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3Family Theories and Parenting Styles

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

ሁ Explain the key concepts of influential child development theories and assess their similarities and differences

ሁ Analyze various parenting styles and describe the advantages and disadvantages of each ሁ Explain the purpose and value of parent training and education programs ሁ Evaluate various perspectives on parenting

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Introduction In later chapters, we will focus on parenting children in particular stages or at certain ages, such as infancy and adolescence. This chapter focuses on theories, strategies, and perspec- tives that apply to all ages and stages. We will begin by exploring some of the major child development theories that have helped shape many educational programs and resources for children and families. In order to better understand the contexts in which children grow, we will then explore various parenting styles. It is important for professionals working with chil- dren and families to be aware of the many resources available to them, so we will also take a look at common supportive parenting programs. We will end the chapter by investigating what it means to be a parent, from the perspectives of both parents and children.

3.1 Influential Child Development Theories In this section, we will take our first look at a few of the most influential child development theories. These perspectives, which will be discussed throughout this book, are used as the framework for a variety of models and guides, including curricula, methods, strategies, tech- niques, and approaches in a vast variety of early childhood, mental health, and psychologi- cal settings (Roopnarine & Johnson, 2012). Thus, it is important for professionals who plan to work with children and families to be familiar with them. These perspectives also offer opportunities to interpret and evaluate your own family interactions.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model of Human Development Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) was a Russian American (born in the former Soviet Union) who developed an ecological systems theory. His theory of child growth and development uses a scientific approach and views the family or other social unit as an ecosystem. The theory examines a variety of factors that influence the child as he or she matures and serves as a reminder that we must always see the child as a part of a family, community and society

(Bronfenbrenner, 1994; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Bronfenbrenner’s theory uses the concept of nesting dolls (the Rus- sian matryoshki dolls from his homeland) to create a model of concentric circles around the child, who is placed in the center (see Figure 3.1). These ecological influences are grouped into five systems: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosys- tem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1989, 1995).

Microsystems The microsystem is made up of people with whom the child has face-to-face con- tact and that have a direct impact on his or her growth and development: family, peers, school, early childhood programs,

and neighborhood contacts (for example at the playground, library, community center, health clinic). Nurses in the health clinic, caregivers at the child care program, teachers, and minis- ters in the child’s church, synagogue, or mosque all have a direct impact on the child’s life. Members of the child’s extended family, along with friends in the neighborhood, soccer team- mates, or fellow dancers in ballet class can also be a part of a microsystem.

Figure 3.1: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Source: The ecological perspective of development. Dr. Tom Day, Weber State University. https://web.archive.org/web/20121108205330/http://faculty.weber .edu/tlday/human.development/ecological.htm

Mesosystems The next level is the mesosystem, which represents the interaction among the various micro- systems. At the mesosystem level, these elements can work well together or clash. For exam- ple, the expectations, values, structures, and guidelines children receive at school may or may not be compatible with those learned at home, in a house of worship, or with their peers. How well the school and home settings work together to meet the unique needs of the child, or how effective communication is between home and clinic, is crucial. The more effectively and consistently the components of the microsystem work together, the greater the positive influence on the child’s growth, development, and learning (Bronfenbrenner & Cici, 1998).

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Digital Vision/Photodisc/Thinkstock ሁ According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, it is

important for the different mesosystems in a child’s life, such as school and home, to work together and support each other.

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Figure 3.1: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Source: The ecological perspective of development. Dr. Tom Day, Weber State University. https://web.archive.org/web/20121108205330/http://faculty.weber .edu/tlday/human.development/ecological.htm

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Digital Vision/Photodisc/Thinkstock ሁ According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, it is

important for the different mesosystems in a child’s life, such as school and home, to work together and support each other.

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Exosystems The exosystem comprises the next level of influence on the child’s development. While largely outside of an individual’s control, it exerts a powerful, indirect impact. For example, a parent’s workplace will positively impact the child if it encourages parents to attend important school functions or provides employer-sponsored child care. In the larger community, a change in the school board might bring about better programs or staff in the local public school, or the city’s parks and recreation department’s budget increase may lead to more hours for outdoor activities. Local libraries, overall quality of life, crime levels in a neighborhood, and the avail- ability of child care outside the home can all affect a child’s development. Having a patchwork quilt of infant and early childhood programs, many of which are expensive to use (and thus can divide people along class lines), can affect the direction that a child’s life will take. The exosystem also might include state or federal policy on providing early childhood education and the control exerted on a school system by local, state, or federal governments (Common Core academic standards is one example). Mass media also influences the home and school environments the child comes in contact with.

Macrosystems The macrosystem refers to the overall society and various cultural and political contexts in which the child is situated. It encompasses the society as a whole, its economy, legal system, and culture. In the United States, examples of this would be free public education, programs for children with disabilities, legal guarantees of equal treatment under the law regardless of gender or race, and other shared societal norms. By the same token, many outside factors such as the economy affect families and communities, and in turn, impact the child’s growth and development either negatively or positively (case in point: the Great Recession during the late 2000s).

Within the larger American society, children grow up in a variety of religious, cultural, and national communities. These provide a variety of contexts which interact in a variety of dynamic ways to greatly affect children and families (Hall, 1976). Some contexts, such as pov- erty, have a more powerful impact on children than others (Wardle, 2013b).

Chronosystems The chronosystem takes into account the changing contexts a person experiences over time (for example from elementary school to high school) and the changes in the macrosystem due to historical events, such as living through war or an economic downturn (Berns, 2007). For example, the wide use of childhood immunizations in today’s society has led to a shift in the leading cause of death among children: today that cause is accidents, whereas one hundred years ago it was illness (Berger, 2011). The use of technology (including cell phones, personal computers and tablets, and social media) in today’s families and society is another example of how the passage of time has had a powerful effect on an entire generation’s development.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is a comprehensive and powerful model that enables professionals working with families in a variety of capacities to examine the big pic- ture—to step back and consider the various influences on the families, children, and com- munity agencies they work with (Wardle, 2013a). It has become quite popular in many fields related to child and family well-being, especially in multicultural education. Bronfenbrenner’s

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

theory has gained a great deal of credibility in recent years because of its ability to address the impact of important contexts in many cases.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson, a disciple of Freud, developed a lifespan model called psychosocial develop- ment theory. His eight-stage theory presents a series of challenges or developmental cri- ses that must be achieved as the child progresses in his or her development, and the conse- quences if they are not achieved (Erikson, 1963). While the child should progress successfully through each stage, Erikson believed that even when the crisis is not fully resolved, the child could continue developing. However, eventually the issue must be resolved (Erikson, 1963; 1980). Knowing the first five stages of Erikson’s theory, which are outlined in Table 3.1, can be very helpful in developing our understanding of children through adolescence (Berger, 2011).

Table 3.1: Erikson’s stages of development

Stage Ages* Characteristics

Trust vs. Mistrust Infancy–1 Infants learn to trust that their basic needs will be met, or that people cannot be trusted.

Autonomy vs. Shame/ Doubt

1–3 Children learn to be self-sufficient and to rely on their own abilities, or they learn they must always be dependent on others.

Initiative vs. Guilt 3–6 Children learn a sense of security in leading others (peers) and making decisions, or, if exposed to too much control or criticism, they develop a sense of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority 6–12 Children learn to be competent and productive in mastering new skills and tasks, or feel inferior and unable to do things well.

Identity vs. Role Confusion 12–19 Adolescents seek to discover who they are: their sexual, political, religious identity and career choice, or they are confused about who they are.

Intimacy vs. Isolation 20–39 Young adults seek companionship and/or love with one other person, or they feel isolated.

Generativity vs. Stagnation 40–64 Middle-age adults find meaning in contributing to the next generation through work, raising a family, and/or creative activities.

Integrity vs. Despair 65–death Older adults look back at their lives, and determine if it was meaningful, or despair because goals were never achieved.

*Ages are approximate Source: Based on Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

We will take a closer look at each of these stages in later chapters.

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Psychologist Jean Piaget was interested in how children make sense out of their world—how they represent real- ity in their own minds. He believed that children do not simply absorb the information around them, but rather they reconstruct it (Piaget 1952; 1970). Piaget believed this reconstruction was limited by their cognitive capac- ity. One name for this type of theory is a constructivist theory, also known as a cognitive theory. This theoreti- cal perspective focuses on the structure and development of thought processes and understanding (Berger, 2011). According to Piaget, children must actively interact with their environment in order to create their own view of it.

Like Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development, Piaget’s theory is a stage theory, with four distinct stages that are sequential, invariant, and qualitatively different from each other. Think of the metamorphosis of the but- terfly, the model Piaget used for his four stages. Once the egg has changed into a caterpillar, it cannot change back; the caterpillar cannot skip the chrysalis stage and become a butterfly; and the butterfly looks very different

from the egg, caterpillar, or chrysalis. Children must progress through each stage in the given sequence, without skipping a stage, and all children the world over, regardless of race, ethnic- ity, gender, language, and so on, progress through the four stages. Finally, at each stage, chil- dren think about the world differently than at the previous and next stages. While children do progress from the first stage to the last, moving from concrete thinking to the ability to engage in a vast variety of abstract cognitive processes, this progression is not linear. (Piaget, 1952; 1970). The stages of Piaget’s theory are outlined in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development

Stage Description Age Range

Sensorimotor

An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought. The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experi- ences with physical actions.

Birth to 2 years

Preoperational

The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory informa- tion and physical action.

2 to 7 years

Concrete operational The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. 7 to 11 years

Formal operational The adolescent reasons in more abstract and logical ways. Thought is more idealistic. 11 to 15 years

We will take a closer look at each of these stages in later chapters.

michaeljung/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ This baby is learning about

her world by grasping objects and putting them in her mouth; she is progressing through Piaget’s first stage of development, the sensorimotor stage.

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Kohlberg’s Model of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was a disciple of Piaget’s who was interested in moral development in children. Family contributions have a direct impact on the developing infant’s physical, social, cultural and moral development. Age, education, culture, and religion are additional factors related to the development of moral judgment (Evans, Forney, Guido, Pat- ton, & Renn, 2010). Kohlberg, guided by his interest in moral development, examined how children determine what is right and wrong, good and bad, appropriate and inappropriate; he called this moral reasoning.

Kohlberg would present a moral dilemma to a focus group of children, and evaluate their thinking about the problem. He was less interested in what they thought was right or wrong than in the way they thought about the problem (1963; 1987). From these results, he devel- oped a six-stage theory. He believed that decisions about right and wrong and good and bad at each stage are based on how children think (in other words, on Piaget’s cognitive stages), and that children’s moral reasoning progresses up through the stages as they mature cognitively (Kohlberg, 1963; 1987).

Kohlberg’s model of moral development can be described as the transformations within one’s life with regard to what is right and wrong. Individuals go through various stages during which they exhibit a particular pattern of reasoning. Each person will travel through these stages at different times, and some may not reach all stages. Each stage is more highly developed than the previous stage. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are outlined in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development

Level Stage Definition Example

1: Pre-conventional Morality

1: Obedience and pun- ishment (“Might makes right”)

At this stage, individuals are concerned with the consequences of their behaviors to themselves only.

A child thinks, “If I take the cookies, I will get a time-out.”

2: Self-interest (“Look out for number one”)

At this stage, individuals are only concerned with other peoples’ interests if they support their own self-interests.

A child washes the dishes because her par- ents tell her she will get to watch TV as a reward.

2: Conventional Morality

3: Interpersonal accord and conformity (“Good girl and nice boy”)

Children engage in moral behavior based on social rules.

The child follows rules as expected. Children in this stage do not exhibit rebellious behavior.

4: Authority and social order (“Law and order”)

Children respond to the expectations of authority figures.

In this stage children obey playground rules, classroom rules etc., as expected to avoid injury.

(continued)

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Learning Lev Vygotsky developed a sociocultural theory of learning (Berk & Winsler, 1995). His the- ory focuses on the impact of social interactions (peers and adults) and language (Vygotsky, 1934/1987). His is not a stage theory, it applies to people of any age. Vygotsky believed chil- dren learn from others through modeling, instruction, and encouragement; language is used to direct and structure learning. For Vygotsky, learning is about advancements in growth and development as much as it is about academics. Sociocultural theory will be summarized using “3TTP” approach (three major terms, three major themes and 3 major principles).

Three Major Terms Vygotsky’s three terms are the zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and private speech. Vygotsky was very interested in what a child can learn and do with the help of another per- son—someone who knows or can do more than the child can (Berk & Winsler, 1995). How- ever, he recognized that a child cannot do something outside of a possible range of potential, what he called a zone of proximal development (ZPD). He described the zone as “the dis- tance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solv- ing and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1930–35/1978, p. 86). The child’s ZPD is the area between the child’s independent performance on a skill or task, and the level the child can achieve with expert assistance (Wardle, 2009). ZPD is illus- trated in Figure 3.2.

The second term, scaffolding, is “the support for learning and problem solving that encour- ages independence and growth” (Feldman, p 262). Scaffolding is joint problem solving between the more knowledgeable other and the learner within the ZPD. According to Vygotsky, chil- dren use private speech to scaffold their own learning and for emotional regulation. In scaf- folding their own learning, they repeat scaffolds taught to them by teachers or more knowl- edgeable others (MKOs). For example, when putting a jigsaw puzzle together, the child will say to themselves, “remember, first do the corners, then do the edges, and then the middle.” Private speech is particularly frequent between ages 2 ½ and 6 years old (Gillingham & Berk, 1995), and children who use private speech are able to accomplish more difficult tasks more efficiently (Kohlberg, Yaeger, & Hjertholm, 1968).

Table 3.3: Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development (continued)

Level Stage Definition Example

3: Post-conventional morality

5: Social contract During this stage rules apply to everyone mutu- ally. However, failure to follow the rules by one party negates the responsibility of other parties.

Children in this stage may disrespect individu- als that they feel have disrespected them.

6: Universal ethical principles

Human rights and equal- ity are the guides.

All things should be equal. Children in this age are led by fair- ness of both rules and consequences.

Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

Figure 3.2: Zone of proximal development

Source: https://lmrtriads.wikispaces.com/Zone+of+Proximal+Development

Three Major Themes The first theme in Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Piaget’s understanding of child devel- opment (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learn- ing precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978). The second theme involves the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be a peer, a younger person, or even a computer. The third theme centers on the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). According to Vygotsky, learning occurs in the zone of proximal development , which as we discussed, is the gap between what the child already knows or understands and what he or she is capable of learn- ing with help from others.

Three Major Principles Combining the three major terms with the three major themes of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory leaves us with three major principles. The first principle requires that the teacher and students play nontraditional roles as they collaborate with each other. Learning should be a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher. For example, the physical classroom

Scaffolding occurs through the support of the “more knowing other”

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Section 3.1Influential Child Development Theories

should provide clustered desks or tables and work space for peer instruction, col- laboration, and small group instruction. In this way, the classroom can become a community of learning.

The second principle asserts that instruc- tional strategies, scaffolding, and recip- rocal teaching are effective strategies to access the zone of proximal development. Scaffolding requires the teacher to provide students the opportunity to extend their current skills and knowledge. The teacher must engage students’ interest, simplify tasks so they are manageable, and motivate students to pursue the instructional goal. Reciprocal teaching allows for the creation

of a dialogue between students and teachers beyond answering questions. In this instructional practice, the teacher and students alternate leading small group discussions. After the teacher models instructional strategies, students can begin to assume the teaching role.

The third major principle is that Vygotsky’s theory challenges traditional teaching methods. Historically, schools are organized around recitation teaching: “The teacher disseminates knowledge to be memorized by the students, who in turn recite the information back to the teacher” (Hausfather,1996). However, in Vygotsky’s model, the student and teacher essen- tially have a shared role.

Limitations of Theoretical Perspectives Theoretical perspectives can offer insight into the ways individuals, families, and communi- ties interact and communicate. However, professionals working with children and families should examine theories to see if they present accurate pictures. An applicable theory can be verified by research and its ability to generate new knowledge that is genaralizable. Since no two children, families, or communities are alike, the examination of several applicable theo- ries is recommended to provide a comprehensive understanding. A comprehensive family theory will likely examine the following six items:

• boundaries • roles • rules • hierarchy • climate • equilibrium

Professionals who work with families must take great care to treat families fairly and compas- sionately regardless of their composition. Of equal importance, they should avoid comparing various family structures to the traditional, two-parent family (Marrow & Leoutsakas, 2013). Family structures should not be categorized as good or bad, positive or negative. Families deserve to be accepted with attention to the strengths of each structure, and a professional commitment to build on those strengths to meet the individual needs of diverse children and families.

Michaeljung/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ According to Vygotsky, it is important to keep

students interested and engaged in the classroom, and to create an open dialog between teachers and students.

Section 3.2Parenting Styles

3.2 Parenting Styles Parenting styles are a result of many factors, including education, income, religion, culture, and how a person was parented (Baumrind, 1967, 1971). In the 1960s, Baumrind studied 100 middle-class two-parent families of European-American descent in California. Her results showed that parents of preschoolers differed in four important areas:

• Expressions of warmth. Some parents were warm and affectionate, others cold and critical.

• Use of discipline. Parents used different approaches when disciplining their children, in how they criticized, persuaded, ignored, punished, or explained things to their children.

• Communication. Some parents listened to their child’s arguments and explanations; others did not allow the child to say anything when being disciplined.

• Expectations for maturity. Parents expected different amounts of responsibility and self-control from their children (Baumrind, 1967, 1971).

As a result of her study, Baumrind proposed three different parenting styles (Baumrind, 1967; 1971). Later a fourth style was added (Maccobyy & Martin, 1983). Braumrind and others then set out to determine the specific impact of these parenting styles on children’s growth and development (Baldry & Farrington, 2000; Baumrind, 1991). These parenting styles are sum- marized in Table 3.4 and discussed further in the following sections.

Table 3.4: Parenting styles and their effect on children

Parenting style

Characteristics

Examples

Possible effects on children’s behavior and attitude

Authoritarian Setting and enforcing strict rules; miscon- duct results in strict, sometimes physical punishment

“Do it because I say so”

Children are obedient, conscientious, and quiet, but not necessarily happy. They internalize feelings and often rebel, sometimes leaving home early

Permissive Behaving quite warmly toward their children but making few demands; disci- pline is lax and often negotiated away

Making demands for the child to behave a certain way but then doing nothing when the child fails to meet the demand

Children are unhappy, lack self- control, and as a result, are often disliked by peers. They tend to live at home into early adulthood, though in middle and late adulthood, they tend to do quite well

Uninvolved/ Neglectful

Providing minimal supervision of their children, making few demands, and being essentially unin- volved or detached

Allowing the child to continually leave the kitchen in a mess, but not expecting the child to clean it up

Children are angry and defiant and have poor social, psychological, and academic outcomes. They may engage in criminal behavior and drug use during adolescence

Authoritative Conveying warmth and setting high expectations, yet being flexible and willing to negotiate

Expecting the child to clean the kitchen after using it and then com- plimenting the child on a job well done

These children are well adjusted, successful, happy, and liked both by peers and teachers. They are inde- pendent, responsible, and learn to take appropriate risks

Source: Wardle, 2013a. Collaborating with families and communities. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education.

Section 3.2Parenting Styles

Authoritarian Parenting Style The authoritarian parenting style is one in which parents set and enforce the rules, and misconduct results in strict, sometimes physical punishment. While these parents are warm, they do not see a reason to explain their rules, and do not allow children to negotiate them or their consequences. Authoritarian parents have high expectations, but they are often viewed as being too high and not tailored to individual children; each child is treated the same. Children raised by authoritarian parents are not provided with guided opportunities to make their own decisions. As a result they often have low self-esteem, low moral reason- ing, and struggle academically, and can be perceived as obedient and conscientious (Boyes & Allen, 1993; Dornbusch Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987). Some of these children become bullies, and they tend to rebel in adolescence (Farrington & Hawkins, 1991).

Permissive Parenting Style The permissive parenting style is the opposite of the authoritarian style. Par- ents in this category are considered to be warm toward their children, but make few demands; discipline is inconsistent and is often negotiated. Children are encouraged to express their feelings, and family deci- sions are often made democratically. Per- missive parents believe children should, as much as possible, be allowed to make their own decisions; however, they are often rescued from the consequences of these decisions. Research supports the position that this parenting style often produces children with low academic

achievement, poor psychosocial development, and lacking in self-control (Lamborn, Dorn- busch & Sterling, 1996). The lack of self-control and inconsistent consequences contribute to the discord with peers and adults, as this parenting style results in children who are used to getting their own way (Boyes & Allen, 1993).

Uninvolved/Neglectful Parenting Style Parents practicing the uninvolved/neglectful parenting style provide minimal supervision of their children, make few demands, and are essentially uninvolved with their children. They are cold, distant, disinterested, and even reject their children, often being overwhelmed by their own issues and problems (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). According to the research, children from these families have the worst outcomes: they are likely to be angry and defiant, with poor psychological development and school achievement, and inadequate problem solving skills. In adolescence, they often engage in criminal activity and drug abuse (Miller, Cowan, Cowan, Hetherington, & Clingempeel, 1993).

Authoritative Parenting Style According to Baumrind (1971), the authoritative parenting style is the ideal parenting style. Such parents are warm and have high expectations, yet are flexible and willing to

Thomas Northcut/Photodisc/Thinkstock ሁ Children of permissive parents often lack self-

control, due partially to their parents’ inability to discipline them effectively.

Section 3.3Programs for Teaching Supportive Parenting

negotiate (but not to give in). They adapt rules for different ages, and explain the reasons for these rules (Heath, 2005). The child’s input is encouraged, but the parent is the final authority. Children of authoritarian parents are typically self-reliant, self- confident, have higher social skills and moral development, exhibit fewer emotional and behavior problems, and are described on average as happier (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurini, 2000; Gray & Steinberg, 1999).

Considerations in Interpreting Parenting- Style Research While the parenting-style research is helpful and provides a model by which parenting can be examined and studied, it must be used with great caution:

• Most of the research was conducted on two-parent, White, middle-class families. • Many contextual forces outside the parents’ control profoundly impact parenting

behaviors and responses (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), such as living in poverty, being a single parent, recent immigration, and drug and alcohol abuse.

• The theory does not address family settings where more than one parenting style exists, either between two parents or among parents, grandparents, and other adults in an extended family.

To reduce negative child outcomes from poor parenting, many parenting training and educa- tion programs have been developed, as we will discuss in the next section.

3.3 Programs for Teaching Supportive Parenting According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2013c), supportive parenting educa- tion, also referred to as parent training or parent education, is any training, program, or other intervention that helps parents acquire skills to improve their parenting in order to reduce the risk of child abuse, and/or to reduce children’s disruptive behaviors. The goal of teaching effective parenting is to provide parents information about children’s developmental mile- stones, effective discipline approaches, communication techniques, and ways to support a child’s learning and development in the home (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Preven- tion, 2009). Early child education professionals can play an important role in providing this education. See Table 3.5 for a breakdown of supportive parenting educational goals (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009). Parent education can be implemented individually or in a group, in a home, classroom, or other community setting. It can also be taught face to face or online, including through direct instruction, discussions, videos, and other instructional formats (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009).

Fuse/Thinkstock ሁ Authoritative parents expect their children to take on

more responsibility as they grow older, but they are also flexible and willing to compromise.

Section 3.3Programs for Teaching Supportive Parenting

Table 3.5: Components of parent education programs

Content components Description

Child development knowledge and care

Providing developmentally appropriate physical care and environment (e.g., feeding, diapering, home safety); learning about typical child development and behavior; fostering children’s positive emotional development (e.g., self-esteem, providing stimulating environment)

Positive interactions with child

Learning the importance of positive, nondisciplinary interactions with children; using skills that promote positive parent–child interactions (e.g., demonstrating enthusiasm, following child’s interests, offering appropriate recreational options); providing positive attention

Responsiveness, sen- sitivity, and nurturing

Responding sensitively to child’s emotional and psychological needs (e.g., sooth- ing); providing developmentally appropriate physical contact and affection

Emotional communication

Using relationship-building communication skills (e.g., active listening); helping children identify and appropriately express emotions

Disciplinary communication

Giving clear and developmentally appropriate directions; setting limits and rules; stating behavioral expectations and consequences

Discipline and behav- ior management

Teaching attitudes about discipline strategies, and attributions of child misbehav- ior; giving examples of monitoring and supervision practices and specific rein- forcement and punishment techniques (e.g., planned ignoring, positive reinforce- ment, time-out); problem solving about child behaviors; assisting with consistent responding or generalization

Promoting children’s social skills or proso- cial behavior

Educating parents to teach children to share and cooperate, use good manners, and get along with peers, siblings, or adults

Promoting children’s cognitive or academic skills

Using incidental teaching; fostering children’s language or literacy development; enhancing child’s school readiness

Source: U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009). Parent training programs: Insight for practitioners. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/Parent_Training_Brief-a.pdf

The concept of teaching supportive parenting is based on the belief held by both profession- als and institutions working with children and families that the family (in whatever structure it exists) is the most important factor in a child’s development, growth, and learning (as we have discussed in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory) (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Unfortunately, parent education is sometimes viewed as solely an intervention for dys- functional families—somewhat like special education is sometimes viewed as a deficit approach to working with children with special needs. This deficit view of parent education comes from language in the federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) of 2010, which specifies parent education as a core child maltreatment prevention service, and the federal Children’s Bureau Community-Based Grants for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (CBCAP) (a program under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services), which have been set up to fund parent education programs.

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Teaching supportive parenting can help new or

experienced parents develop problem-solving skills and learn to deal with conflict.

Section 3.3Programs for Teaching Supportive Parenting

However, a variety of research makes clear that not only do families provide the structure, nurturance, values, and expectations for the children embedded within them, but there are certain behav- iors, communication styles, approaches to discipline, and so on that enhance family effectiveness and healthy child development. Successful programs can help parents develop the parenting and problem-solving skills necessary to build a functional family. These programs aim to achieve these goals by changing or enhancing caregivers’ attitudes and behaviors and promoting protective fac- tors, resulting in positive outcomes for children and parents alike (Lundahl & Harris, 2006). Protective factors are conditions that might reduce the negative effects on children of risk factors such as low income, teen parenting, community violence, and child abuse. Examples of such protective factors are secure attachment and quality preschool expe- riences (Trawick-Smith, 2014). Protective factors that can be developed in the home include the following activities and dispositions:

• Nurturing and attachment. Nurturing begins with the development of trust rather than mistrust (Erikson’s first developmental stage) (Erikson, 1963) and continues with goodness-of-fit (the match between child-rearing practices and a child’s tem- perament that will lead to favorable psychological outcomes).

• Knowledge and implementation of effective parenting techniques and of child and youth development. Recognizing developmental milestones, using effective discipline approaches, and engaging in effective communication between parents and children produces positive results.

• Parenting competencies. Parents need to demonstrate effective skills and disposi- tions to be effective; these include problem-solving, communication, discipline, and supporting their child’s learning.

• Social connections that produce caring adults and positive peer relationships. Positive, effective, and healthy relationships between adults in the home, in extended family networks, and in the community (child care facilities, schools, youth programs) will have a positive impact on the child.

• Specific, concrete supports for parents. Support can come from a variety of sources, including Head Start, other children’s programs, schools, parenting programs, and parent support groups at school or the workplace.

• Social and emotional competence in children. The ability of children to function effec- tively and pro-socially in a variety of settings, including at home, in an early child- hood program, school, place of part-time employment, youth team, or recreational center is a mark of their social and emotional mastery (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013c).

Many approaches to teaching supportive parenting are used by a variety of programs through- out the United States. For professionals working with families, the array of possible parent

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Teaching supportive parenting can help new or

experienced parents develop problem-solving skills and learn to deal with conflict.

Section 3.4Perspectives on Parenting

education programs can seem quite daunting (recall Table 3.5). Head Start, a 50-year-old pro- gram with a history of and commitment to working closely with the entire family, has devel- oped its own approach. Choosing the best program depends on a variety of factors, involving both the families being served and the programs providing the education and training. To assist in the process of selecting a parent educational and training program, professionals working with schools, health clinics, community agencies, residential treatment centers, and child care programs should consider these criteria:

• Is it evidence-based or at least evidence informed, as required by many funding sources?

• Will it match the agency’s target audience, and/or will it need to be changed to be culturally relevant?

• Do specific program components match specific goals that the program is required to achieve—for funding or for other reasons?

• What training, staff qualifications, and skills are needed to fully implement the program?

• What are the costs involved, and can they be covered by the program’s budget or with program-specific funds? Can the program be used to target specific fundraising activities?

• How will the agency implement the program? • What approaches will be used to evaluate the program’s effectiveness and success?

According to the Children’s Bureau (2007), evidence-informed programs are programs that have a strong theoretical foundation and are generally considered best practice for prevent- ing child abuse and neglect; evidence-based programs are supported by research that uses randomized experimental designs and have been replicated in multiple settings (U.S. Chil- dren’s Bureau, n.d.).

3.4 Perspectives on Parenting Society as a whole has contrasting views regarding the appropriate styles and levels of par- enting, and even parents are conflicted regarding their own overall effectiveness as parents and their parenting styles. In a report entitled “A Lot Easier Said Than Done: Parents Talk About Raising Children in Today’s America,” researchers used focus groups and survey ques- tions to elicit parents’ views on raising children (Farkas, Johnson, Duffett, Wilson, & Vine, 2002). In July and August of 2002, ~26-minute-long phone interviews were conducted with 1,607 randomly selected U.S. parents (married, stepparents, or cohabiting) living with chil- dren aged 5–17 years old from the 48 contiguous states. Twelve focus groups were also con- ducted in 2002 in Texas, Connecticut, Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Ohio, and California to help develop the questions to be asked and to give voice to the results of the surveys (Farkas et al., 2002).

A vast majority of parents (96%) reported that they loved being parents, though 60% of the same group reported that they felt they were only doing a poor-to-fair job of raising their chil- dren (Farkas et al., 2002). In a previous study, the vast majority of both parents and nonpar- ents believed that many parents have children before they are ready, and do a poor job of rais- ing them (Farkas, Johnson, & Public Agenda Foundation, 1997). Most adults in this second study viewed children negatively. Thus, while most parents enjoy being a parent, they—along with many adults in the rest of society—often view parenting as a thankless task.

Stockbyte/Stockbyte/Thinkstock ሁ Most children surveyed about their parents were

very positive in their responses, saying their parents did a good job and were affectionate. In contrast, most parents, when surveyed, responded that they felt insecure about their parenting abilities.

Section 3.4Perspectives on Parenting

On the flipside, the majority of children studied had very positive things to say about their own parents, expressing the view that their parents were doing a good job, were affectionate, and able to balance work and family demands and respon- sibilities effectively (Farkas et al., 2002; Galinsky, 1999). One reason that parents’ view of their own efficacy is much lower than their children’s view is because par- ents tend to focus on the tasks at hand and seldom reflect on the pleasures of parent- hood (Farkas et al., 1997). Sometimes parents need to appreciate efficiency less and take more time to “stop and smell the roses” (Robinson & Godbey, 1997).

Other studies have shown that a central value of being a parent is that it helps people grow, learn, and mature. One argument is that children force parents and caregivers to look at themselves and their world in a variety of new ways, which then cause them to learn, grow, and mature in five specific areas:

• Observational skills and sensitivity to others’ behavior • Efficiency • Resiliency • Motivation • Social skills (Ellison, 2005).

According to Dillon (2002), parents have identified four different ways in which children have caused positive changes in them:

1. Helping parents change bad habits, such as smoking, drinking, and using bad language.

2. Helping parents understand and appreciate their own childhood and their own par- ents, and to be more accepting of themselves and their parents.

3. Helping them become more knowledgeable and creative in helping children learn and master new tasks. They also have become more adept and effective at working with schools, doctors, and various administrators in advocating for their children’s unique needs.

4. Giving parents a new perspective on life, based on the way their children see the world and marvel at life, and a new meaning in a life that may have become mun- dane and boring.

Children help their parents see familiar events and things with a new perspective, they expose their parents to new ideas and activities, and even challenge them to overcome certain fears, anxieties, and inhibitions. While it is possible to avoid situations, confrontations, and experi- ences as an individual, it is a completely different issue to have to face these same situations as a parent, when your child is depending on you.

• Is it evidence-based or at least evidence informed, as required by many funding sources?

• Will it match the agency’s target audience, and/or will it need to be changed to be culturally relevant?

• Do specific program components match specific goals that the program is required to achieve—for funding or for other reasons?

• What training, staff qualifications, and skills are needed to fully implement the program?

• What are the costs involved, and can they be covered by the program’s budget or with program-specific funds? Can the program be used to target specific fundraising activities?

• How will the agency implement the program? • What approaches will be used to evaluate the program’s effectiveness and success?

Stockbyte/Stockbyte/Thinkstock ሁ Most children surveyed about their parents were

Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary This chapter served as an introduction to some of the most popular child development theo- ries, parenting styles, and parenting education programs. If you plan on working with children and parents, it is important for you to be aware of these in order for you to provide proper care and resources to families. In the next chapter, we will explore some of these theories and parenting styles within the context of parenting infants and young children.

Critical Thinking Questions 1. Thinking back to your own childhood, what parenting behaviors did your parents

exhibit that you would consider to have been good for you? Which ones could be considered poor parenting skills? If you are a parent, do you see yourself parenting the way your parents did?

2. Consider your own child, or a child you are familiar with. For each of the stage theo- ries presented in this chapter, name the stage you think this child is in. Give evidence to support your answer.

3. How would you work with a parent who could benefit from some ideas to improve his or her parenting skills but who believes that he or she is a good parent?

Key Terms authoritarian parenting style A parenting style in which parents have high (often too high) expectations, set and enforce the rules, and punish misconduct strictly. While these parents are warm, they do not see a reason to explain their rules, and do not allow children to negotiate them or their consequences.

authoritative parenting style Parents with this style are warm and have high expecta- tions, yet are flexible and willing to negotiate (but not to give in).

chronosystem The fifth of Bronfen- brenner’s ecological systems of human devel- opment, this system takes into account the changing contexts a person experiences over time and the changes in the macrosystem due to historical events, e.g., living through war or an economic downturn.

constructivist theory or cognitive theory Focuses on the structure and development of thought processes and understanding.

ecological systems theory Bronfen- brenner’s theory of human development that outlines five environmental/social contexts in which a person grows, develops, and learns: microsystem, mesosystem, exosys- tem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

evidence-based programs Programs that are supported by research that uses random- ized experimental designs and have been replicated in multiple settings.

evidence-informed programs Programs that have a strong theoretical foundation and are generally considered best practice for preventing child abuse and neglect.

exosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, a social setting or institution that indirectly influences the child, such as a city council, school board, health care clinic, or parent’s workplace.

macrosystem According to Bronfen- brenner’s ecological systems theory, this sys- tem represents the overall cultural, political,

Summary and Resources

and institutional factors that influence a child’s development, such as culture, democ- racy, and whether equal rights under the law are applied in that society.

mesosystem According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this system rep- resents the interaction among the various microsystems.

microsystem The innermost environment within Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, including the home, community, fam- ily, and early childhood education programs, which has a direct, physical impact on the child.

moral reasoning From Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development, moral reason- ing is defined as judgments about right and wrong.

permissive parenting style Parents in this category are considered to be warm toward their children, but make few demands; disci- pline is inconsistent and is often negotiated.

private speech A term from Vygotsky’s theory in which a child uses self-talk to guide learning and to regulate behavior.

protective factors Conditions that might reduce the negative effects of risk factors on children.

psychosocial development theory Erik- son’s eight-stage lifespan theory that pre- sents a series of challenges or developmental crises that must be achieved as a child pro- gresses in his or her development, as well as the consequences if they are not achieved.

risk factors Experiences or situations that put children at risk developmentally.

scaffolding Joint problem solving between the more knowledgeable other and the learner within the zone of proximal development.

sociocultural theory of learning Vygotsky’s theory of learning that focuses on the impact of social interactions (with peers and adults) and language. This theory posits that children learn from others through mod- eling, instruction, and encouragement, and that language is used to direct and structure learning.

stage theory A theory with stages that are sequential, invariant, and qualitatively differ- ent from each other.

supportive parenting education Any training, program, or other intervention that helps parents acquire skills to improve their parenting in order to reduce the risk of child abuse, and/or to reduce children’s disruptive behaviors.

uninvolved/neglectful parenting style Parents practicing this style of parent- ing provide minimal supervision of their chil- dren, make few demands, and are essentially uninvolved with their children.

zone of proximal development (ZPD) The area between the child’s independent per- formance on a skill or task and the level the child can achieve with expert assistance.

Summary and Resources

Additional Resources Supportive Parenting Programs: https://www.childwelfare.gov/ The Child Welfare Information Gateway provides a list of parent education programs and resources offered throughout of the United States. Browse this website to familiarize your-self with programs and resources available for parents in your area.