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3Developmental Theories
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“In theory, theory and practice are the same. In practice, they are not.” Albert Einstein
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
ሁ Explain the importance of studying theories of child development. ሁ Identify what Freud described as the three components of an individual’s personality. ሁ Compare and contrast Freud’s and Erikson’s psychodynamic theories. ሁ Identify how children’s actions are explained based on behaviorist theory. ሁ Describe the similarities and differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories. ሁ Explain the key elements of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. ሁ Identify the principal components of what Gardner refers to as “multiple intelligences.”
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Chapter Overview
Chapter Outline Chapter Overview
3.1 Psychodynamic, Psychoanalytic, and Psychosocial Theories of Development
3.2 Behaviorist Theory
3.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
3.4 Sociocultural Theory of Development
3.5 Social Learning Theory
3.6 Maturational Theory
3.7 Attachment Theory
3.8 Systems Theories
3.9 Information Processing Theory
3.10 Multiple Intelligences Theory
3.11 Integrating and Using Developmental Theories
Summary and Resources
Chapter Overview Developmental theories provide perspectives for understanding children’s development. A theory is a framework of beliefs that is used to think about a concept or concepts. Thus, a developmental theory is a framework of beliefs that guides researchers in observing human development and behaviors and, through good research, furthers our knowledge of children. The job of research scientists is to base modern thought, thus modern theory, on past theo- ries. These modern thoughts take into consideration today’s society and environmental con- texts. They are tested through research, and if shown to hold, these ideas are organized to create a new theory. These modern theories help practitioners understand and work with families and children in more effective ways. Putting the ideas and hypotheses of theories into the work with families and children is called practice. Therefore, practice is the implemen- tation of theory or the translation of ideas and thoughts into actions. For example, an early childhood professional will want to use one or a combination of organized ideas (or theories) to understand why a child might behave the way that he or she does. Because theories are made up of certain ideas about how and why development occurs, they can help profession- als look from different perspectives to understand how or why a behavior might occur, and can help to identify different approaches to enhance, eliminate, or change behaviors in their work with that child.
This chapter includes both the fundamental theories that laid the foundation for newer theo- ries and the key contemporary theories. Included in this discussion are the psychodynamic, psychoanalytic, and psychosocial theories; behaviorist theory; Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; sociocultural theory; and social learning theory. Additionally, the key compo- nents of maturational theory, attachment theory, systems theories, information processing theory, and multiple intelligences theory are discussed.
Theories support the way we teach and interact with children, and many theories of devel- opment are relevant to improving current practices. Developmental theories tell practition- ers how development should progress and why it progresses in a particular way. However,
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Section 3.1 Psychodynamic, Psychoanalytic, and Psychosocial Theories of Development
practice does not always seem to follow any particular theory. This chapter delves into rea- sons why this may be, and identifies how theories of development can be used to help deter- mine the approach or approaches best suited for working with a child.
3.1 Psychodynamic, Psychoanalytic, and Psychosocial Theories of Development
Theories such as Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory are popular frameworks for looking at individual development of sexuality, identity, and aggression. These developmental theories also help us understand personality, emotions, inner conflicts, and other workings of the mind. They are referred to by several names, includ- ing psychodynamic, psychoanalytic, and psychosocial theories.
Theories are not developed in a vacuum. The philosophical contexts of the times are impor- tant to keep in mind. For instance, when Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed his theory of psychoanalysis, deterministic models of human behavior were popular. Deterministic models were built on the beliefs that behaviors were determined or caused by some unconscious motives; therefore, children do not learn behaviors, they just react. Freud also believed that personalities are developed by age 5 years (Freud, 1990).
Freud’s work evolved around the idea of the mind having conscious and unconscious compo- nents with parts interacting to produce the personality of an individual. Freud referred to the parts of the personality by the terms id, ego, and superego. The id is the part of the personal- ity that is inherited and contains the person’s basic impulses. It needs immediate gratifica- tion. The ego is a person’s realistic conscious self. The ego bridges the id and the superego to produce behaviors, and the ego can postpone gratification. The superego is the part of personality that provides the foundation of conscience. The conscience corresponds to the values developed by the child early in life. Generally, these values are based on those of the parents and society. Therefore, the superego judges the individual (self ), criticizes thinking and behaviors, and supports feelings of guilt (Slee, Campbell, & Spears, 2012).
In addition, Freud theorized a series of stages of psychosexual development. They begin with the oral stage, when babies suck and mouth most items, including various body parts like fin- gers and feet. The next is the anal stage, when pleasure is gained from the anus. This relates to toilet training and the use of sphincter muscles to retain or expel. Following the anal stage is the phallic stage, when a young child might masturbate or have extreme intimate feelings for parents. Later comes the latency period, when sexual instincts are repressed and quiet. Dur- ing this stage the child begins to develop family adult values. Finally, at the onset of puberty, the genital stage begins. This is when natural urges from the phallic stage return but the child has matured and internalized values that allow appropriate relationships separate from the family (Slee et al., 2012). Refer to Table 3.1 for more information regarding Freud’s psycho- sexual stages of development.
The tenets of Freud’s work are acutely limited by the lack of objective observation, and con- troversy exists regarding many of his ideas about development. However, Freud’s ideas pro- vided a perspective of human development and personality that had never been identified before his work (Winer & Anderson, 2013). Valuable even to current work in psychology and developmental psychology include the notion that psychological problems throughout life are rooted in experiences during childhood, and that individuals have internal motivations
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Section 3.1 Psychodynamic, Psychoanalytic, and Psychosocial Theories of Development
beyond what is consciously understood (Winer & Anderson, 2013). Although many develop- mental psychologists have been critical of Freud’s work, his ideas spurred a way of thinking that can be seen as an important piece of the puzzle for how we currently view an individual’s development and motivation.
Table 3.1: Freud’s stages of psychosexual development
Stage Key Behaviors Approximate Age of Occurrence
Oral stage Sucking and mouthing of objects Birth to 1 year
Anal stage Toilet training; the control of sphincter muscles during toileting
1–3 years
Phallic stage Masturbation; intimate feelings for parents 3–6 years
Latency Sexual instincts repressed; focus is on family adult values
6 years to puberty
Genital stage Sexual urges return; maturation and inter- nalization of values allows for appropriate relationships outside of the family
Puberty into adulthood
Source: Based on Freud, S. (1990). New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis (the standard edition). Complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. J. Strachey (Ed.). New York: Norton.
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was influenced significantly by Freud’s work, but a key difference was that Erikson believed in lifespan development of people. Additionally, Erikson broke from Freud’s strong emphasis on sexuality in development. He identified eight psychosocial stages of development and argued that the only way to progress to the next stage was by resolving the crisis within the current stage (Erikson, 1950). According to Erikson, the crises experienced in each stage are normal and are the result of biology and culture. The stages are trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year), autonomy versus shame and doubt (2–3 years), initiative versus guilt (4–5 years), industry versus inferiority (6 to puberty), identity versus role confusion (adolescence), intimacy versus isolation (early adulthood), generativity ver- sus stagnation (middle adulthood), and integrity versus despair (later adulthood) (Sharkey, 1997). Erikson stated that consequences, both negative and positive, derive from how each crisis is resolved. Individuals with positive resolutions had a better sense of self. See Table 3.2 for a description of the positive and negative consequences of crisis resolution in each stage.
Table 3.2: Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Stage Crisis Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Birth to 1 year Trust vs. mistrust Faith in the environ- ment and self
Wariness of others
2–3 years Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
A sense of self-control Feelings of self-doubt about independence
4–5 years Initiative vs. guilt Learning to initiate one’s own activities
Feeling guilty over needs
(continued)
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Section 3.2 Behaviorist Theory
Stage Crisis Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
6 years to puberty Industry vs. inferiority Feeling competent Feeling inferior
Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion
Forming a sense of identity
Confusion and self-doubt
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Ability to make com- mitments through intimacy
Inability to form relationships
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation
Guiding the next gen- eration and society
Concern only for self; being unproductive
Later adulthood Integrity vs. despair A sense of fulfillment and relative peace with self
A sense of gloom and hopelessness; dissatis- faction with life
Source: Based on Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Vintage.
3.2 Behaviorist Theory Early behaviorists were interested in understanding how learning operates. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) identified classical conditioning by watching dogs salivate when the sound of a bell was paired with the arrival of food. After repeated pairing of the sound with the serving of food, salivation was produced in the dog at the sound even without food. Much of the classical conditioning that occurs with children occurs through a passive association process, meaning the outcome is not intentional (Gazzaniga, Halpern, & Heatherton, 2009). A child who is con- sistently startled awake by thunder may begin to pair the emotion of fear with sleeping instead of simply with the thunder. In the classroom, a child may develop a school phobia based on, for instance, a teacher who produces anxiety in that child. In the presence of the feared teacher, the child feels anxious. With the feeling of anxiety elicited around that teacher over time, the child may feel anxious about school even when not around the feared teacher.
Other behaviorists such as B. F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner (1904–1990) looked at learning in animals. Later, in children, behav- iorists viewed the consistent implementa- tion of reinforcements and punishments as consequences of behaviors presented. Skinner (1938) referred to these principles as operant conditioning and used them to explain and to shape behaviors in animals and people. Skinner’s operant condition- ing is the foundation of behaviorist theory. Behaviorist theory is based on the idea that behavior is a result of a person’s form- ing an association between demonstrated behavior and positive or negative conse- quences, or an association between a stimu- lus and a response (Skinner, 1954). Unlike
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▶ Ivan Pavlov is best known for his work in classical conditioning. Pavlov was successful in conditioning dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the arrival of food.
Table 3.2: Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development (continued)
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Section 3.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
psychodynamic theories, behaviorist theory (also referred to as behaviorism), is not related to biological drives or inner conflicts.
Behaviorism is based on objective and concrete observations of behaviors. Although these behaviors may have originated from internal sources, they are modified through the person’s experience of consistent external stimuli and consequences. A clear conceptualization of this is Edward Thorndike’s law of effect. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are fol- lowed by satisfying consequences will be repeated, but if they are followed by unpleasant consequences they will be avoided. Therefore, consequences drive a person’s behavior by extinguishing the behavior through aversive (unpleasant) consequences, or by strengthening the behavior through satisfying consequences. For example, a parent who wants a child to complete the desired behavior of cleaning her own room could reinforce the behavior either by providing the child with a satisfying consequence (e.g., a hug, a high five, a sticker, an allow- ance) or by taking away an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping the continuous requests to clean the room). The focus on observable behavior over internal processes made behavioral theory more objective than prior theories, because it is based on observations instead of sub- jective beliefs of the inner cause of behavior.
3.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896–1980) believed that children are naturally motivated to learn. According to Piaget (1954), children pick up pieces of information, organize them, and revise what they already believe to be true. This is the foundation of his theory of constructivism. Thus we can see that this theory is based on how children build their own understanding of their experi- ences. Constructivism is based on incrementally increasing a child’s understanding and creat- ing a good balance between the current understanding of events with those experiences that are new.
Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (see Table 3.3). The first stage, the sensorimo- tor stage (which occurs approximately from birth to 2 years), describes the child as learn- ing by manipulating objects including the mouthing, sucking, and banging of items. Much learning occurs through the child’s senses during this stage. During the senso- rimotor stage, the child develops the abil- ity to understand that things still exist even when the child cannot see them, called object permanence.
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive develop- ment, the preoperational stage (approxi- mately 2–7 years of age), is sometimes broken up into the preconceptual and the intuitive substages. During this stage, the child is still influenced by the perception of the environment but is now capable of understanding basic symbolic represen- tations, in which something can stand for
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▶ Piaget’s sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to about 2 years of age. This stage includes the mouthing of objects, which helps very young children learn about their environment.
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Section 3.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
something else. For example, a wooden block can represent a telephone, with a child pre- tending to talk with the block held up to the ear. During this stage, children’s thinking is characteristic of egocentrism, in which they can see and understand things only from their own perspective.
In Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, the concrete operational stage (approxi- mately 7–11 years of age), children can apply logical reasoning, but only to concrete things that can be seen; they are not yet able to understand abstract ideas. An important concept achieved during the concrete operational stage is that of conservation. Conservation is the understanding that qualities of physical objects do not change when they are moved around or arranged differently. The concept of conservation is often represented by the fact that two different shaped containers can hold the same amount of liquid.
Finally, in the formal operational stage (approximately 11 years of age to adulthood), the indi- vidual can think about future events and abstract ideas. The individual can think about things hypothetically and can aim to solve problems in a systematic fashion.
Table 3.3: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Stage Age Range Description
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years Learning by manipulating objects, either by mouthing or by banging; senses are important; object permanence is established.
Preoperational 2–7 years Preconceptual and intuitive stage, meaning the child is influenced by the environment and understands some basic symbols; egocentrism dominates thinking.
Concrete operational 7–11 years Reasoning is applied to concrete objects and situations but not to ideas; conservation is understood.
Formal operational 11 years through adulthood
Abstract ideas and future events can be thought about; problem solving is possible.
Source: Based on Piaget, J. (1964). Cognitive development in children: Piaget, development and learning. Journal of Research in Science and Teaching, 2, 176–186.
Even with his assertion that all children go through these four stages, Piaget acknowledged the strong connection between experiences and biology. Piaget believed that environment can speed up learning (e.g., with quality child care and schools) or slow down learning (e.g., in the presence of inadequate opportunities and few enriching experiences). He believed that all children have a schema, which is a framework of knowledge that provides a model for understanding something. Over time the schema goes through a give and take with new expe- riences. When the give and take is settled, the unique understanding is integrated. For new understanding to take place, adaptation, or changes and modifications in a child’s current understanding, must occur. Adaptation consists of two components: assimilation and accom- modation. Piaget’s concept of assimilation is the integration of new information into the individual’s current understanding of environmental experiences. In contrast, the concept of accommodation is the changing of an individual’s current structure of understanding in order to make sense of a new experience. Equilibrium is a balance between what is known and understood by the child and the new information acquired through experiences. Over time, children continue to have new experiences, integrating new information and utilizing the function of equilibrium to maintain a stable understanding of their experiences.
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Section 3.4 Sociocultural Theory of Development
As an example, a child raised with a dog for a pet might consider all creatures with four legs and fur to be dogs. Any exposure to other types of dogs would allow the child to assimilate the new understanding of what a dog is into the previous understanding of what a dog is. Later, upon a visit to a zoo, a child might modify his or her current understanding that four-legged furry animals are dogs. By seeing a four-legged furry animal that is identified as a tiger (and not a dog), the child’s previous understanding of what four-legged furry animals are must change. In modifying previous understanding, accommodation takes place, as there is a new understanding that not every four-legged furry creature is a dog—sometimes it can be a tiger. Based on these concepts, children develop cognitively through their understanding of past experiences and add new information based on new experiences in their environment; they integrate new information into what was previously understood, with each new experience adding a new level of understanding.
Child development specialists who view their practice through the lens of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development would assess the current developmental levels for the children in their care and then create increasingly difficult but fun activities that build on existing skills, interests, and knowledge. There would be discussions between the adults and children that review prior comprehension about the topics and activities and then the children would be given opportunities to reflect on the new experiences that advance old information. For example, a topic that might be of interest to children in this stage is “what kind of animals make good house pets.” A discussion could expand children’s understanding of what a house could be, like an apartment, a small house, a farm, and more. It could also look at where such animals could sleep or get exercise in these homes, and the discussion could continue with an art activity of drawing or creating a cardboard model or diorama of an unusual home and pet.
3.4 Sociocultural Theory of Development Differences exist between the theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), but both theories are biologically based, they have significant social components, and both theorists take a constructivist perspec- tive of learning and development. Piaget stressed the natural side of children’s ability to construct their own thinking. By contrast, Vygotsky stressed social experiences as having a strong impact on children’s ideas. Piaget focused on the child’s internal struc- tures (schemas), and Vygotsky stressed the importance of instruction and other learn- ing opportunities in the external environ- ment (Berk & Winsler, 1995).
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is based on the idea that social interaction and chil- dren’s participation in cultural activities are necessary for healthy development. These activities must include the cultural tools of communication and other skills that guide
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▶ Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is based on the idea that children learn a skill one step at a time. To support this learning, a caregiver should provide maximum help when a child is learning a new skill, and pull back support based on the child’s success in the skill. Through this scaffolding, the child will eventually be able to accomplish the task independently.
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Section 3.5 Social Learning Theory
cognitive development (Berk & Winsler, 1995). Vygotsky saw children as learning through relationships with adults by communicating, playing, and socializing with each other. Accord- ing to Vygotsky, the observation and imitation that come with such reciprocal play will advance a child’s cognitive development. In other words, he thought that in this way children would evolve from being externally to internally regulated.
Additionally, Vygotsky argued that children learn by going a step further than their current level of competence. He called this idea the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is the difference between what a child can do independently and what can be accomplished with adult guidance. This idea is the basis for the current instructional strategy that requires the caregiver to provide maximum help to a child when the child is learning a new task. This teaching strategy is called scaffolding. As the child learns to perform the task with more independence, the caregiver intentionally reduces the amount of assistance until the child is able to complete the task independently (Vygotsky, 1986).
For example, consider a child who is playing with Legos and attempting to build a train. The caregiver watches as the child works to snap the blocks together to extend the tracks but notes that the child is having difficulty fitting the train on the tracks because they are too narrow. The adult can then take the child’s skills of Lego building to the next level by discuss- ing the problem and a solution and demonstrating what it would take to widen the tracks. These steps would help bridge the child’s current level of problem solving to the next, more advanced level.
A direct link to Vygotsky’s way of thinking is the method of teaching utilized by Maria Mon- tessori (1870–1952), an Italian medical doctor turned early childhood specialist. She was strongly influenced by the views of Vygotsky (Bodrova, 2003), as can be seen in her devel- opmental approach in which children learn by building on their natural interests. Montes- sori, like Piaget, believed children had an innate desire to learn. She also thought that chil- dren were capable of taking in a considerable amount of information from their environment if they were allowed to interact with, explore, and try real-life skills such as experiencing play kitchens, play supermarkets, and other relevant situations. She argued that children develop self-control and abstract ideas or imagination from experience with the environ- ment around them. Thus, she advocated for a “hands-on” approach to teaching young chil- dren. This includes manipulating materials and interacting with objects; exploring with all of the senses; and providing young children with order, movement, and repetition (Dasbach, 2003). Montessori also believed in grouping children in mixed ages with the same teacher for a period of 3–6 years. This multiage approach allows for children to work at their own pace, and allows younger children to learn from older children and older children to learn from teaching the younger children (Association Montessori Internationale, n.d.). In using the Montessori Method within an early care and education program, the caregiver takes on the role of preparing the environment with well-planned materials and lessons. The value of this practice can still be seen today in many early care and education programs.
3.5 Social Learning Theory Social learning theory is rooted in behaviorism but theorizes that children learn vicariously from others in social situations (Bandura, 1977) and must perform the new skill before learn- ing is complete. Social learning theory differs from traditional behaviorist theories, which up until the time of Albert Bandura (1925– ) stated that behaviors are learned as a result
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Section 3.5 Social Learning Theory
of directly experiencing consequences. Social learning theory is similar in some ways to the Montessori Method, in which children interact with their environment, and to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, in which children learn from others.
According to social learning theory, there is no need to directly experience the consequences of every behavior, so there is no need for trial and error each time a child learns a new skill. Rather, learning can be achieved “vicariously” by observing others experiencing the conse- quences. Social learning theory states that vicarious learning is also possible for learning appropriate emotional responses and is believed to occur at all ages. An example of such vicarious learning is seen when siblings learn behavior from one another. If Paul is placed in time-out for hitting Stephanie, Stephanie witnesses the consequences of hitting. These conse- quences, including her parents’ stern reprimands, the time-out, and Paul’s crying, may inhibit Stephanie from hitting in the future in order to avoid the emotional response of sadness and crying, as well as the consequences of time-out and parental disapproval.
If a child can foresee consequences of actions and modify behavior ahead of time, that child is thought to have the higher mental processes of insight and foresight (Bandura, 1971). Social learning theory explains how patterns of behavior are learned and how their practice is regu- lated by self-directed influences. First, Bandura believed that learning by direct experience is important but that children can learn by observing what happens to others as a result of their behavior, and thereby can behave based on what they see others experience. Children can act in a way that they have seen produces a desirable outcome for another individual, and they can also learn not to act in a way that has produced an outcome for another indi- vidual that they wish to avoid. Differential reinforcement, or anticipated rewards (for desir- able behavior) and punishments (for undesirable behavior), can be seen as the consequences that reduce poor behavior or enhance good behavior. Children observe or experience the consequences and receive feedback. This is what Bandura called the informative function of reinforcement and consequences. Reinforcements, or rewards, and negative consequences, or punishments, provide a wide range of information to the developing child. For example, a child experiencing or observing a punishment would not want to repeat a behavior that results in that consequence.
The consequences that occur for others promote learning through children’s observations of these behaviors and outcomes and through the modeling of certain behaviors. Modeling has four subprocesses in social learning theory: attention, retention, reproduction, and motiva- tion. For the first component, attention, to occur, children must attend to and recognize the key features of a behavior. Being exposed to a behavior is not enough, as preferences, atten- tion to detail, and opportunities for learning must be available. When children pay attention to a behavior, they must also remember it and achieve some permanence of that memory. This component of retention can occur in a variety of ways, including through mental representa- tions of the behavior, or through rehearsing the behavior mentally, verbally, or through actual performance (Bandura, 1977). For the next component, reproduction, to occur, children need to have all of the skills required to imitate the activity and then be able to put these skills together. When children try to reproduce these skills, they self-correct based on the feedback of onlookers or based on their own experience of consequences. For modeling to occur, moti- vation is also necessary, as the observation of desirable outcomes of others’ behavior leads to the modeling of that behavior, whereas the observation of undesirable outcomes leads to the inhibition of that behavior.
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Section 3.6 Maturational Theory
Based on these four subprocesses of modeling, learning may not occur if any of the com- ponents is missing. Taking into account the attention component of Bandura’s social learn- ing theory, children may fail to learn through observation based on not paying attention to the action. Based on the retention component, children may fail to learn by not adequately remembering what has occurred (Bandura, 1977). Additionally, through the reproduction component, children may fail to learn through observation based on difficulties with the motoric or physical requirements needed to reproduce the behavior. Finally, based on the motivation component, children may fail to learn by observation because of inadequate rein- forcements for the observed behaviors (Bandura, 1977).
This process of modeling does not minimize the role of experiencing reinforcements and con- sequences for learning behaviors and skills, but it indicates that simple exposure to behavior through observation is not enough. Even carefully attending to components of the behavior will not be adequate if the observation is not retained, the behavior cannot be reproduced, or the behavior is not reinforced. Therefore, in social learning theory, reinforcement is supple- mental and helpful but not the only necessary component for learning to take place.
In using social learning theory to identify how learning occurs, it is important to recognize not only how behavior is acquired but also how that behavior is regulated and maintained. For learning to be effective, children must regulate their own behavior by anticipating the consequences that have been experienced previously. Information about these consequences is received continually through what happens in the environment. The learned behavior is maintained by self-approval and self-disdain (based on internally developed standards), which are strongest when matched with external consequences.
3.6 Maturational Theory Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) was an American research psychologist who believed that babies are born with all the material needed to develop and grow successfully. Through his matu- rational theory, Gesell emphasized the genetic and biological systems as the critical basis for a child to mature enough neurologically to develop skills according to a normal schedule (Gesell & Ilg, 1949). He believed that genetics determined the timing of a child’s maturation and little could be done to change the pattern. This was in contrast to theorists who believed development was the result of forming habits.
Practitioners who adhere to maturational theory often think children need more time to grow into the competence needed for certain skills. They believe that problems of development and behavior come from within the child so that supporting a child’s learning has limited value. They would argue that given more time, a child’s development will mature to the extent pos- sible based on his or her unique genetics and biology, without intervention from practitioners or caregivers.
In his work, Gesell gathered information and data on a variety of children, detailed norma- tive behaviors and skills, and listed his findings on a timetable of development. For example, he emphasized that motor development after birth followed the cephalocaudal pattern (dis- cussed in Chapter 5), meaning from head to neck, neck to shoulders, shoulders to arms, arms to hands, and hands to fingers, and so on, and that this general pattern was difficult to alter. He created such a timetable for all developmental domains that physicians and parents could
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Section 3.7 Attachment Theory
use to follow a child’s pattern of achieving developmental milestones. These developmental stages and milestones are still used today to monitor children’s developmental progress.
3.7 Attachment Theory Attachment theory, introduced in Chapter 2, is the foundation for many social-emotional relationship interventions, therapies, and developmental understanding. According to this theory, for successful attachment to occur, an infant needs to develop a close relationship with at least one stable nurturing adult. This adult must be sensitive, responsive, and available to the child.
John Bowlby (1907–1990) had groundbreaking ideas that defined the importance of human relationships. He believed that attachment behaviors begin early in life with babies gurgling and cooing (Bowlby, 1988). These soft and pleasant noises, and early behaviors such as smiles, naturally endear the baby to adults and cause caregivers to want to be near the baby, which, of course, is important for relationships to develop. Recent studies have found that attach- ment has a biological and chemical basis through endocrine reactions at birth that promote alertness in the newborn so that the baby is receptive to touch.
As the baby develops, so does the emotion of attachment. This is observed in a tod- dler who, when experiencing fear, returns to the familiar caregiver for comfort. This person is referred to as the attachment fig- ure. It is theorized that young children use the attachment figure as their secure base for exploration, attempting new activi- ties, and learning from their surroundings. When there is no stable attachment figure or no attachment figure at all, anxiety and other mental health issues may occur. The lack of such a person is thought to produce the normal response called separation anxi- ety. Because a child’s development may be severely affected by lack of a secure attach- ment figure, it is important for parental caregivers as well as professional caregiv- ers to develop a secure relationship with a child, based on providing the child with sensitive and responsive care, allowing the child to feel that his or her needs will be met, and by becoming a safe base from which the child can explore. Establishing a close bond with a child is important not only for short-term develop- ment and mental health, but for the long term, as well.
Although Bowlby is considered the founder of attachment theory, he often collaborated with Mary Ainsworth (1913–1999), who identified the concept of a secure base. Ainsworth developed an assessment procedure that evaluates the quality of attachment in relationships between caregivers and children. This procedure is called the strange situation (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). Basically, the procedure requires that the target child be
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▶ For a secure attachment to develop between a child and a caregiver, the caregiver must be sensitive, responsive, and physically available to the child. These caregiving characteristics allow a child to feel safe, secure, and loved.
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Section 3.8 Systems Theories
observed in a room with toys while a familiar caregiver and stranger interact with each other. The caregiver then leaves the room and the child is left alone with the stranger. The assessor watches how the child reacts to the caregiver’s departure and later return, as well as how the child plays while the caregiver is out of the room. The child’s relationship with the caregiver is then categorized as secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent insecure attachment, or anxious- avoidant insecure attachment. The first of these categories is considered positive because it means that the child is securely attached to the caregiver. The second two categories are negative outcomes since the child either would be anxious and insecure about the relation- ship with the caregiver or would avoid the caregiver. Later, other developmentalists extended Ainsworth’s work, adding a fourth classification called disorganized-insecure-attachment, for which children lack an organized strategy for dealing with the caregiver’s disappearance and subsequent reappearance (Main & Soloman, 1986).
As a result of the relatively strong hold of attachment theory on the field of early childhood, most personnel preparation programs within the field focus on the importance of healthy caregiver-child relationships. These relationships are developed over time and are produced primarily by a warm, nurturing, and responsive style of caregiving in everyday activities such as bathing, playing, feeding, and toileting.
3.8 Systems Theories Systems theories describe complex conceptual frameworks of development by combining, organizing, and changing parts of past theories over time. They include dynamic and eco- logical theories that assert that a child’s development advances through interactions with simple systems and through experiences within several environmental contexts. In particular, dynamic systems theory explains how a complex skill like kicking a ball develops from simple behaviors like standing, balancing on one foot, aiming, visual coordination, and then, finally, the kick.
Ecological theories combine general systems of environment and consider the interrelation- ships of those contexts. For example, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) believed both that heredity and environment have an impact on the developing child and that diversity and cul- tural variations are important factors of influence. He proposed that all systems in which a child participates, either directly or indirectly, have an influence on the child’s development and that to understand child development the whole system of contexts must be considered (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). His ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1989) is generally represented by concentric circles to emphasize that the child is influenced by many factors, each set being in a different circle. These systems are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem (see Figure 3.1). The microsystem represents the direct interactions between the child and his or her immediate contexts, including the family, school, and peers. The mesosystem is where two or more of these microsystems are connected, such as how interactions with parents could affect how the child interacts with peers. The third circle is the exosystem, which includes people with indirect influence on the child, such as neighbors, parental work colleagues, and other services and supports to the parents. The child does not exist within the exosystem but is affected by this system through indirect means. The broadest set of influences is represented by the largest of the circles, the macrosystem, which includes cultural influences such as government, attitudes, and values. The chronosystem is made up of the historical changes that influence each of the other
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Section 3.9 Information Processing Theory
systems, including changes that occur over time for a given individual, or changes that occur over time for a given environment.
From an early care and education profes- sional’s perspective, ecological systems theory can provide a lens for viewing how influences from all environments can affect a child. For example, the microsys- tem is composed of the direct interactions between the child and his or her immedi- ate contexts, including interactions with all caregivers at home and in the child-care set- ting. The mesosystem refers to connections between the child’s microsystems, such as how the child’s relationships with his or her parents affect the child’s relationships with caregivers in the early care and education setting. Within the exosystem, the jobs held by the child’s parents may affect the devel- oping child, depending, for example, on the parents’ ability to leave work if the child is sick or to take time off for school involve- ment. The macrosystem could include how government policies affect the child, based on policies for early intervention or fund- ing for early care and education programs. In terms of the chronosystem, it is impor- tant to view all of the child’s environments as being affected by the current historical time. For instance, different types of fami- lies are seen more commonly today and views of childrearing have changed over
time. A caregiver can see that a child’s growth and development is based not just on factors that can be seen explicitly, but also on many factors that may not be considered immediately.
3.9 Information Processing Theory Information processing theory is relatively new among developmental theories and deals with brain structures; neural connectors; and the processing, storage, organization, and retrieval of information in memory and attention. Computer systems and new technology contribute to the terminology used in describing this theory, as is evident in references to the hardware of the brain and the software of the strategies and methods used to process and remember information, through both short- and long-term memory. This theory is some- times attributed to Robert Siegler, who described learning as information entering the brain from the environment through all of the senses (Siegler, 1996). According to this theory, the child processes and encodes information from all of the senses, and then the child’s mem- ory decides what to keep. Similar to Piaget’s concept of adaptation, including assimilation and accommodation, information processing theory states that internal processes manage new experiences and the memories related to those experiences by relating and adding new information to existing information.
Figure 3.1: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
ሁ Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory consists of the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. These contextual systems interact to influence an individual’s development.
Based on Santrock, J. W. (2007). Child development (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
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Section 3.10 Multiple Intelligences Theory
3.10 Multiple Intelligences Theory One of the most recent theories that has had an impact on child-care practices and the edu- cation of children in general was proposed in 1983 by a Harvard professor, Howard Gardner
(1943– ). Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences and described it in his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. He proposed that different types of intelligence make up a fundamen- tal set of intelligences in all people and that each person has a different combination of these intelligences. This well-received the- ory is avant-garde in some ways but lacks the support of research and science (see Table 3.4 for a description of these intel- ligences). Yet, Gardner’s theory has stimu- lated beliefs in the education field that are expanding on traditional understandings of “intelligence.” For example, some research- ers have identified a social-emotional intel- ligence, which is considered to be the ability to assess emotions in others and to control emotions in oneself.
Table 3.4: Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to use language effectively to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Effective writers, poets, lawyers, and public speakers are among those seen as having high linguistic intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out math- ematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. Gardner describes it as being the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Gard- ner, musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. It includes the ability to perceive the visual world in an accurate way, with the ability to alter and reconstruct visual elements without physically viewing those elements (Gardner, 1998).
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders, and counselors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
©LuminaStock/iStock/Thinkstock
▶ Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences includes musical intelligence as one type within the set of intelligences that the theory proposes.
(continued)
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Section 3.11 Integrating and Using Developmental Theories
Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears, and motivations. In Gardner’s view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves and the ability to use such information to regulate our lives (Smith, 2002, 2008).
Naturalist intelligence (added after the publication of Frames of Mind) refers to the ability to categorize and recognize elements of the natural environment (Gardner, 1998).
Existential intelligence (proposed, but not yet included in Gardner’s list of intelligences) refers to the ability to contemplate ideas about life and death (Gardner, 1998).
Source: Based on Gardner, H. (1998). A multiplicity of intelligences. Scientific American, 9(4), 19–23.
The multiple intelligences theory provides food for thought regarding how to approach teach- ing if each child has a unique make-up of intelligences. According to this theory, most indi- viduals possess various mixes of these intelligences; they have a different level of strength in each of the intelligences, and the manner in which people combine them and use them differs. Teaching children with the guidance of this theory would call for educators to accom- modate the learning styles associated with the various intelligences. These educators would focus on the favored intelligence for each student and use the mode of learning that best suits that intelligence. For example, children who have a strong sense of body awareness and who like movement and touching would benefit from interacting with materials and role playing. Children who love music and are sensitive to sounds may learn better by tapping out informa- tion or having music playing in the background. Those who are strong in interpersonal intel- ligence may prefer to work on group activities and games and on team projects.
3.11 Integrating and Using Developmental Theories The preceding sections describe many developmental theories. See Table 3.5 for a summary of those theories, the associated theorist or theorists, and the key concepts of each.
Table 3.5: Summary of developmental theories
Theory Associated Theorist(s) Key Concept(s)
Psychoanalytic theory
Sigmund Freud • The mind has conscious and unconscious components, with parts interacting to produce the personality.
• Stages of development emphasize sexuality and gratification.
Psychosocial theory
Erik Erikson • An individual needs to resolve a crisis in each of the eight stages of psychosocial development in order to progress to the next stage, with outcomes based on how each crisis is resolved.
Behaviorist theory Ivan Pavlov B. F. Skinner Edward Thorndike
• Behavior is the result of associations formed between behavior and positive and negative consequences, or the associations formed between a stimulus and a response.
• Behaviorism is based on objective and concrete observations of behavior.
Table 3.4: Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences (continued)
(continued)
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Section 3.11 Integrating and Using Developmental Theories
Theory Associated Theorist(s) Key Concept(s)
Theory of cogni- tive development
Jean Piaget • Children are naturally motivated to learn, and learning occurs by building on a previous understanding of the environment.
• The four stages of cognitive development, the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages, are based on the type of learning that takes place, from the relatively basic to the complex.
Sociocultural theory
Lev Vygotsky • Social interaction and participation in cultural activities are necessary for healthy development, and children learn through relationships with adults by communicating, playing, and socializing.
• Children learn by going a step further than their current level of competence, with a caregiver providing maximum help when children are learning initially, and reducing help as children gain more independence (i.e., scaffolding).
Social learning theory
Albert Bandura • Children learn vicariously through others in social situations, based on the consequences that others receive.
• A new skill must be performed before learning is complete (i.e., modeling)
Maturational theory
Arnold Gesell • Genetic and biological systems are the basis for the development of skills according to a normal schedule.
• Genetics determines the timing of a child’s maturation and little can be done to change the pattern of milestone achievement.
Attachment theory John Bowlby • Attachment is a close and enduring bond between a child and a caregiver.
• Based on sensitive and responsive care, a child knows that his or her needs will be met and uses the caregiver as a safe base from which to explore the environment.
• In association with attachment theory, Mary Ainsworth discussed that children can be characterized as having different types of attachment based on interactions with the primary attachment figure.
Ecological systems theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner
• All contexts in which a child participates (either directly or indirectly) have a unique influence on that child’s development.
• Different contexts, from the closest influences to the most distant influences, interact to uniquely affect a child’s development.
Information pro- cessing theory
Robert Siegler • In memory and attention, the storage, organization, and retrieval of information occurs similar to computer inputs and outputs.
• Computer systems and technology contribute to the terminology used in this theory.
Multiple intelli- gences theory
Howard Gardner • Different types of intelligence exist, with a fundamental set of intelligences for all people.
• Each individual has a unique combination of the intelligence types.
Table 3.5: Summary of developmental theories (continued)
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Section 3.11 Integrating and Using Developmental Theories
When working with children, it is helpful to use knowledge of developmental theories to view growth and behavior from one or many theoretical perspectives. Using different theoretical lenses to observe children’s development can allow for a multifaceted understanding of what is occurring. Some theories may not apply to all situations, and some theories may help to explain the situation better than others.
In viewing one’s knowledge of developmental theories as somewhat of a tool box, an early childhood professional can identify which theory or theories can best help to make sense of the current circumstances. In identifying these theories, the caregiver can identify which approaches might work best to support the growth and development of the children in his or her care, based on the unique characteristics of the situation at hand.
Let’s consider a real-world situation. In an early care and education center there was a 4-year- old boy, Brian, with aggressive behavior toward his peers and his caregiver. Brian grabbed toys and hit other children. When he was frustrated with his Legos, he threw them across the room. Brian yelled at his caregiver and refused to cooperate when she asked him to clean up for snack time. His caregiver viewed Brian’s behavior through a variety of theoretical lenses.
She viewed Brian’s behavior partly through the lens of behaviorism, seeing his behavior as the result of operant conditioning. In acting in an aggressive way, Brian might have learned that this type of behavior got him the toys and attention he wanted from peers and caregiv- ers. Because Brian’s aggressive behavior resulted in the reinforcing outcome of his getting what he wanted, this reinforcement led to an increase in the behavior. The caregiver consid- ered Thorndike’s law of effect when interacting with Brian, being sure to use reinforcement for behavior she wanted to see more of (e.g., getting a hug, a sticker, or a high five when Brian exhibited acceptable behavior), and to use a form of punishment to decrease undesired behaviors (e.g., not getting the toy when he grabbed for it, not receiving the desired attention from peers, receiving a time-out from play when he exhibited the aggressive behavior).
The caregiver also viewed Brian’s behavior through the lens of Bandura’s social learning theory, thinking that Brian might imitate the good behavior of his peers based on his seeing them being rewarded for appropriate behaviors. The caregiver made sure that Brian had the opportunity to observe the consequences his peers received for good behavior, and she was consistent with those consequences for all of Brian’s peers. By vicariously observing the out- comes of his peers’ good behavior, Brian might begin to model these good behaviors in order to gain the same rewards that his peers had received.
The caregiver also used ecological systems theory to view Brian’s behavior, understanding that all environments have an influence on a child’s development and that Brian might have learned this behavior from home or community experiences or even the media (watching television). Bandura’s social learning theory, behaviorist theory, or other forms of learning could have been at play in all of these environments to influence Brian’s development, and the caregiver sought to work with Brian’s parents to identify what was occurring in all of his environments to influence his behavior.
Finally, using an attachment theory perspective, the caregiver wondered how secure Brian’s relationships were with his parents. If Brian did not have a secure relationship with one of them, Brian’s actions could be a response to his not knowing if his needs would be met or an indication that he does not understand how to interact socially with others. Brian’s caregiver sought to identify the quality of Brian’s relationships with his parents and was prepared to give Brian’s parents information on possible parent-child relationship interventions. Brian’s
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Summary and Resources
accommodation According to Piaget, the changing of an individual’s current structure of understanding in order to make sense of a new experience.
adaptation According to Piaget, the changes and modifications a child’s current understanding must undergo for new under- standing to take place.
assimilation According to Piaget, the inte- gration of new information into an individu- al’s current understanding of environmental experiences.
behaviorist theory Theory based on the idea that behavior is a result of an individu- al’s forming an association between behav- ior and positive or negative consequences or an association between a stimulus and a response.
chronosystem According to ecological systems theory, the historical changes that influence each of the other systems, includ- ing the changes that occur over time for a given individual, or changes that occur over time for a given environment.
conservation The Piagetian concept that qualities of physical objects do not change when they are moved around or arranged differently.
constructivism Piaget’s idea that learning takes place by acquiring pieces of informa- tion, organizing them, and revising what was already believed to be true.
developmental theory The structure of beliefs that guides researchers in observing human development and behaviors. A devel- opmental theory provides perspective for understanding children’s development.
caregiver in the early care and education program made a concerted effort to establish a close relationship with Brian, making sure to be sensitive and responsive to his needs.
This early childhood caregiver used behaviorism, social learning theory, ecological systems theory, and attachment theory to make sense of Brian’s behavior. A different caregiver or professional might view Brian’s behavior through a different lens or lenses, making sense of Brian’s behavior in a different way, and might use a different approach to working with Brian and his family. Some approaches, however, have been shown to be more useful in some situations that in others, and it is important to identify the best ways in which to work with children and families.
Summary and Resources The study of developmental theories is important as a guide to working with children of all ages. No one theory explains all aspects of the complexities of child development. In addition, it is difficult to separate theorists into categories because so many theories are advanced by building on the work of each other or integrating parts of several theories. However, most of the better known theories of child development have valid points and can be applied in dif- ferent situations with different children. Researchers and others use the theories reviewed in this chapter to advance understanding of child development and to improve education and other child-care services.
Key Terms and Concepts
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Summary and Resources
ecological systems theory Bronfen- brenner’s theory that all systems in which a child participates (either directly or indirectly) have an influence on the child’s development. To understand child develop- ment, the whole system of contexts must be considered, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
ego According to Freud, the realistic, con- scious part of a personality. It bridges the id and the superego to produce behaviors.
equilibrium According to Piaget, a balance between what is known and understood by the child and the new information acquired through experiences.
exosystem In ecological systems theory, the third circle, which comes after the meso- system. It includes people with less direct influence on the child, such as neighbors, parental work colleagues, and other services and supports to the parents.
id The part of the personality that Freud described as inherited, containing a person’s basic impulses and needing gratification.
macrosystem The set of influences in the ecological system theory that is the further- most circle from the center. It includes cul- tural influences such as government, attitude, and values.
maturational theory Gesell’s theory that emphasized the genetic and biological systems as the critical basis for a child to mature enough neurologically to develop skills according to a normal schedule.
mesosystem Within Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory, the system where two or more of the microsystem contexts are connected, such as how interactions with parents could affect how the child interacts with peers.
microsystem The center circle of Bron- fenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. It represents the direct interactions between the child and his or her immediate contexts, such as family, school, and peers.
object permanence According to Piaget, the understanding that things still exist even when they cannot be seen.
practice The implementation of theory or the translation of ideas and thoughts (the- ory) into actions.
scaffolding A concept of Vygotsky; a teach- ing strategy that requires the caregiver to provide maximum guidance at the initia- tion of the child’s learning a new task with gradual reduction of the amount of assis- tance until the child is able to complete the task independently.
schema According to Piaget, a child’s frame of knowledge that provides understanding of what currently is happening.
social learning theory Rooted in behavior- ism, the theory that children learn vicari- ously through others in social situations. According to this theory, a child must per- form a new skill before learning is complete.
sociocultural theory Vygotsky’s theory based on the idea that social interaction and children’s participation in cultural activities are necessary for healthy development.
superego According to Freud, the part of one’s personality that provides the founda- tion of conscience.
theory A framework of beliefs that is used to think about a concept or concepts.
zone of proximal development (ZPD) According to Vygotsky, the distance between what a child can do independently and what can be accomplished with adult guidance.
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Summary and Resources
Discussion Questions
1. Name four concentric contexts of the ecological systems theory and list the compo- nents that made up those in your life. How influential was each circle when you were growing up? Do you believe this is the same for children now?
2. Do you believe there are multiple intelligences? If not, why? If yes, which would you consider to be the most important for career success, and why?
3. What would attachment theory indicate about the care and educational needs of a 6-year-old child who was adopted from the foster care system at age 4 years? What additional information might you need to answer this question, and why would you need it?
Web Resources
B. F. Skinner Foundation
http://www.bfskinner.org/ The B. F. Skinner Foundation promotes the science of behavior in part by making Skinner’s publications available for free or at low cost.
Jean Piaget Society: Society for the Study of Knowledge and Development
http://www.piaget.org/ This website provides information on the topic of human cognitive development.
Daily Montessori
www.dailymontessori.com This website offers practical information for parents and teachers regarding the use of the Montessori approach.
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