Reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned.

No overall measure of satisfaction was used.

Herzberg assumed that a relationship exists between satisfaction and productivity.

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Need for achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed

Need for power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

Need for affiliation

The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

David McClelland proposes three needs as being important in organizational settings for understanding motivation. These are

need for achievement (nAch), to achieve in relation to set of standards,

need for power (nPow), the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise, and

need for affiliation (nAff), the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Relationship of Various Needs Theories

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Summarizing Needs Theories

All the needs theories propose a similar idea: Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create motivation.

Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs.

Herzberg: Motivators lead to satisfaction. Hygiene factors must be met if a person is not to be dissatisfied. However, they will not lead to satisfaction.

McClelland’s: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or power.

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Summary: Impact of Needs Theories

Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Most managers are familiar with it.

Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.

McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they do personally.

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Summary: Support and Criticism of Needs Theories

Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data was collected and interpreted.

Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: assumes a link between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or demonstrated.

McClelland’s: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.

4 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Needs Theories of Motivation.”

Process Theories of Motivation

Look at the actual process of motivation

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

Self-efficacy theory

Reinforcement theory

4 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Note: This is an introductory slide to Process Theories of Motivation. There follow specific slides that provide speaking notes for the three process theories listed.

Expectancy Theory

The theory that employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort if they believe the following:

That their effort will lead to good performance

That good performance will be followed by a given outcome (organizational rewards such as salary increase)

That the reward will satisfy employee’s personal goals

4 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

This theory concerns an attractiveness, performance-reward and effort-performance linkage. The likelihood a person will act in a certain way depends on the strength of his or her expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Expectancy Relationships

The theory focuses on three relationships:

Effort-Performance Relationship (Expectancy)

The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance

Performance-Reward Relationship (Instrumentality)

The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to organizational rewards

Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship (Valence)

The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and are attractive to the individual

4 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory

4 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

This is a good exhibit to use in class. Ask students questions like:

-What if I asked you to write a paper?

-A book?

-To change the oil in your car?

-To build a car?

Have them relate their responses in terms of expectancy theory.

Importance of Providing Performance Feedback

An effective performance review:

Employee perceives the appraisal as fair

Manager is sincere

Climate is constructive

Performance review should be more like a counselling activity than a judgment process, allowing the review to evolve out of the employee’s own self-evaluation.

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Goal-Setting Theory (1 of 2)

The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.

Specific goals increase performance.

Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.

Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.

Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”

The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Management by Objectives

A program that encompasses:

Specific goals (tangible, verifiable, and measurable)

Participative decision-making

Explicit time period

Performance feedback

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Management by objectives (MBO) emphasizes employee participation in setting goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. The idea was originally proposed by Peter Drucker more than forty years ago as a means of using goals to motivate people rather than to control them. Its appeal lies in its emphasis on converting overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for organizational units and individual members. The model conceptualizes a "cascading" of objectives down through the organization.

For the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance objectives.

MBO is a popular technique found in business, health care, educational, government, and non-profit organizations. Failures are often the result of unrealistic expectations regarding results, lack of top management commitment, and an inability or unwillingness by management to allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment.

How Does Goal Setting Motivate?

Goals:

Direct attention

Regulate effort

Increase persistence

Encourage the development of strategies and action plans

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Goals Should Be SMART

For goals to be effective, they should be SMART:

Specific

Measurable

Attainable

Results-oriented

Time-bound

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

SMART goals are very popular in the business world, so you might have students work at remembering the acronym.

Locke’s Model of Goal Setting

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Goal-Setting Theory (2 of 2)

People differ in how they regulate their thoughts and behaviours during goal pursuit.

Promotion focus – strive for advancement and accomplishment, and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals

Prevention focus – strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Self-Efficacy Theory

Also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory

An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

The higher your self-efficacy the more confident you are in your ability to succeed in a task

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Four Ways to Improve Self-Efficacy

Enactive mastery

Gaining relevant experience

Vicarious modelling

Confidence gained by seeing someone else perform the task

Verbal persuasion

Confidence gained because someone convinces you that you have the necessary skills to succeed

Arousal

An energized state can drive a person to complete the task

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Joint Efforts of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Process Theories of Motivation.”

Reinforcement Theory

Behaviour is a function of its consequences

Skinner suggested that people learn how to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.

This idea is known as operant conditioning:

Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”

Methods of Shaping Behaviour

Positive reinforcement

Following a response with something pleasant

Negative reinforcement

Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant

Punishment

Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour

Extinction

Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”

There are four ways in which to shape behaviour.

Exhibit 4-10 on the next slide gives examples of each type of reinforcement.

Types of Reinforcement

EXHIBIT 4-10 Types of Reinforcement

Reinforcement Type	Example
Positive reinforcement	A manager praises an employee for a job well done.
Negative reinforcement	An instructor asks a question and a student looks through her lecture notes to avoid being called on. She has learned that looking busily through her notes prevents the instructor from calling on her.
Punishment	A manager gives an employee a two-day suspension from work without pay for showing up drunk.
Extinction	An instructor ignores students who raise their hands to ask questions. Hand-raising becomes extinct.

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”

Schedules of Reinforcement (1 of 2)

The two major types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and intermittent.

Continuous reinforcement: reinforces desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated

Intermittent reinforcement: ratio or interval type

The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behaviour.

The individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behaviour after a particular time has elapsed.

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”

See Exhibit 4-11 Schedules of Reinforcement, on slide 40.

Fixed and Variable Reinforcements

A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable.

Fixed-interval schedule

Variable-interval schedule

Fixed-ratio schedule

Variable-ratio schedule

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”

Fixed-interval schedule: The reward is given at fixed time intervals.

Variable-interval schedule: The reward is given at variable time intervals.

Fixed-ratio schedule: The reward is given at fixed amounts of output.

Variable-ratio schedule: The reward is given at variable amounts of input.

Schedules of Reinforcement (2 of 2)

EXHIBIT 4-11 Schedules of Reinforcement

Reinforcement Schedule	Nature of Reinforcement	Effect on Behaviour	Example
Continuous	Reward given after each desired behaviour	Fast learning of new behaviour but rapid extinction	Compliments
Fixed-interval	Reward given at fixed time intervals	Average and irregular performance with rapid extinction	Weekly paycheques
Variable-interval	Reward given at variable time intervals	Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction	Pop quizzes
Fixed-ratio	Reward given at fixed amounts of output	High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction	Piece-rate pay
Variable-ratio	Reward given at variable amounts of output	Very high performance with slow extinction	Commissioned sales

4 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement.”

Responses to the Reward System

Equity Theory

Fair Process and Treatment

Self-Determination Theory

Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

4 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Note: This is an introductory slide. Additional slides follow which provide speaking notes for each of the theories listed above.

Equity Theory (1 of 2)

4 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Equity Theory (2 of 2)

Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.

4 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Equity Comparisons

Self-inside

An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization.

Self-outside

An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization.

Other-inside

Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.

Other-outside

Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.

4 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.

Responses to Inequity

Change their inputs.

Change their outcomes.

Adjust perceptions of self.

Adjust perceptions of others.

Choose a different referent.

Leave the field.

4 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

• Change their inputs (for example, don’t exert as much effort).

• Change their outcomes (for example, individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality).

• Adjust perceptions of self (for example, “I used to think I worked at a moderate pace but now I realize that I work a lot more slowly than everyone else”).

• Adjust perceptions of others (for example, “Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I previously thought it was”).

• Choose a different referent (for example, “I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my dad did when he was my age”).

• Leave the field (for example, quit the job).

Fair Process and Treatment (1 of 2)

Equity theory is an important precursor to the study of organizational justice: an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.

Employees evaluate how fairly they are treated along four dimensions:

Distributive justice

Procedural justice

Informational justice

Interpersonal justice

4 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Fair Process and Treatment (2 of 2)

Employees are concerned with what they receive:

Distributive justice: perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of resources among individuals.

Employees are also concerned about how outcomes are distributed:

Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

Informational justice: degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions

Interpersonal justice: degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect

4 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Model of Organizational Justice

4 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Self-Determination Theory (1 of 2)

People prefer to feel they have control over their actions

If a previously enjoyed task feels more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity, it will undermine motivation.

Much research on self-determination theory in OB has focused on cognitive evaluation theory.

4 - ‹#›

LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Self-Determination Theory (2 of 2)

The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work effort that was previously rewarded intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s motivation.

Intrinsic Motivators

A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivators

Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.

4 - ‹#›

LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation (1 of 2)

Sense of choice

Sense of competence

Sense of meaningfulness

Sense of progress

4 - ‹#›

LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Managers can act in ways that will build these intrinsic rewards for their employees.

Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation (2 of 2)

4 - ‹#›

LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Responses to the Reward System.”

Motivation for Whom?

Who benefits from theories of motivation?

They help managers get more productivity from employees

Little concern with employees beyond improvements to productivity

Researchers propose organizations have a moral obligation to make workplaces better for employees and provide meaningful work

Focus on improving conditions of workplace

4 - ‹#›

LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivation for Whom?”

Putting It All Together

What we know about motivating employees in organizations:

Recognize individual differences.

Employees have different needs.

Don’t treat them all alike.

Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee.

Use goals and feedback.

Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.

Link rewards to desired performance.

Check the system for equity.

4 - ‹#›

LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Motivation for Whom?”

Global Implications

Needs Theories

Theories align with Canadian and US cultures, but not all

Goal Setting

Setting specific, difficult, individual goals may have different effects in different cultures.

Equity Theory and Fairness

Equity means different things to different cultures

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Cultural differences in manager’s perception of employee motivation.

Cross-Cultural Consistencies

Don’t assume that there are no cross-cultural consistencies.

4 - ‹#›

LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications”

Summary

Recognize individual differences

Goals and feedback help motivate individuals

Rewards signal what is important to the employer (or leader)

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

OB at Work: For Review (1 of 2)

What are the three key elements of motivation?

What are some early theories of motivation? How applicable are they today?

What are the key tenets of expectancy theory?

What are the key principles of goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement theory?

Why do equity and fairness matter in the workplace?

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

OB at Work: For Review (2 of 2)

How is organizational justice a refinement of equity theory?

How do the predictions of self-determination theory apply to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards?

What are some of the ethical issues with motivation theories?

What is the essence of what we know about motivating employees?

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

OB at Work: For Managers

Consider goal-setting theory: Clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.

Consider how reinforcement theory applies to the quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.

Consult equity theory to help you understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.

Expectancy theory offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

Breakout Group Exercises (1 of 2)

Form small groups to discuss the following topics:

One of the members of your team continually arrives late for meetings and does not turn drafts of assignments in on time. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the member’s current behaviour and how the theory could be used to motivate the group member to perform more responsibly.

You are unhappy with the performance of one of your instructors and would like to encourage the instructor to present more lively classes. Choose one of the available theories and indicate how the theory explains the instructor’s current behaviour. How could you as a student use the theory to motivate the instructor to present more lively classes?

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

Breakout Group Exercises (2 of 2)

Harvard University recently changed its grading policy to recommend to instructors that the average course mark should be a B. This was the result of a study showing that more than 50 percent of students were receiving an A or A− for coursework. Harvard students are often referred to as “the best and the brightest,” and they pay $27 000 (US) for their education, so they expect high grades. Discuss the impact of this change in policy on the motivation of Harvard students to study harder.

4 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.