10 DISCUSSIONS DUE IN 36 HOURS

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3Curriculum Development

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If you are not sure where you’re going, you’re liable to end up someplace else.

—Robert Mager, Preparing Instructional Objectives

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

ሁ Demonstrate how educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives relate to each other in the curriculum-development process.

ሁ Apply the basic structures of the Common Core State Standards in English/Language Arts and Math, and the Next Generation Science Standards as building blocks for curriculum development.

ሁ Evaluate the progression from standards to curriculum framework, guides, and maps; clarify the meaning of standards through a process of “unpacking.”

ሁ Develop instructional objectives that effectively measure short-term student outcomes.

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Section 3.1 Educational Outcomes: The Basis for Curriculum Development

Introduction In this chapter, we will examine the development of educational outcomes and their role as foundations for curriculum development. We will review 21st century educational goals and the standards that form the basis for instructional goals and curriculum development. Finally, we will examine curriculum as the foundation for organizing instruction and instructional objectives. See the feature box InTASC Teaching Standards Addressed in Chapter 3.

3.1 Educational Outcomes: The Basis for Curriculum Development

According to Zook (2001), there are three major levels of educational outcomes: educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives. As illustrated in Figure 3.1, think of these three levels as the target (educational goal), rings on the target (instructional goals), and the bull’s-eye (instructional objectives). Each of these levels forms the foundation for curriculum development.

I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 3

Standard #4: Content Knowledge. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches, and creates learning experi- ences that make these aspects of the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

Standard #7: Planning for Instruction. The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

2 1 S T C E N T U R Y F R A M E W O R K E L E M E N T S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 3

21st Century Curriculum and Instruction Teaches 21st century skills discretely in the context of core subjects and 21st century interdisciplinary themes.

Focuses on providing opportunities for applying 21st century skills across content areas and for a competency-based approach to learning.

Figure 3.1: Three major levels of educational outcomes ሁ Educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives are the foundation of

curriculum development.

Educational Goals

Instructional Goals • Standards • Curriculum Frameworks • Curriculum Guides • Curriculum Maps • Pacing Guides

Instructional Objectives

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Educational Goals

Instructional Goals • Standards • Curriculum Frameworks • Curriculum Guides • Curriculum Maps • Pacing Guides

Instructional Objectives

Section 3.1 Educational Outcomes: The Basis for Curriculum Development

Educational Goals Educational goals, represented by the entire target to be reached, are broad, generalized statements about what students will learn. A good example of educational goals can be found in the 21st century set of learning skills that describe general characteristics learners should acquire after a significant period spent engaged in schooling. For example, the United States expects high school graduates to be capable of participating effectively in government by exercising the rights and obligations of citizenship. This goal will be accomplished by ensur- ing that students develop proficiency in critical thinking, problem solving, communicating, collaborating, innovation and creativity, global competency, financial literacy, and informa- tion and technology literacy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011). Table 3.1 lists a sam- pling of these 21st century skills and the educational goals they inspire.

Table 3.1: Educational goals correlated with selected 21st century skills

21st century skills Educational goals for students

Information literacy Access and evaluate information critically and competently; manage the flow of information from a wide variety of sources.

Media literacy Understand both how and why media messages are constructed; create media products by understanding and utilizing the most appropriate media- creation tools, characteristics, and conventions.

Technology (information & communications)

Use technology as a tool to research, organize, evaluate, and communicate information.

3.1 Educational Outcomes: The Basis for Curriculum Development

I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 3

2 1 S T C E N T U R Y F R A M E W O R K E L E M E N T S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 3

21st Century Curriculum and Instruction Teaches 21st century skills discretely in the context of core subjects and 21st century interdisciplinary themes.

Focuses on providing opportunities for applying 21st century skills across content areas and for a competency-based approach to learning.

Figure 3.1: Three major levels of educational outcomes ሁ Educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives are the foundation of

curriculum development.

Educational Goals

Instructional Goals • Standards • Curriculum Frameworks • Curriculum Guides • Curriculum Maps • Pacing Guides

Instructional Objectives

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Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

Notice that the verbs the educational goals use are fairly general: “understand,” “use tech- nology.” It might be difficult to design instruction for these broad goals because they are not stated as learning outcomes of specific instruction. It will also take a long time for learners to work toward these goals. However, the educational goals are important to have in place because they provide an organizing framework and represent what the current educational system, colleges, universities, communities, and workplaces currently value.

Instructional Goals Instructional goals are the next major level of educational outcomes. Instructional goals describe what learners should know and be able to do as a result of instruction. They are developed from national and/or state academic content standards. To be useful, however, the standards (represented by the outer ring of the target) are further developed into increas- ingly more precise statements for grade levels and subject areas in the form of curriculum frameworks, curriculum guides, curriculum maps, and pacing guides. These documents guide the development of instructional goals and are represented by the inner rings of the target in Figure 3.1.

Instructional Objectives The bull’s-eye on the target represents instructional objectives. An instructional objective is a specific, measurable outcome of learning. Instructional goals (standards, curriculum frame- works, etc.) guide the development of instructional objectives. We will discuss each of these elements and their interactions in the following sections.

3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

Let’s return to the discussion of instructional goals. The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) and the Next Generation Science Standards (first introduced in Chapter 1) provide the basis for the instructional goals most states have established. The states that have adopted the Com- mon Core Standards in English/Language Arts (ELA) and Math have agreed that these stan- dards will comprise at least 85 percent of the total. State-specific standards may comprise the remaining 15 percent. State standards in other areas (e.g., science, social studies, art, music, or physical education) are usually framed within the context of national, state, and profes- sional association recommendations. For example, the Next Generation Science Standards were developed by a team of lead state writers in partnership with the National Research Council, National Science Teachers Association, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and Achieve. They were released to the public in April 2013, and various state depart- ments of education are in the process of adopting them. National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies were revised in 2010 by the National Council for the Social Studies, a profes- sional organization, and may influence state social studies standards. The following sections provide an overview of the standards that most states have either adopted or adapted: the CCSS in English/Language Arts and Math, and the Next Generation Science Standards.

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Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

English Language Arts ELA standards in reading, writing, speaking and listening, and language are anchored by College and Career Readiness standards (CCR). These anchor standards are articulated at each level, with grade-level descriptions of what the students should know. They define 32 broad competencies that form the basis for literacy expectations across all grades. Begin- ning at grade 6, the standards also apply to literacy in history, social studies, science, and technical subjects, emphasizing the shared responsibility for all teachers to teach reading and writing across all subject areas (NGA & CCSSO, 2010).

ELA Standards for Reading

The reading standards focus on a holistic view of comprehension as an evolving skill and emphasize developing meaning from the beginning stages of reading development. As seen in Table 3.2, the reading standards are based on the idea of gradually increasing complexity of text so that by the end of high school, students are ready for the demands of college and career-level reading. Readiness for these demands requires progressive development in read- ing comprehension so that students are able to gain more from what is read. The anchor stan- dards are grouped according to concepts of key ideas, craft and structure, integrating knowl- edge and ideas, range of reading, and text complexity. Throughout the grades and within the standards, reading occurs in classic and contemporary literature, as well as challenging informational texts in a range of subjects. While the CCSS has no reading list, Appendix A of the Core Standards website (http://www.corestandards.org) gives annotated examples of sample texts that meet the standards for each grade level. These lists of sample texts enable teachers and districts to make local decisions when choosing curriculum content that still meets text complexity and range of reading aspirations the standards describe.

Table 3.2: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for reading

Strand Standard

Key Ideas and Details CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.2 Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key supporting details and ideas.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.3 Analyze how and why individuals, events, or ideas develop and interact over the course of a text.

Craft and Structure CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.4 Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining technical, connotative, and figurative mean- ings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.5 Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other and the whole.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.6 Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text.

(continued)

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http://www.corestandards.org

Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

Strand Standard

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.7 Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.8 Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.9 Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take.

Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.10 Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts independently and proficiently.

To build a foundation for college and career readiness, students must read widely and deeply from among a broad range of high-quality, increasingly challenging literary and informational texts. Through extensive reading of stories, dramas, poems, and myths from diverse cultures and different periods, students gain liter- ary and cultural knowledge, as well as familiarity with various text structures and elements. By reading texts in history/social studies, science, and other disciplines, students build a foundation of knowledge in these fields that will also give them the background to be better readers in all content areas. Students can only gain this foundation when the curriculum is intentionally and coherently structured to develop rich content knowledge within and across grades. Students also acquire the habits of reading independently and closely, which are essential to their future success.

ELA Standards for Foundational Skills

The ELA standards outline foundational skills that foster students’ working knowledge of concepts of print, alphabetic principle, phonics and word recognition, and fluency. These fundamental literacy skills are those recommended by the National Reading Panel (NICHHD, 2000). ELA foundational skills are components of a comprehensive reading program for grades K–5. They emphasize outcomes, but not process. Teachers must decide what is appropriate for each child and be careful to avoid teaching what students may already know (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). Students who quickly and automatically apply these concepts will need less direct instruction in this area; those who are struggling may need more.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Choose one grade-level band, and read the reading standards presented in the Common Core Standards (http://www.corestandards.org). How do the reading standards at this level support the development of critical reading and thinking skills? Give at least one example.

Table 3.2: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for reading (continued)

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http://www.corestandards.org

Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

ELA Standards for Writing

Table 3.3 lists the anchor standards for writing. These standards are grouped accord- ing to four strands: (1) text types and purpose, (2) production and distribution of writing, (3) research to build and present knowledge, and (4) range of writing. The strand text types and purpose requires students to write across three areas. First, they learn to write arguments using sound logic and reasoning based on evidence, expressing opinions in writ- ing (Kendal, 2011). Second, they write informative texts that convey ideas clearly and dem- onstrate understanding of what they are learning. And third, they learn narrative writing, clearly conveying events or experiences. In the strand production and distribution of writing, students learn to communicate to different audiences, adapt their writing for its intended purpose, and edit, revise, organize, and disseminate their writing. The research strand emphasizes short, focused research projects, as well as longer term in-depth research. Finally, to accomplish these goals, the range of writing strand emphasizes the need for students to engage in frequent, routine writing, devoting significant time and effort, and producing numerous pieces throughout the grades (Kendal, 2011). Appendix C of the Core Standards website (http://www.corestandards.org) gives annotated examples of student writing that meet the standards for each grade level.

Table 3.3: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for writing

Strand Standard

Text Types and Purposes CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.1 Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences.

Production and Distribu- tion of Writing

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.5 Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.6 Use technology, including the Internet, to pro- duce and publish writing and to interact and collaborate with others.

Research to Build and Pres- ent Knowledge

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.7 Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused questions, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.8 Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the credibility and accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding plagiarism.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.

(continued)

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http://www.corestandards.org

Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

Strand Standard

Range of Writing CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences.

To build a foundation for college and career readiness, students need to learn to use writing as a way of offering and supporting opinions, demonstrating understanding of the subjects they are studying, and conveying real and imagined experiences and events. They learn to appreciate that a key purpose of writing is to communicate clearly to an external, sometimes unfamiliar audience, and they begin to adapt the form and content of their writing to accomplish a particular task and purpose. They develop the capacity to build knowledge on a subject through research projects and to respond analytically to literary and informational sources. To meet these goals, students must devote significant time and effort to writing, producing numer- ous pieces over short and extended time frames throughout the year.

ELA Standards for Speaking and Listening

Table 3.4 lists the anchor standards for speaking and listening. These standards are grouped in two strands: comprehension and collaboration, and presentation of knowledge and ideas. Students develop comprehension and collaboration skills through multiple opportunities to take part in academic discussions and conversations in one-on-one, small-group, and whole- class settings. Presentation skills are developed by using increasingly complex information, ideas, and evidence, and by using a variety of media, including digital sources (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). Appendix A of the standards describes the role of oral language in literacy develop- ment (http://www.corestandards.org).

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Choose one grade-level band, and read the writing standards presented in the Common Core Standards (http://www.corestandards.org). How does the range of writing strand support the development of the other three writing strands (text types and purpose, pro- duction and distribution of writing, and research skills) at this grade level? Give at least one example.

Table 3.3: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for writing (continued)

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Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

Table 3.4: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for speaking and listening

Strand Standard

Comprehension and Collaboration

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.SL.1 Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.SL.2 Integrate and evaluate information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.SL.3 Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric.

Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.SL.4 Present information, findings, and support- ing evidence such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.SL.5 Make strategic use of digital media and visual displays of data to express information and enhance understanding of presentations.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.SL.6 Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and communicative tasks, demonstrating command of formal English when indicated or appropriate.

To build a foundation for college and career readiness, students must have ample opportunities to partici- pate in various rich, structured conversations—as part of a whole class, in small groups, and with a partner. Being productive members of these conversations requires that students contribute accurate, relevant information; respond to and develop what others have said; make comparisons and contrasts; and analyze and synthesize a multitude of ideas in various domains.

New technologies have broadened and expanded the role that speaking and listening play in acquiring and sharing knowledge and have tightened their link to other forms of communication. Digital texts confront stu- dents with the potential for continually updated content and dynamically changing combinations of words, graphics, images, hyperlinks, and embedded video and audio.

ELA Standards for Language

Table 3.5 lists the anchor standards for language. These standards are grouped into three strands: (1) conventions of standard English, (2) knowledge of language, and (3) vocabu- lary acquisition and use. Conventions of standard English standards extend across reading, writing, speaking, and listening, while the standards in the knowledge of language strand

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Choose one grade-level band, and read the speaking and listening standards presented in the Common Core Standards (http://www.corestandards.org). How might assigning stu- dents to a variety of different groups support the CCR anchor standards in listening and speaking?

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Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

address effective use and choice, particularly how context influences style and expression. The standards in the vocabulary strand are meant to help students continuously expand their repertoire of words and phrases using general academic and domain specific vocab- ulary. General academic words are those that are commonly used in academic writing but seldom use in informal speech. For example, the term multiple opportunities is more often expressed in informal conversation as many chances. Domain-specific words are specific to a content area, such as fractal, species, phylum, and cardiovascular. These vocabularies develop through a mix of conversations, direct instruction, and reading (Idea Partnership, 2012). Understanding domain-specific words is reinforced in the reading and writing stan- dards, as well as literacy standards for the subject areas (Kendal, 2011).

Table 3.5: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for language

Strand Standard

Conventions of Standard English

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.

Knowledge of Language CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.3 Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different contexts, to make effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully when reading or listening.

Vocabulary Acquisition and Use

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases by using context clues, analyzing meaningful word parts, and consulting general and specialized reference materials, as appropriate.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.5 Demonstrate understanding of figurative lan- guage, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.6 Acquire and use accurately a range of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career readiness level; demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge when encountering an unknown term important to comprehension or expression.

To build a foundation for college and career readiness in language, students must gain control over many con- ventions of standard English grammar, usage, and mechanics, as well as learn other ways to use language to convey meaning effectively. They must also be able to determine or clarify the meaning of grade-appropriate words encountered through listening, reading, and media use; come to appreciate that words have nonliteral meanings, shadings of meaning, and relationships to other words; and expand their vocabulary in the course of studying content. The inclusion of language standards in their own strand should not be taken as an indica- tion that skills related to conventions, effective language use, and vocabulary are unimportant to reading, writing, speaking, and listening; indeed, they are inseparable from such contexts.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Choose one grade-level band, and read the language standards presented in the Common Core Standards (http://www.corestandards.org). In what way do the standards at this grade level support learning the conventions of standard English? How might students’ interests inf luence the learning of domain-specific words at that grade level?

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http://www.corestandards.org

Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

ELA Standards for Literacy in Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects

The ELA standards for literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects begin in grade 6. The basic premise of these standards is that college and workforce training programs require literacy skills based on sophisticated nonfiction. Because reading is such an important skill for building knowledge, the standards require students to learn discipline- specific reading that enables them to understand specific words and phrases, attend to details and concepts, and evaluate and synthesize arguments and information. The stan- dards require students to apply literacy skills when reading primary and secondary sources in history and social studies, as well as when reading and understanding challenging scien- tific and technical texts that use diagrams and data to convey information and illustrate concepts. When writing in the areas of history and social studies, students are required to use narrative in analyzing individuals, places, and historical events. When writing in science and technical subject areas, students must be able to write descriptions of procedures and results in a manner that others could potentially replicate (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). The read- ing and writing standards, with descriptions of what the students should know, are orga- nized by middle school (each grade 6–8), and high school (two bands each of grades 9–10 and 11–12). They are written in a similar language and with similar terms as their corre- sponding standards in reading and writing.

Common Core Standards in Mathematics The Common Core Standards in Mathematics shift instruction away from rote memoriza- tion and toward higher levels of understanding. The standards are divided into two sets: Standards for Mathematical Practice and Standards for Mathematical Content. The prac- tice standards describe ways for students to engage with mathematical content throughout their K–12 experience. The content standards build a foundation of procedural skill, fluency,

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Read through the ELA standards for literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects for either a middle school or a high school band (http://www.core standards.org/ELA-Literacy/). How do these standards reinforce the notion that the devel- opment of literacy skills is the responsibility of every teacher, not just those who focus on English and other language arts? Give one example.

Table 3.5: College and Career Readiness anchor standards for language

Strand Standard

Conventions of Standard English

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.

Vocabulary Acquisition and Use

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.L.5 Demonstrate understanding of figurative lan- guage, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

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http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/

http://www.corestandards.org

Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

and conceptual understanding from the earliest grades. The practice standards and the con- tent standards, taken together, use engagement and the process of learning to develop under- standing of mathematical content.

Implementation of these standards requires a paradigm shift for many teachers. The standards challenge teachers to develop strategies that promote active engagement with real-world applications and to talk through solutions. The standards emphasize that deep conceptual understanding is as important as knowing mathematical procedures. Lack of understanding causes students to rely too heavily on procedures, which prevents them applying math in practical situations or explaining mathematics accurately (Zimba, 2011).

Mathematical Practice

The Standards for Mathematical Practice, first introduced in Chapter 1, are eight state- ments that focus on the processes that students use to engage with mathematical content in meaningful ways. These standards focus on practices that encourage curiosity and question how and why mathematics works the way it does. They encourage students to look for solu- tions to real-life problems using mathematical principles. The standards encourage stu- dents to appreciate struggle when the answer is not always evident and to not fear making mistakes; they view these actions as pathways toward developing understanding and per- sistence. They encourage students to move beyond procedure and tedium so they can expe- rience the elegance, the beauty, and the truth of mathematics. These laudable goals will most likely involve a change of mindset for teachers and students alike.

Mathematical Content Standards

The Standards for Mathematical Content are organized by grades in K–8 and by conceptual categories in high school (e.g., Number and Quantity, Algebra, Functions, etc.). The standards are further organized according to domains and clusters. Domains are one or two words that describe the big ideas that connect standards across grade levels. For example, Number and Operations in Base Ten (NBT) is a domain in grades K–5. A cluster is a group of related stan- dards that describe related aspects of a domain. For example, in the domain of Number and Operations in Base Ten, two standards are clustered under the concept understand place value. Each grade begins with a brief overview of its domains and clusters and an introduction that identifies and describes areas for instructional focus.

The major design of the content standards is on focus and coherence. Focus means greater mastery of fewer things, spending more time to teach to mastery of important concepts so students have the ability to apply them to a wide range of problems (Zimba, 2011).

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Review the eight CCSS mathematical practice standards introduced in Chapter 1. Choose one practice standard, and read its description in the Standards for Mathematical Practice section of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (http://www.corestandards .org/Math/). How does this standard describe practices that are different from the way you learned mathematics as a child? In what ways do these practices describe similarities with how you learned mathematics?

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http://www.corestandards.org/Math/

Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

The focus in the early grades is on arithmetic. This focus on arithmetic enables students to become fluent in computation in the four basic operations, as well as in basic mathematical properties and their uses. It positions them with a firm foundation and a skill set that general- izes to algebra, which begins in the middle grades, and then on to the use of mathematics in high school, in preparation for the mathematics that is used in careers (Zimba, 2011).

Coherence in the standards refers to how the mathematical ideas logically flow. Mathematics keeps coming together to become one unified idea; the mathematic ideas may become more complex, but they are not more complicated. Students will use the same basics they learned earlier in new applications. For example, addition and subtraction learned in lower grades is the same process when used with fractions and in algebraic equations. A careful reading of the standards shows this progress.

The standards begin with kindergarteners’ work with numbers—learning how numbers correspond to quantities and how to put numbers together and take them apart. For exam- ple, students will be asked, “How many ways can you show the number 6?” This form of number sense logically leads to the next step, addition and subtraction. What follows is a continuous progression from grade to grade, stressing both procedural skill and concep- tual understanding. The K–5 content standards provide a solid foundation in whole num- bers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions and decimals, which builds the basis for more demanding concepts and procedures. In middle school, students progress to hands-on learning in geometry, probability, and statistics (McCullum & Zimba, 2011). The middle school standards prepare students for algebra, which begins in grade 8. High school students become real users of mathematics. They learn that math has a purpose, hangs together, and has structure and coherence. The high school standards connect with other disciplines—science, engineering, and technology—so there is also an emphasis on model- ing, or making a situation into a mathematical problem (McCullum, 2011). Table 3.6 displays the mathematical domains across grade levels.

Table 3.6: CCSS mathematical content standards: Domains by grade level

Grades K–5 domains Grades 6–8 (middle school) domains

High school domains (crossing a number of traditional course boundaries)

Counting and cardinality Number and quantity

Operations and algebraic thinking

Expressions and equations Algebra

Number and operations in base ten

The number system Modeling

Number and operations—fractions

Ratios and proportional relationships

Functions Functions

Geometry Geometry Geometry

Measurement and data Statistics and probability Statistics and probability

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Section 3.2 Instructional Goals: A Closer Look at the Standards

These standards paint an encouraging picture of expectations for mathematical learning and practice in the United States. As with the ELA, the Math Standards set outcomes for each grade level, but they do not define methods or materials necessary to support students who are well below or well above grade-level expectations, or provide the supports needed for English language learners and students with special needs (NGO & CCSSO, 2010). Neverthe- less, all students must have the opportunity to learn and meet the same standards. These standards should be implemented, with accommodations as needed, to ensure everyone’s participation (McLaughlin, 2012).

Next Generation Science Standards The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) were released April 2013; state depart- ments of education are in the process of adopting them. They can be accessed at http://www .nextgenscience.org. The NGSS framework is based on three dimensions:

1. Science and engineering practices describe behaviors of scientists and engineers as they ask questions to be investigated or formulate problems that could be solved through design.

2. Crosscutting concepts have application across all science content areas, linking the domains of science and providing a way of organizing concepts schema. They include:

a. Patterns, similarity, and diversity b. Cause and effect c. Scale, proportion, and quantity d. Systems and systems models e. Energy and matter f. Structure and function g. Stability and change

3. Disciplinary core ideas prepare students with sufficient knowledge so they can acquire additional information on their own in four areas:

a. Physical science b. Life science c. Earth and space science d. Engineering, technology, and applications of science.

Like the Common Core Standards for Math, the NGSS present a smaller set of integrated core ideas. The focus is on primary investigation that reflects real-world interconnections— acquiring and applying science concepts to the world around us. The standards also feature

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Read through the mathematical content standards in one domain (such as number and operations, geometry, or measurement and data) for one grade level (http://www.core standards.org). Give one example of how this selection reinforces the notion of focus and coherence in the standards.

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http://www.nextgenscience.org

http://www.corestandards.org

Section 3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

connections with the Common Core State Standards for English/Language Arts and Math- ematics to ensure interdependent learning in all content areas. Table 3.7 shows a sample standard for grade 2.

Table 3.7: Example of a Next Generation Science Standard for grade 2

2-ESS1: Earth’s Place in the Universe

Students who demonstrate understanding can:

Make observations from media to construct an evidence-based account that Earth events can occur quickly or slowly. [Clarification Statement: Examples of events and timescales could include volca- nic explosions and earthquakes, which happen quickly, and erosion of rocks, which occurs slowly.]

Science and Engineering Practices: Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions

Make observations (firsthand or from media) to construct an evidence-based account for natural phenomena.

Disciplinary Core Ideas: The History of Planet Earth

Some events happen very quickly; others occur very slowly, over a period much longer than one can observe. (2-ESS1-1)

Crosscutting Concepts: Stability and Change

Things may change slowly or rapidly. (2-ESS1-1)

Source: Next Generation Science Standards. Accessed from http://www.nextgenscience.org/next-generation-science-standards

Like the ELA and Mathematical Standards of the CCSS, the Next Generation Science Standards were developed to accommodate the widest range of students in learning the core ideas and practices of science so that all students would have the opportunity to learn and meet the same standards.

3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

In the United States, individual states “adopt” or approve a set of standards that provide the foundation for building the curriculum. The CCSS define a common set of outcomes (e.g., read- ing and comprehending grade-level text), but also leave room for each state to make additions and outline procedures for implementation. Most state standards are based on the CCSS, but some states have developed their own original set.

The standards could be compared to residential building codes. For example, across the United States, there are certain requirements for wiring, stairways, plumbing, foundations, roofing, and other areas. Various states may add to these common codes depending on the geographic location; for instance, added codes include specifications about roof strength in areas prone to hurricanes or depth and insulation for water pipes in cold climates. While building codes guide the minimal requirements for building a house, they do not dictate the materials, floor plans, construction schedules, or even how the finished structure will look. Similarly, the state standards form the basis for curriculum development through frameworks (usually developed by a state’s department of public instruction), guides (usually developed

han82148_03_c03_055-088.indd 69 3/3/15 2:58 PM

http://www.nextgenscience.org/next-generation-science-standards

Section 3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

by school districts), and maps and pacing guides (developed by teachers and district curricu- lum specialists in grade or subject areas).

Curriculum Frameworks Most states have organized their set of standards into curriculum frameworks, which pro- vide guidance for organization and implementation and specify what is to be taught for each subject. Using the construction example cited earlier, the curriculum framework documents could be considered analogous to Residential Code Books available in each state, which translate building codes into design and construction requirements for residential housing. Curriculum frameworks serve a similar function. They often include big ideas, concepts, competencies, and essential questions aligned to the standards and assessments. The fea- ture box State Examples of Curriculum Frameworks provides links to curriculum frameworks several states have developed. View these exemplars and notice the variety of approaches that state departments of education have used to organize and communicate curriculum frameworks. Also, note the common standards that unify these documents across the vari- ous U.S. geographic representations.

Curriculum Guides Curriculum guides can be thought of as analogous to floor plans. Just as an architect uses residential construction codes to make decisions on different layouts, construction methods, and materials when creating a floor plan, school districts develop curriculum guides based on the state’s curriculum framework (see state examples feature). Teachers and other personnel within the district usually create curriculum guides, which come in a variety of formats. While there is not a particular outline or requirement for any specific content, items that may be included are essential questions, instructional goals, methods, activities, evaluations and assessment practices, materials and resources, and time frame. The District Examples of Cur- riculum Guides feature box offers links to examples of curriculum guides from districts around the nation.

State Examples of Curriculum Frameworks

Maryland Department of Education Common Core Curriculum Frameworks: http://mdk12 .org/instruction/commoncore/index.html

New York State Education Department: Engage NY Common Core Curriculum and Assessments: http://www.engageny.org/

Pennsylvania Curriculum Frameworks: http://www.pdesas.org/module/sas /curriculumframework/

California Department of Education Curriculum Frameworks: http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci /cr/cf/allfwks.asp

District Examples of Curriculum Guides

Edison Township (NJ) Public Schools Curriculum Guides: http://www.edison.k12.nj.us /Page/5259

Spokane Public Schools Curriculum Guides: http://www.spokaneschools.org/Page/16297

Whitman-Hanson (MA) Regional School District, Elementary, Middle, and High School Curriculum Guides: http://www.whrsd.org/page.cfm?p=1629

Beverly (MA) Public Schools Curriculum Guides: http://www.beverlyschools.org/district /index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=42

han82148_03_c03_055-088.indd 70 3/3/15 2:58 PM

http://mdk12.org/instruction/commoncore/index.html

http://www.engageny.org/

http://www.pdesas.org/module/sas/curriculumframework/

http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/cf/allfwks.asp

http://www.edison.k12.nj.us/Page/5259

http://www.spokaneschools.org/Page/16297

http://www.whrsd.org/page.cfm?p=1629

http://www.beverlyschools.org/district/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=42

Section 3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

While floor plans provide the vision for constructing a residence, and curriculum guides pro- vide the district’s plan for what is taught, neither document is in a useable format for getting the job (construction or teaching) accomplished. Returning to the construction analogy, a contractor uses a flowchart to line up the various stages of construction (foundation, walls, roofing, etc.). Teachers need a similar planning tool to organize when to teach each standard. This planning stage is where curriculum mapping comes in.

Curriculum Maps and Pacing Guides A curriculum map gives the teacher the overall vision of a semester or year, broken down into large chunks. Curriculum maps help teachers to begin with the end in mind and chart a course for the year. Typically, annual curriculum maps are organized by month or marking period and provide an overview of the following:

• Essential questions • Standards-based essential skills and concepts • Methods of assessment (assignments, projects, performances) • Major content resources

Effective curriculum maps describe solutions to common problems that students might encounter while learning the material. Many also give suggestions for instruction that chal- lenges or extends students beyond the content of a test. In many situations, teams of teachers, organized by grade-level team (horizontal planning) or subject-area teams covering multiple grade levels (vertical planning), developed these documents (David, 2008).

A pacing guide is a more specific organizational tool that aligns units of study, standards, objectives, and materials to the school calendar. A good source for developing a pacing guide can be found in the teachers’ guide of most comprehensive text books. Textbook publishers often cross reference material with standards and potential objectives, and they can be useful references when developing semester or year-long plans.

by school districts), and maps and pacing guides (developed by teachers and district curricu- lum specialists in grade or subject areas).

State Examples of Curriculum Frameworks

Maryland Department of Education Common Core Curriculum Frameworks: http://mdk12 .org/instruction/commoncore/index.html

New York State Education Department: Engage NY Common Core Curriculum and Assessments: http://www.engageny.org/

Pennsylvania Curriculum Frameworks: http://www.pdesas.org/module/sas /curriculumframework/

California Department of Education Curriculum Frameworks: http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci /cr/cf/allfwks.asp

District Examples of Curriculum Guides

Edison Township (NJ) Public Schools Curriculum Guides: http://www.edison.k12.nj.us /Page/5259

Spokane Public Schools Curriculum Guides: http://www.spokaneschools.org/Page/16297

Whitman-Hanson (MA) Regional School District, Elementary, Middle, and High School Curriculum Guides: http://www.whrsd.org/page.cfm?p=1629

Beverly (MA) Public Schools Curriculum Guides: http://www.beverlyschools.org/district /index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=42

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http://mdk12.org/instruction/commoncore/index.html

http://www.engageny.org/

http://www.pdesas.org/module/sas/curriculumframework/

http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/cf/allfwks.asp

http://www.edison.k12.nj.us/Page/5259

http://www.spokaneschools.org/Page/16297

http://www.whrsd.org/page.cfm?p=1629

http://www.beverlyschools.org/district/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=42

Section 3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

There is no firm or required outline for curriculum maps (sometimes called scope and sequence documents) and pacing guides. While some districts have more formal arrange- ments and fully established curriculum maps and guides, others leave these decisions to indi- vidual schools and classrooms. Curriculum maps and pacing guides are meant to be flexible to accommodate the actual diversity found in classrooms. Policies for implementing pacing guides should assume differences in teachers, students, and school contexts, and should allow frequent adjustment and revisions based on teacher input.

A number of school districts have posted their curriculum maps and pacing guides on their websites (see the Examples of Curriculum Maps and Pacing Guides feature box). An Internet search with the key words “curriculum pacing guide” or similar terms will yield other exam- ples from across the United States.

Unpacking the Standards Thus far, we have described the documents that contribute to educational outcomes. These documents range from broad educational goals (e.g., 21st century goals) to descriptions of more targeted instructional goals developed from the standards (curriculum frameworks, guides, maps, and pacing guides). But, to effectively implement the curriculum, the standards need to be unpacked. Unpacking refers to understanding what each standard means in terms of what students must know and be able to do. It involves looking at each standard and asking the question, “What do students need to be able to do to master this standard, and what does it look like when they do?”

A number of resources assist teachers in understanding what the standards mean and offer exemplars teachers can use to develop the corresponding curriculum. Appendix B of the ELA standards provides text exemplars and sample performance tasks for each of the grade bands. Potential texts for each grade band are organized by the text types that the standards require

Examples of Curriculum Maps and Pacing Guides

Beverly Public Schools Curriculum Guides and Maps (look for the link for curriculum and instruction under the staff tab): http://www.beverlyschools.org/district/index.php

Houston, TX Independent School District Scope and Sequence Documents: http://www .houstonisd.org/Page/69564

Miami Dade County Pacing Guide for Social Studies: http://socialsciences.dadeschools.net /pacingguides.asp

Louisiana Department of Education K–12 Planning Resources: http://www.louisiana believes.com/resources/library/k-12-ela-year-long-planning

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http://www.beverlyschools.org/district/index.php

http://www.houstonisd.org/Page/69564

http://socialsciences.dadeschools.net/pacingguides.asp

http://www.louisianabelieves.com/resources/library/k-12-ela-year-long-planning

Section 3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

for a given grade (e.g., stories, poetry, and informational texts). Embedded in these exemplars are sample performance tasks that help teachers to understand what the standards mean. For example, the sample performance tasks for informational texts, second- to third-grade band (page 61 of Appendix B, CCSS), contains the following:

Students read Selby Beeler’s Throw Your Tooth on the Roof: Tooth Traditions around the World and identify what Beeler wants to answer as well as explain the main purpose of the text. [RI.2.6] (The text exemplar for this performance task can be found on page 54 of Appendix B.)

To unpack this task, think about all of the different things that students must do to respond to this prompt. First, students are asked to read from an appropriately difficult text for this grade level. Then they are asked to explain, which means that they will have to verbalize or write as well as understand the purpose of the text. They also have to identify what the author is try- ing to answer, which involves understanding the question the author is asking, as well as fig- uring out that the text was written in such a way as to provide those answers. Notice that this sample performance task is built around a text exemplar, which means that teachers can change the content used to teach these skills. Teachers may use other content, or text selec- tions, to teach the skill of identifying the purpose of a text and what the author was attempt- ing to explain.

Understanding the standards is complex work that requires a deep understanding of the skills, the content applied to the skills, and learner development. Acquiring this understanding can take a great amount of teacher study and skill and usually requires further professional devel- opment. However, one must start somewhere. The following is a method for beginning to understand and unpack the standards.

Take the standard and highlight key words and phrases as follows:

• Highlight or circle the verbs, or what the student will do. • Highlight (in a different color) or underline the nouns, or what the students

will know. • Determine the concepts, or what students need to know. • Determine the skills, or what students need to do.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

View the following video clip from the Teaching Channel: Think Alouds: Unpacking the Standards: https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/understanding-the-common-core -standards

In what ways could you use the sample performance tasks explained in this video to help you understand the standards?

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https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/understanding-the-common-core-standards

Students will need to know the following concepts: • What is meant by whole-number side lengths of a rectangle. • A rectangle is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. • Area is the quantity expressing the two-dimensional size of a defined surface. • The area of a plane figure refers to the number of square units the figure covers.

Students will do the following skills: • Find the area: Calculate by using the side lengths. • Tiling: Fill the area of a flat space with individual unit tiles (of equal length and width). • Show: Demonstrate or prove through mathematical methods (in this case, mul tiplication). • Compare the resul ts obtained from each method of finding the area.

Standard: Find the area of a rectangle with whole-number side lengths by tiling it, and show that the area is the same as would be found by mul tiplying the side lengths. (MCC3.MD.7) What are the verbs? Find, tiling, show, mul tiplying What are the nouns? Area, rectangle, side lengths

Section 3.3 The Progression From Standards to Curriculum

Figure 3.2 is an example of unpacking a standard.

Unpacking the standards is challenging work. One advantage of using Common Core Stan- dards, however, is that other professionals are trying to do similar work and are willing to share their ideas. When trying to determine the meaning of the standards, look at other exem- plars and assessment suggestions. Ask clarifying questions, and reflect on the core knowl- edge and skills to be learned by studying the content with other teachers. The Examples of Unpacked Standards feature box provides links to two vetted sites that provide unpacked standards and offer suggestions for instruction.

Of course, unpacking the standard is just the beginning. What follows is determining the objective of instruction, or what it looks like when students have accomplished this outcome.

Figure 3.2: Unpacking a standard ሁ To understand a standard, the teacher should understand the skills, the content applied to the

skills, and learner development.

Examples of Unpacked Standards

North Carolina Core Instructional Support Tools: Unpacking Standards: http://www .ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core-tools/#unpacking

Arizona College and Career-Ready Standards—Mathematics (Note: Select a grade-level band and then proceed to Flip Books): http://www.azed.gov/azccrs/mathstandards/

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http://www.ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core-tools/#unpacking

http://www.azed.gov/azccrs/mathstandards/

Section 3.4 Instructional Objectives

3.4 Instructional Objectives Instructional objectives outline short-term learning outcomes in precise terms. They are the tool that translates the meaning of the particular standard being addressed (an unpacked standard) into observable student behaviors. Instructional objectives are usually aligned with the content provided in a curriculum map (and/or pacing guides).

Consider this analogy. When football players enter a huddle, they have a predetermined game play in mind that is appropriate for their current situation. This play will accomplish a specific objective, such as getting a first down. The players implement a play that targets this specific objective, with the intention of achieving their broader goal—winning the game. The ability to achieve broad desired outcomes by implementing more specific objectives is not so different in educational settings. Teachers determine instructional objectives by deciding in advance what to teach (content as specified in curriculum maps and pacing guides) and anticipating student responses (learning outcomes). Designing quality instructional objectives provides teachers with a higher level of confidence; they pre-map learning outcomes and plan “reality checks” of student learning so they can use them to provide constructive feedback and direc- tion for future teaching.

Writing Instructional Objectives The process of writing measurable objectives for a lesson is a necessary skill for all teachers, novice and experienced alike. Measurable instructional objectives describe the outcomes of instruction—not necessarily the activi- ties and procedures teachers will use to produce those outcomes. Objectives help students better understand expectations and provide them with a link between expectations, engaging in activities, and grading.

Although the process of writing quality learning objectives does not guaran- tee a successful lesson (just as practice does not guarantee winning a football game), walking into a classroom with- out having desired learning outcomes in mind is a recipe for a disastrous les- son. This section will walk you through the process of developing measurable learning objectives and show how to use these objectives in lesson plan- ning. Figure 3.3 shows that if evidence of student’s learning (the arrow) hits the bull’s-eye (instructional objective), we have achieved the objective. If the arrow veers off center, then we need to reteach the content or concept.

Figure 3.3: If the arrow hits the target, the instructional objective has been accomplished

ሁ An instructional objective is achieved when the students have successfully learned the desired concepts.

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Creating

Evaluating

Analyzing

Applying

Understanding

Remembering

Judge, select, decide, justify,

debate, discuss, recommend, rate

Solve, show, use, illustrate,

complete, classify, compare, design

State, name, list, describe, label,

relate, find

Explain, interpret, compare, discuss, predict, describe, give an example

Analyze, explain, investigate, distinguish,

compare, separate

Create, invent, compose, predict,

plan, imagine, construct, design

Section 3.4 Instructional Objectives

Types of Instructional Objectives

Behaviors for educational objectives fall into three categories, or domains, which were defined by Benjamin Bloom: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). Bloom believed that after participating in a learning segment, learn- ers should have acquired new mental skills or knowledge (cognitive domain), appropriate dispositions or growth in feelings and emotions (affective domain), and/or new manual or physical skills (psychomotor domain). In K–12 education, 80 percent of instructional objec- tives fall into the cognitive domain, so we will focus on that domain.

Bloom’s Revised Cognitive Taxonomy

As you can see in Figure 3.4, Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy is hierarchical, starting from the simplest type of thinking or behavior and progressing to the most complex. Mastery at the lower levels is assumed since each of the levels builds on itself.

C O N S I D E R T H I S

We have explained the concepts in this chapter using three different analogies to explain educational outcomes: (1) a target with rings depicting educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives; (2) an explanation of instructional goals that related its components (standards, frameworks, guides, maps, and pacing) to construction practices (building codes, f loor plans, f lowcharts); and (3) a description of instructional objectives as a predetermined play in a football huddle. What other analogies come to mind in the relationship between educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives?

Figure 3.4: Cognitive domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy ሁ Each level of the taxonomy builds upon the previous levels. The top level can only be achieved

after all previous levels are mastered.

Source: This updated taxonomy is attributed to Anderson and Krathwohl. See Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Group.

Creating

Evaluating

Analyzing

Applying

Understanding

Remembering

Judge, select, decide, justify,

debate, discuss, recommend, rate

Solve, show, use, illustrate,

complete, classify, compare, design

State, name, list, describe, label,

relate, find

Explain, interpret, compare, discuss, predict, describe, give an example

Analyze, explain, investigate, distinguish,

compare, separate

Create, invent, compose, predict,

plan, imagine, construct, design

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Instructional Objectives Section 3.4

The first level, or remembering section, of Bloom’s Taxonomy, involves recall, or locating knowledge in long-term memory that is consistent with presented material. The cognitive processes used to do this are recognizing or identifying factual knowledge. Moving up a level in Bloom’s Taxonomy, the cognitive processes advance to a demonstration of understand- ing based on interpreting, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing and contrasting, or explaining. The action verbs associated with these cognitive processes include: clarify, para- phrase, illustrate, map, predict, generalize, etc. These types of verbs require that the learner reveal conceptual knowledge, a skill that goes beyond providing the factual knowledge the lowest level requires. At the next level, application, learners have the ability to use a new concept to solve or address a problem. The levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy can be summarized as follows:

• Remember—Use memory to recall facts and definitions. • Understand—Construct meaning from information. • Apply—Use procedures to carry out a task. • Analyze—Break materials into parts to determine structures and relationships. • Evaluate—Make judgments based on checking against given criteria. • Create—Put materials together to form a unique product.

The cognitive learning levels are on a continuum of cognitive complexity, so the verb choice for constructing instructional objectives is also in line with the learning hierarchy. Sample verbs for each cognitive learning level are shown in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8: Key verbs for cognitive-based instructional objectives

Key verbs for the cognitive domain

Remember • Define • Identify • List • Name

• Recall • Recognize • Record • Relate

• Repeat • Underline/Circle

Understand • Cite examples of • Demonstrate use of • Describe • Determine • Differentiate between • Discriminate • Discuss • Explain

• Express • Give in own words • Identify • Interpret • Locate • Pick • Practice • Recognize

• Report • Restate • Review • Select • Tell • Translate • Respond • Simulate

Apply • Apply • Demonstrate • Dramatize • Employ • Generalize • Illustrate

• Initiate • Interpret • Operate • Operationalize • Practice • Relate

• Schedule • Shop • Use • Utilize

(continued)

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Instructional Objectives Section 3.4

Key verbs for the cognitive domain

Analyze • Analyze • Appraise • Calculate • Categorize • Compare • Conclude • Contrast • Correlate • Criticize • Debate

• Deduce • Detect • Determine • Develop • Diagnose • Diagram • Differentiate • Distinguish • Draw conclusions • Estimate

• Examine • Experiment • Identify • Infer • Inspect • Inventory • Predict • Relate • Solve • Test

Evaluate • Appraise • Assess • Choose • Compare • Critique

• Estimate • Evaluate • Judge • Measure • Rate

• Score • Select • Test • Validate • Value

Create • Arrange • Assemble • Collect • Compose • Construct • Create • Design • Develop

• Devise • Formulate • Manage • Modify • Organize • Plan • Prepare • Produce

• Propose • Predict • Reconstruct • Set-up • Synthesize • Systematize

Source: Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Group.

Also note nonfunctional verbs, or those that cannot be measured or are redundant. Avoid these verbs when writing measurable objectives:

Table 3.8: Key verbs for cognitive-based instructional objectives (continued)

• Able to • Appreciation for • Awareness of • Capable of • Comprehend

• Conscious of • Familiar with • Has knowledge of • Knows • Learns

• Memorizes • Shows interest in • Understands • Will be able to

When applying Bloom’s Taxonomy to write measurable objectives, keep the following points in mind:

• The categories of Bloom’s Taxonomy are not meant to be mutually exclusive. • To build a learner’s critical thinking skills, move beyond the lowest cognitive levels

of remembering and understanding. • Some verbs may apply within more than one category. For example, “calculate” may

fit under either application or analysis.

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Instructional Objectives Section 3.4

Learning Outcomes: What Students Will Know, Understand, and Do (KUD) Well-written instructional objectives specify the learning outcomes, or what learners will know, understand, and be able to do at the conclusion of the learning activity. Learning out- comes describe the “intended result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself ” (Mager, 1984, p. 5).

A good, measurable objective that describes a learning outcome has five components:

• Time frame—The time frame puts parameters on the learning activity (e.g., “at the end of the library session”).

• Content—The content tells what the student will learn by the conclusion of the les- son. The content stems from the standard. Begin with nouns, or the things you want students to learn (e.g., steps of the research process).

• Behavior—The behavior tells what the student will do to show that he or she has learned. This behavior is the performance as assigned by a verb that describes an

Try It!

Use the following familiar story, “Goldilocks and the Three Bears,” as an example to match the following actions to their level of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Objective Level of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Design a timeline of the main events in the story by using a SmartArt graphic that includes a timeline layout.

Distinguish between characters in the story by identifying protagonist and antagonist and explaining why you ranked them that way.

Create a new story by placing Goldilocks and the bears in a futuristic setting.

Describe what Goldilocks first did when she entered the bears’ cottage.

Summarize the plot of the story by using digital storytelling to detail what happens to Goldilocks.

Answers: Design a timeline of the main events in the story by using a SmartArt graphic that uses a time- line layout. (Apply)

Distinguish between characters in the story by identifying protagonist and antagonist and explaining why you ranked them that way. (Analyze)

Create a new story by placing Goldilocks and the bears in a futuristic setting. (Create)

Describe what Goldilocks first did when she entered the bears’ cottage. (Remember)

Summarize the plot of the story by using digital storytelling to detail what happens to Goldilocks. (Understand)

han82148_03_c03_055-088.indd 79 3/3/15 2:58 PM

Instructional Objectives Section 3.4

observable, measurable action. Select a verb from the level of knowledge that is observable or measurable (e.g., describe the steps of the research process).

• Criterion—The criterion is quality control. This is the level of acceptable perfor- mance, the standard of mastery, or the proficiency level expected. How well will the student have to perform before you can say they have met the objective (e.g., speed, accuracy, quality, or quantity; for example, accurately describe seven steps of the research method)?

• Condition (optional)—The condition describes the circumstances, situation, or setting under which the student will perform the behavior and be evaluated (as opposed to learning condition). The condition is the method or activity in which students will demonstrate their understanding (e.g., describe the seven steps of the research process by writing an essay). This component of the objective can be put in a “by” clause at the end of the objective.

These components have been identified in the following objective:

At the conclusion of the lesson (•time frame), the learner will explain (•behavior) five phases of the water cycle (•content) in his or her own words (•criterion) by (•condition) creating a digital storytelling document.

Try It!

Identify the five basic components (time frame, content, behavior, criterion, condition) in the following instructional objectives.

After reading the story “Garden Helpers” in National Geographic Young Explorers (with prompting and support from the teacher), students demonstrate their understanding of the main idea of the text (not all bugs are bad) by retelling three key details.

Students illustrate the meaning of the key terms gravity, acceleration, cosmology, mass, and gravitational force as used in the text “Gravity in Reverse” by Neil deGrasse Tyson, using multimedia sources (pictures, drawings, or models) to support written explanations. Source: Appendix B, Common Core State Standards for ELA & Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects.

Answers: Time Frame—After reading the story “Garden Helpers” in National Geographic Young Explorers.

Content—Main idea of the text (not all bugs are bad).

Behavior—Demonstrate their understanding by retelling.

Criterion—Three key details.

Condition—With prompting and support from the teacher.

Time Frame—Assumed, after reading “Gravity in Reverse” by Neil deGrasse Tyson.

Content—Gravity, acceleration, cosmology, mass, and gravitational force.

Behavior—Illustrate the meaning of key terms.

Criterion—As used in the text.

Condition—Using multimedia sources (pictures, drawings, or models) to support written explanations.

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Instructional Objectives Section 3.4

Common Pitfalls When Writing Objectives Knowing what the most common instructional objective writing stumbling blocks are will help you navigate around them. Consider the following pitfalls.

1. The learning objective is unclear. This objective writing misstep happens when teachers focus on what content they will cover in the lesson instead of focusing on the learning outcomes the students will have because of exposure to that content. Remember that teaching should not be teacher-centered, and it should not even be student-centered; rather, teaching should be learning-centered. How will you know what you want students to learn? It is stated in your instructional objectives.

To overcome this pitfall, write the learning outcome from the student’s perspective at the end of this lesson. For example: I can identify five types of carbohydrates; I can compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

2. An assessment of understanding is not connected to the learning objective. New teachers, overwhelmed with classroom-management issues, administration tasks, and extensive content to cover, sometimes continue teaching without ever stopping to see what (if anything) students have learned. In many cases, discussion is the sole means of evaluating student thinking. While this discussion strategy is a useful formative assessment, without any tangible evidence of student learning, there is no real accountability or indication of what the students have learned. This pitfall can be tricky because teachers assume that students who are engaged in the assigned task will automatically gain the cognitive attribute intended.

To overcome this pitfall, consider using learning targets and the backward design process (Wiggins & McTighe, 2011) and begin lesson planning by “identifying desired results” (instructional objectives). Rather than beginning lesson planning with a set of topics to cover and then, after the fact, creating an assessment to match the topics, begin with the knowledge, skills, or dispositions that you want students to have and then schedule activities that will lead to these outcomes. (For more information on the backward-planning process, see Chapter 4.) Consider authentic assessment as a strat- egy so that students create a learning product that is evidenced in an active and visible process that helps students link content learned to the intended learning objectives.

3. Failure to use a measureable action verb. Too often, educators will use verbs such as “understand,” “gain knowledge of,” or “learn” as the verb of the educational objective. (For instance, “The learner will understand the water cycle.”) Understand is just too vague, and it is very difficult to measure or discriminate between levels of understanding. Instead, use a verb from Bloom’s Taxonomy or the six facets (Chapter 4) to anchor the objective.

To overcome this pitfall, use the action verbs provided with Bloom’s Taxonomy for cognitive learning. These verbs are specific, measurable, and organized from the simplest level for demonstration of learning to the most complex.

4. Failure to list the degree of learning required for mastery. If a criterion is not set for mastery, how will you know when the learner has met the objective? What is “good enough”? What level does the learner have to reach to suc- ceed in attaining an objective (hitting the bull’s-eye)?

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Section 3.5 Cases From the Classroom

From the Desk of: Travis

October 15

Hello Dr. Z.—

Your questions this week relate to how we use educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives in our teaching. As you know—I have two sections of English I and one section of English II, even though I was hired as a 9th grade English teacher. Figuring this out for three sections, two different courses and 90 total students is challenging—and I need all the help and resources I can get. So, here is how it works for me this year. I will give the English II (10th grade) class as an example.

First, I use the curriculum map provided by the district. This document outlines the units of study for each quarter, the required as well as suggested readings, performance assessments, and the standards. I use this document to identify potential readings, and then organize the nine weeks according to how long I think each text will take. For example, in the curriculum map for the second unit of this quarter, we have one extended text (our English department at THS chose Kindred by Octavia Butler), and a choice of shorter texts. This makes it sound like I plan from the texts first instead of from the standards, but actually, I go back and forth between the two. I look at the standards that will be assessed in the unit, I try to understand what that standard means for my students, and then look at the suggested text selections to see which seems to fit with the standards and which texts would help the students get to those instructional goals. The curriculum team from the district office provided an unpacking document that explains each standard at each grade level for us to use, and that is a big help.

But I also have to think about my students when “unpacking” the standard, like where they are in their skill levels, what about the standard may be difficult for them, and what texts might interest them the most. And then I go looking for resources and ideas. I found an online unit on The Gettysburg Address, and since students in the 9th and 10th grade are also required to read “U.S. documents of historical and literary significance” (Standard RI.9-10.9), this was a good fit. While the online unit was very well-developed and tied to the current standards as goals, I still had to develop a number of instructional objectives for each section, to keep me as well as the students on track. For example, the writing standards addressed in this unit (Standard W.9-10.9) emphasize writing frequently with short focused projects. While a larger instruc- tional objective for the unit was for students to write an analytical essay on their understand- ing of The Gettysburg Address, they were to accomplish this culminating skill by paraphrasing sections of the address to demonstrate their understanding of its meaning, first after an initial, independent reading, and then after discussions in class. So these were like sub-objectives, or instructional objectives that we could accomplish during one or two classes. So one objec- tive that I wrote for a class session was this: After participating in a class discussion, stu- dents will paraphrase the first paragraph of The Gettysburg Address, using 2–4 sentences to express their understanding of the context that Lincoln chose for framing the beginning of the speech. Actually, this is a complex unit and there are a number of objectives—relating

(continued)

To overcome this pitfall, consider how a rubric is organized (see Chapter 10) into categories that discriminate levels of mastery; for example, below expectations, meets expectations, and exceeds expectations. Build this same degree of mastery into an instructional objective to define a minimum level of mastery. This approach helps learners make connections between the objective of the lesson and their level of performance.

3.5 Cases From the Classroom

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Section 3.5 Cases From the Classroom

to close reading, vocabulary, inferences, and showing evidence for statements. I am getting a little faster at writing them—they were hard for me to do at first.

So how am I doing? Surviving! But not yet thriving. I still have to get a handle on grading papers. The standards and curriculum documents recommend frequent, almost daily, writ- ing tasks. But I figured that if I gave every student’s paper 5 minutes of my time, I would be spending 7.5 hours of work per day after school—impossible! Not only that, I am beginning to resent spending weekends grading papers. I miss the exercise and long bike rides I used to do before I began teaching. So I am trying to get organized to teach the students self-checks and get to where I can do quick checks—but some of my students need quite a bit of guidance. Any advice or suggestions you can throw my way would be most appreciated.

—Travis Note: For online examples of documents Travis referred to, visit the following sites:

Example of a curriculum map for English II from the Chicago Public Schools: http://www.cps.edu/commoncore /Documents/Toolset_Tenth_Grade_v1.0.pdf

A collection of curriculum resources from the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction: http://www.live binders.com/play/play/297779

Common Core Unit: A close reading of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address: http://www.parcconline.org/sites/parcc/files /High-School-Exemplar-Lincoln-Gettysburg-Address.pdf

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

October 15

It is now towards the end of the first quarter, and the realities of the classroom are beginning to set in for these first-year teachers. In their weekly posts, most are revealing an emerging understanding of the complexity of the job, not just in delivering instruction but in figur- ing out the curriculum, and staying ahead of curriculum content this first time through. Emotionally, however, I am beginning to detect that some of the initial enthusiasm is gone, and that they are in survival mode. Melanie (kindergarten) reports that she has had to impose a strict early bedtime for herself; Ingrid (5th grade) is struggling to keep up with the curricu- lum, despite the excellent mentoring she is receiving. Travis (HS English) is very well orga- nized, but is trying to get a handle on how he can fully respond to the writing assignments for every one of his 90 students and still have time for himself. These are typical stages for first- year teachers (Moir, 1999). I continue to hope that this mentoring project will give them the support that they need to develop professionally.

During this month, I have asked the teachers to respond to the following questions related to curriculum:

1. How do you decide what to teach and when? What resources do you use to arrive at these decisions?

2. How do educational goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives fit together? The task seems overwhelming; what resources do you use to align goals and objectives?

3. How do you develop instructional objectives?

From the Desk of: Travis (continued)

(continued)

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http://www.cps.edu/commoncore/Documents/Toolset_Tenth_Grade_v1.0.pdf

http://www.livebinders.com/play/play/297779

http://www.parcconline.org/sites/parcc/files/High-School-Exemplar-Lincoln-Gettysburg-Address.pdf

Section 3.5 Cases From the Classroom

From the comments I am getting from these beginning teachers, most are relying heavily on the curriculum maps and guides provided by their state and the district. All cite reaping the benefit of the last several years of planning that district teachers went through in revising the curriculum to meet the new standards. Implementation, however, is still a work in progress.

For example, while many districts provide unpacking documents for the standards for each grade level, they are not always coordinated with the chosen content. In schools and districts where the guidance and planning is very detailed (see, for example, the Literacy Content Framework from the Chicago Public Schools at http://www.cps.edu/commoncore /Documents/LiteracyContentFramework.pdf ), a summative instructional objective is often suggested. But, teachers still need to develop unit and lesson objectives.

Travis’ post this week illustrates this point. He was following the tenth grade curriculum map for Quarter 1, unit 2, as recommended by the district. In order to address the standards for the unit, one of the suggested readings was The Gettysburg Address. He was able to find a fully developed unit on this material and implement it over the course of one week. Even so, he still had to modify the unit, translating it into smaller instructional objectives that described the intended student learning for each section.

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz (continued)

Discussion Questions

1. The unit that Travis selected addresses a number of ELA standards, one of which addresses the acquisition of vocabulary, as illustrated by the following anchor standard from Table 3.5.

Find the grade 9–10 standard for this anchor standard by vising the Common Core Standards website (www.corestandards.org). Using the context of The Gettysburg Address, unpack one aspect of this standard, and write one instructional objective.

2. Appendix B of the Common Core provides exemplar texts for ELA or Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. Select one exemplar text from a grade band of your choosing. Unpack one standard from that grade level, and write an instructional objective that includes a reference to the selected exem- plar text. Use the following resources.

Appendix B: Text Exemplars and Sample Performance Tasks: http://www .corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_B.pdf

Sample unpacking documents that guide student performance for each grade level: http://www.ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core-tools/

3. One of the purported advantages of the Common Core Standards is that states, dis- tricts, and individual teachers can develop and share ideas and materials based on a common set of assumptions about the skills students are to learn at each level. What additional information can you find that supports (or refutes) this notion? Find at least two examples (or non-examples).

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http://www.cps.edu/commoncore/Documents/LiteracyContentFramework.pdf

www.corestandards.org

http://www.corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_B.pdf

http://www.ncpublicschools.org/acre/standards/common-core-tools/

Summary & Resources

arguments Writing that supports a claim using reasoning and evidence.

cluster A group of related mathematical content standards that describe related aspects of a domain.

coherence How ideas fit together and logically flow. The mathematics and science standards have concepts that come together over time in one unified idea.

College and Career Readiness standards (CCR) Anchor standards defining 32 broad competencies that form the basis for ELA literacy expectations across kindergarten through 12th grade.

crosscutting concepts A dimension of the NGSS that have applications across all sci- ence content areas.

curriculum frameworks Documents that specify what is to be taught for each subject.

curriculum guides Guides that document school districts’ decisions on how the cur- riculum should be organized across grades and subjects, and on methods, materials, and evaluation activities.

curriculum maps Provide an overall vision of a semester or year in large chunks.

domains The big ideas in mathematics that connect standards across grade levels.

domain specific Words that are specific to content areas.

educational goals The broadest way to express educational outcomes.

focus Greater mastery of fewer things, spending more time to teach to mastery of important concepts in a logical structure with multiple connections.

foundational skills Those elements of the ELA standards K–5 that that foster students’ working knowledge of concepts of print, alphabetic principle, phonics and word rec- ognition, and fluency.

general academic Words are those used in academic writing but seldom used in infor- mal speech.

informative texts Form of writing that is used to convey an idea.

instructional goal The statement that describes what learners should be able to demonstrate as a result of instruction.

instructional objective A specific, measur- able outcome of learning.

Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary

This chapter described how teachers can operationalize educational outcomes into curricu- lum. Educational goals are those broad statements that a society or community agrees are important for their youth to develop. They include global areas such as critical thinking, col- laboration, creativity, and personal responsibility, but are typically devoid of specific content. Instructional goals are statements of student outcomes in specific subject areas and for spe- cific grade levels. Standards inform most instructional goals, and for the majority of states in the United States, the CCSS in ELA and Math and the Next Generation Science Standards inform the curriculum. The curriculum builds progressively from the standards to curriculum frameworks, curriculum guides, maps, and pacing. For the standards to be useful for teachers, they must be unpacked, or analyzed for their meaning and component skills. Instructional objectives are the tools for aligning unpacked standards with the curriculum content because they specify what students should know, understand, and do in small progressive steps.

Key Terms

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Summary & Resources

Key Ideas

1. Educational outcomes can be stated at three different levels of specificity: educa- tional goals, instructional goals, and instructional objectives.

2. Educational goals define general expectations of schooling. 3. Instructional goals describe learning outcomes and are based on academic content

standards. 4. Most states have adopted the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) in English/

Language Arts and Math as the basis for their instructional goals. Many states have also adopted the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS); their adoption in other states is currently in process.

5. The CCSS and NGSS state educational outcomes for each grade level. They do not specify methods, materials, or evaluation.

6. Curriculum is the set of plans that describe instructional content, methods, materi- als, resources, and evaluation methods for attaining the instructional goals.

7. Curriculum frameworks, guides, maps, and pacing guides outline how the curricu- lum is organized.

8. To operationalize the standards, they must be unpacked, specifying what students must know and do to accomplish that particular outcome.

9. Instructional objectives specifically define the learning outcomes that result from classroom instruction.

10. Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive learning provides a means of assigning hierarchical learning performances (verbs) for assessment collecting.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Why might it be difficult to design instruction based just on educational goals? 2. The ELA foundational skills are specified for grades K–5, but not beyond. What mes-

sage does this limit send to teachers and to students? 3. What are the advantages of using a common set of standards when determining

instructional goals?

narrative texts Forms of writing that con- vey experiences or events.

Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) Disciplinary core ideas in physical science, life science, earth and space science, and engineering, technology, and scientific applications.

pacing guides Guides that align units of study, standards, objectives, and materials to the school calendar.

Standards for Mathematical Content Standards that describe procedural skills and conceptual understandings that stu- dents are expected to know and do as a result of K–12 mathematical study.

Standards for Mathematical Prac- tice Eight statements that describe pro- cesses students use to engage with the content of mathematics from kindergarten through high school years.

unpacking Understanding what each stan- dard means in terms of what students must know and be able to do.

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Summary & Resources

4. How does the process of unpacking a standard contribute to the development of instructional objectives?

5. What happens when an instructional objective is teacher-focused and the attention is centered on the teaching activity?

6. Respond to this statement: “Students who are not well informed about learning out- come criteria are placed in a no-win situation.”

Additional Resources

Readings

Marzano, R. (2011). Objectives that students understand. Educational Leadership, 68(8), 86–87.

Timperley, H., & Parr, J. (2009). What is this lesson about? Instructional processes and stu- dent understandings in writing classrooms. Curriculum Journal, 20(1), 43–60.

Websites

ABCD Method of Writing Instructional Objectives: This website provides answers the ques- tion “What do we want learners to know as a result of instruction?” and discusses how to design, evaluate, and redesign programs. http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=6b9ahqnC8Xc

Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback: Classroom Instruction that Works (from MCREL): This site provides effective strategies to increase student achievement, using updated research behind the nine strategies. http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=yZJGcnYAOPs

Creating Learning Objectives: This presentation shows how to construct appropriate learn- ing objectives using the SMART process and Bloom’s Taxonomy in developing suc- cessful lesson plans. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_woMKwBxhwU

Think Alouds: Unpacking the Standards: In this series, Sarah Brown Wessling explains the Common Core State Standards and offers insights in how to implement them. https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/understanding-the-common-core -standards

The Importance of Mathematical Practices: The Hunt Institute: This website presents pro- cesses and proficiencies for Standards for Mathematical Practice, habits of mind of the mathematically proficient student, a description of modeling, and applications for mathematics outside the math classroom. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =m1rxkW8ucAI&list=UUF0pa3nE3aZAfBMT8pqM5PA

Common Core State Standards for ELA and Literacy: An Introduction From the Teaching Channel: This website introduces the new Common Core State Standards, including background on the design process, key features, and major differences. http://www .youtube.com/watch?v=RmLElb7yHDU

Unpacking Common Core Standards: This website provides tools to unpack the ELA Com- mon Core Standards. http://www.middleweb.com/11235/solving-ela-ccss-puzzle/

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6b9ahqnC8Xc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZJGcnYAOPs

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_woMKwBxhwU

https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/understanding-the-common-core-standards

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1rxkW8ucAI&list=UUF0pa3nE3aZAfBMT8pqM5PA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmLElb7yHDU

http://www.middleweb.com/11235/solving-ela-ccss-puzzle/

Summary & Resources

The Helpful Hundred: This website provides a list of 100 observable and measurable verbs that are suitable for writing instructional objectives. This list was developed by Smaldino, Lowther, & Russell in 2008. http://www.niu.edu/facdev/programs /handouts/blooms.shtml

SMART Objectives: This website provides suggestions for writing SMART objectives from the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL). http://www.ala .org/acrl/aboutacrl/directoryofleadership/sections/is/iswebsite/projpubs /smartobjectives/suggestionssmartobjectivess

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http://www.niu.edu/facdev/programs/handouts/blooms.shtml

http://www.ala.org/acrl/aboutacrl/directoryofleadership/sections/is/iswebsite/projpubs/smartobjectives/suggestionssmartobjectivess