Religion essay

02 Hinduism A

INTRODUCTION: THE MAIN PERIODS OF HINDUISM

Before we commence our study of the five religions in depth, we need to remind ourselves that the order in which the religions are being studied in this course in no way implies any relative inferiority or superiority. There is a logic behind the order; partially geographical and partially chronological. Essentially, we will first look at the two reincarnational religions of the Far East before studying the three Abrahamic religions of the Middle East. In each of these two families, we will introduce the members in historical order. Also, in each case, we will spend some time outlining some basic facts and features of the religion before focussing specifically on those issues that pertain to women. This will help to establish a foundation on which to build and in which to locate the gender-related material.

So, we begin our adventure with Hinduism. Most current census statistics claim that there are approximately 1.1 billion Hindus in the world today. This makes Hinduism the third largest religion in terms of numbers of followers, behind Christianity (2.3 billion) and Islam (1.8 billion). However, what is noteworthy about Hinduism is that most of its followers either live on the Indian subcontinent or are people of Indian background who have migrated to other parts of the world. Unlike faiths such as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, the Hindu religion has never been particularly missionary. It does not see its role as persuading others to join its ranks or converting the world to its cause. Consequently, Hinduism is still very much linked to Indian ethnic groups wherever they may be found. Outsiders have converted to Hinduism over the centuries, especially Westerners who are attracted to the Hindu worldview, but these have never been in significantly large numbers.

The other noteworthy feature of Hinduism, which sets it apart from other major world religions, is that it does not have a historical founder. At the start of the Hindu story, there is no single person whose teachings and actions established Hinduism as a new religious movement. There is no equivalent to such figures as Moses, Buddha Gautama, Jesus of Nazareth or Muhammad in their respective traditions. This makes dating the beginning of Hinduism very tricky but most books on Hinduism locate its historical beginning during the 16th Century BCE[footnoteRef:1], when nomadic Aryan peoples from central Asia gradually subjugated the Dravidian civilisation of the Indus Valley (present-day Pakistan). According to this theory, the resultant mix of the Aryan and Dravidian cultures led to a social caste system and the composition of a new set of religious writings – the first Hindu scriptures. [1: We will be using the more neutral time reference system BCE and CE – before the Common Era and Common Era – instead of the Christian system BC and AD (before Christ and Anno Domini or “Year of the Lord”). However, the year numbers are the same in both systems.]

The Indus Valley

However, some scholars point out that those early writings mention the Saraswati River flowing with water and we know that it dried up around 1900BCE. So, some argue that these writings, and thus the beginning of Hinduism itself, should be pushed back 500 years. In either case, it means that Hinduism is arguably the oldest of the five religions that we are studying, with only Judaism in a position to challenge for that title.

There are several ways of dividing the great span of time between Hinduism’s beginnings and today but for the purposes of this course we will opt for a simple five-period subdivision. Let us then look at these five major chapters in the Hindu story and identify the main features of each as well as a quick note about the status of women in each

1. The Vedic Period (1500-500BCE)

The first period of Hinduism is usually designated as the “Vedic” period, named after the scriptures that were composed during this time: the Vedas. The term “Veda” is linked to the Latin word “video” which means “to see”. Indeed, anyone who reads the Vedas is presumed to be able to see more, that is to understand more about the world and themselves. There are actually four Vedas (hence the plural form): the Rg Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. Although there is some variation between them, they are all basically collections of hymns and formulas that were (and still are) used by the priests who preside over religious rituals. In many cases, these rituals are performed around a sacred fire and it is believed that the chanting of the sacred words of the Vedas adds to the power and efficacy of the ceremony.

A Vedic fire ceremony

If you read the Vedas, you would notice that the hymns and prayers are not addressed to a single deity; rather they are directed at many different gods. Some of the most popular gods during the Vedic Age were Indra (god of thunder), Varuna (god of law), Agni (god of fire) but there are dozens of others that are mentioned in the Vedas. Somewhat surprisingly, the well-known Hindu gods, Vishnu and Shiva, had not yet made their appearance. So, most commentators think that Hinduism was clearly polytheistic at this early stage. Also, they notice that most of the hymns and prayers are focussed on blessings in this life, with much less interest in the after-life. The Vedas also give the general impression that women enjoyed comparative freedom and reasonable status in society at that time. Many Hindu feminists today turn to this earliest stratum of Hindu history to find positive accounts of women and a stronger sense of gender equality than in later periods.

2. The Upanishads (500-200BCE)

The second major period of Hinduism is also named after the main type of literature produced in that time: the Upanishads. These works are usually attached to the end of the Vedas as a sort of appendix, but they are very different in terms of their content. Whilst the Vedas were primarily ritual-based hymns and guides, the Upanishads are essentially philosophical dialogues. Typically, there are two characters in conversation: a guru and his pupil. What they discuss is not how to conduct rituals properly but, rather, deeper existential questions such as where did we come from, where are we going and why are we here?

A typical Upanishadic dialogue between a guru and a pupil

Although they are attached to the Vedas suggesting a sort of continuation of theme, in fact many commentators see the Upanishads as a protest against the entire thrust of the Vedas. The point is that diligent ritual practice can easily become empty ritualism if the believer does not ask deeper questions about the ultimate meaning of life and death. One should not just “do” the correct thing; one should also “think” about existence. The way of the hands should be complemented by the way of the head.

If the authors of the Vedas were probably the Brahmin priests who presided over the ancient rituals, then it seems that the authors of the Upanishads were celibate ascetics who had abandoned village life for the solitude of the forest. These forest-dwellers believed that only by giving up material pleasures, such as food, drink, comfortable beds, sexual activity and so forth, could one discover true wisdom and peace. It is no coincidence that Buddhism and Jainism both originated in this period since their respective founders both came from a Hindu background and sought a higher truth in the peace and quiet of the forest.

If the Vedic hymns are dedicated to a multitude of gods, reflecting an unambiguous polytheistic worldview, the Upanishads speak more about Brahman – the One. Brahman is the Absolute, from which all things come, in which all things subsist, and to which all things will return. It is Ultimate Reality itself and for this reason the Upanishads are said to reflect a monistic rather than a polytheistic worldview. The term monistic is used instead of monotheistic because Brahman is impersonal Reality rather than a personal God - more an “it” than a “he” or “she”. The relationship between each individual person and Brahman is one of the principal themes of the Upanishads. So too is the theme of reincarnation, which is discussed for the first time in these works.

In terms of women, the Upanishads don’t say very much. The characters in the conversations are usually males and it is an interesting historical question whether women were encouraged or even allowed to become forest-dwellers in Hinduism. Moreover, when women are discussed, they tend to be seen more as a danger and threat to the celibate ascetics who must avoid the temptation to compromise their vows of sexual continence. We will discover a similar issue in the monastic traditions of Buddhism and Christianity.

3. The Classical Period (200BCE – 600CE)

The third period in Hindu history is a time when Hindu literature began to flourish and many forms of religious writings were produced. It is also the period when more recognisable Hindu gods, such as Vishnu and Shiva, began to occupy centre-stage in belief and practice. Three examples of literature from this period are: the Puranas, the Epics and the Laws of Manu.

The Puranas are extensive poems that narrate the creation of the universe and the activities of principal deities such as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Usually a purana is dedicated to one of these three main gods. Indeed, these three are often depicted in art as a trinity and assigned the roles of creator, preserver and terminator (misleadingly called “destroyer”) of the cycles of existence.

The Hindu ‘trinity’

Today, most Hindus worship either Vishnu or Shiva as the supreme god among many others. For historical reasons Brahma never attracted large numbers of followers. The Puranas also tell the stories of Vishnu’s incarnations (avatars). The term avatar literally means “descent” – the descent into our world in order to save it from some threat or calamity. Traditionally Vishnu becomes incarnate on ten occasions - sometimes in animal form; sometimes in human form. Two of his avatars are well-known: Rama and Krishna. Rama and Krishna are also key characters in the two great epics from about the same time: the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Like Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey in the Western tradition, these two marathon tales have had enormous impact on Asian art and literature.

The ten avatars of Vishnu

Finally, the same period produced many Hindu legal codes, the most famous and influential of which is called the Laws of Manu. Manu is depicted as a quasi-divine king at the dawn of history, who provides guidelines for humankind. The code contains thousands of rules and regulations based on one’s caste, sex and age. The mention of sex here – different rules for men and women - is a hint that the Laws of Manu are often quoted in feminist critiques of Hinduism as a prime example of androcentrism and patriarchy. We will be looking at pertinent verses later on, but the general picture of women painted there is one of subordination.

An English translation of the Laws of Manu

4. The Bhakti Movement (600-1800CE)

The fourth major phase of Hindu history is entitled the “Bhakti Movement”. The term “bhakti” can be translated as “heartfelt devotion”. Indeed, it is often seen as a reaction against the ritual orthopraxy of the Vedas (the way of the hands) and the cerebral orthodoxy of the Upanishads (the way of the head). Bhakti is the way of the heart – turning with loving trust to the divine and allowing your god to console and save you. It is akin to the Christian doctrine of God’s “loving grace”. The main form of literature from this period is a love-poem addressed to god, expressing the devotee’s complete surrender to the divine. A popular analogy of human’s soul’s attraction to the divine is the powerful love affair between a young Krishna (the divine prince in hiding) and Radha (the lowly cowgirl).

Krishna and Radha Andal Mirabai

The Bhakti movement was very popular among low caste Hindus and women, since both groups were often excluded from many mainstream, Brahminic rituals and literature. Consequently, many Hindu women found new avenues to express their faith and opportunities to compose popular songs and poems such as those of Andal and Mirabai.

5. The Modern Period (1800CE on)

Finally, the Modern Period is typified by the Indian struggle to obtain independence from British colonial rule and the reform of Hinduism from within by a new generation of thinkers and leaders. India finally obtained political independence in 1947 and enshrined sexual equality in its new constitution:

The Indian Constitution Article 15 (Section 3)

(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex , place of birth or any of them.

(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex , place of birth or any of them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to

(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or (b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.

(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women and children.

Although Victorian England was hardly a bastion of women’s rights, British commentators criticised many Hindu traditions as blatantly sexist and some even used this as a justification for ongoing colonial rule. In response, many Hindu thinkers began to re-examine their traditions in the light of growing concerns about women’s rights and a number of key reforms were initiated (we will look at some of these in due course). However, such changes to long-standing traditions were not universally accepted and many conservative Hindu men and women offered significant resistance.

In the material to follow, we will constantly refer to these key periods and the relevant texts that are frequently cited and analysed in discussions about women’s issues in Hinduism. The issues under consideration will be:

1. Divinity and Femininity

2. Reincarnation and Gender

3. Marriage (Women as wives)

a. Obedience

b. Child Marriage

c. Dowry

4. Motherhood (Women as mothers)

a. Fertility

b. Preference for sons

c. Menstruation

d. Birth

5. Students and Teachers

6. Ritual Roles

7. Ascetics & Saints

DIVINITY & FEMININITY

The first key issue to be dealt with for each religion is whether femininity is acknowledged to be a valid aspect of divinity. In other words, to what extent does each religion believe that God or the gods are feminine as well as masculine? In the case of Hinduism, we actually find one of the most explicit expressions of the divine feminine across the five religions under scrutiny.

Although most of the Vedic hymns are addressed to male gods, there are a small number that are directed at female deities such as the goddesses of dawn (Ushas), speech (Vak), power (Sri), wealth (Lakshmi) and wisdom (Saraswati). Moreover, the male gods that are the subject of the majority of the Vedas usually have female partners. For example, the most popular Vedic god, Indra (god of thunder) is accompanied by the feminine Indrani. Similarly, the new gods that became prominent in the classical period - Shiva and Vishnu – are not without a feminine side. In fact, Hindu art has sometimes depicted each of them in hermaphroditic form. As indicated by the two images below, the right side of the image is typically male (passivity) whereas the left side is female (activity). This is somewhat counter-intuitive to Western thinking which tends to equate masculinity with activity and the rational left-side of the brain, whilst the femininity is usually linked to passivity and the intuitive right-side of brain.

Hermaphroditic forms of Shiva and Vishnu respectively

Even when the classical gods are depicted in masculine form (and this is the norm), they are understood to have feminine partners. Thus, Brahma’s consort is Saraswati (goddess of art and literature), Vishnu’s consort is Lakshmi (goddess of wealth), and Shiva’s consort is Parvati (goddess of power). Just as the three male gods often appear together as a trio, so too are their three female partners, as in the image below. On the left, Lakshmi drops coins; in the middle, Parvati holds a sword and bow; and on the right Saraswati carries a musical instrument.

The three principal goddesses of classical Hinduism

The classical period also speaks of the avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu, when the god takes animal or human form to save the world. Vishnu’s avatar is always in male form with one exception when he descended in female form as Mohini, who fooled the demons and returned the elixir of mortality to the gods (nb. Mohini is not listed among the traditional ten avatars). However, his two most famous avatars both have female companions. Sita is the faithful wife of Rama and Radha is the passionate lover of Krishna, and both of them are considered to be incarnations of Lakshmi. So, both genders are represented not only by the divine couples in the heavens but also by the incarnate human couples on earth.

Rama and his wife, Sita Krishna and his lover, Radha

Apart from the main Hindu schools dedicated to the male gods Vishnu and Shiva, there are two other important Hindu denominations that we should note. First there is the Shakti school, which recognises the Mother Goddess as principal deity. The term ‘shakti’ can be translated as ‘energy’ or ‘life force’ and it is said to pervade all things. Sometimes the Mother Goddess is identified with this energy and the term “Shakti” is actually used as one of her names. In one tradition, she is the creator of the universe but at a later stage, Shiva takes her place as chief god, in a similar way to the story of Gaia and Zeus. The Mother Goddess is also manifest as Durga – a powerful goddess who was fashioned by the gods to battle a buffalo demon (see video later). Images of Durga depict her riding a lion, carrying weapons in her ten arms and striking down the buffalo king. The legends also tell of how Durga herself gives rise to another even more fearsome form of the Mother Goddess, known as Kali.

Durga and Kali

According to the story, a new demon king rose to threaten the world but every time Durga struck him, the drops of his blood grew into a new demon and she found herself surrounded by hundreds of clones. Her anger and desperation combine to produce Kali whose untamed fury obliterates the many demons and saves the world. Kali is often depicted as a bloody warrior, with wild eyes and extended tongue, holding the decapitated head of the vanquished enemy. It is said that her fury was only calmed when she stood on Shiva, as seen in the icon above.

The other major Hindu school is known as the Advaita. Founded by the philosopher saint Shankara in the 9th Century CE, it recovers the Upanishadic idea that there is only one Absolute Reality – Brahman – and in that reality all gender distinctions are dissolved and are no longer relevant. Even the gods and goddesses are but temporary manifestations of the One. We shall return to this idea when we investigate the monotheistic religions’ ideas of a single, transcendent personal God beyond gender.

So, it is fair to say that Hinduism explicitly acknowledges the presence of both the masculine and the feminine in its concepts of divinity. This is important because it implies that women as well as men are reflections of the divine. However, many commentators have noted how this inclusive idea of divinity has often not been translated into egalitarian practice in human society. Sadly, much of Hindu history is characterised by androcentrism and patriarchy. As one commentator states: “A woman’s appreciation of her husband as god was more central to her daily religious life than her husband seeing her as goddess” (Katherine Young in Sharma A., Women in World Religions).

Video When God was a Girl: Durga and Kali

Watch this video and keep an ear and eye open for the following elements:

1. Kamakhya Temple

2. The Buffalo King story

3. The sacrificial ritual

4. Dr Nilima’s comments re Brahmins

5. Shakti

6. The temple’s secret chamber

7. Kali’s origin

8. Professor Madhu Khanna’s comments

9. The Durga Puja festival

10. The comments of the hostess in the taxi

11. Actions involving the statue

12. Bettany Hughes’ final comments

REINCARNATION AND GENDER

One of the distinctive features of the Hindu worldview is its cyclic nature. In this model of human existence, first discussed in the Upanishads, the current life that you and I are living now is not our only life. Hinduism believes that we have had earlier lives before this one and that we will probably have other lives after this one. All beings undergo this process of birth, death and rebirth many hundreds or even thousands of times. The term for this is ‘samsara’, which is usually translated as reincarnation. We are literally “re-enfleshed” in new form after each physical death. Usually there is no memory of our previous lives although it is said that those very advanced in meditation practices are able to recollect several of their earlier reincarnations.

Things can also vary considerably from reincarnation to reincarnation. In some of our lives we will be human; in others we may be an animal or spirit or god-like being. In some lives we will be high caste and in other lives we will be low caste. In some lives we will be male and in other lives we may be female. Each time, what determines the species, caste and gender - indeed all of our physical, psychological and social traits - is the law of karma. This is not some decree from an external creator God but, rather, it is an innate law of nature. Our thoughts and actions in each life generate good or bad karma which results in a better or worse situation in the next reincarnation.

Although it may seem like good news that we will have many opportunities to live in this world over and over again, the deeper Hindu hope is to stop the reincarnational process. Hindus want to get off the samsaric wheel and achieve a state of ultimate liberation called moksha. It means that the individual will no longer be reincarnated and, in some models, one is absorbed back into Brahman.

A dying person and possible reincarnated states

How is this related to issues concerning sex and gender? Well, first, we should note that in moksha there is no longer any sexual differentiation. Whatever moksha is, it is believed to transcend the temporary state of being male or female. These categories are no longer relevant. However, sex is a very relevant factor along the way. It is the law of karma that determines one’s species, caste and sex each time and, indeed, there is a presumption in the tradition that being male is “better” or “more advanced” than being female, just as being a human is better than being an animal or belonging to a high caste is better than being in a low caste. These are the ways in which karma promotes or demotes spirits on their epic journey to moksha. So, it looks as if the samsaric model is prejudiced towards the male over the female, although some commentators have noted that the model itself dilutes the sexism implied in it. This is because it teaches that most if not all beings will be male and female at different times on their journey, just as we will all be human or animal, high or low caste at certain points as well. So, you might say that the samsaric model is prejudiced against womanhood or femininity as a temporary state of being, rather than against actual women. The typical Hindu response to accusations of sexism would be: Essentially you are neither male nor female but simply a being on the way to moksha. Your previous life has led you to be a woman in this life. Now just focus on being a dutiful woman, build up good karma, and hopefully you will be reincarnated in male form next time. What do you think?

MARRIAGE

We now turn our attention to one of the major practical issues for women across all five religions: marriage. In other words, how does each religion view the institution of marriage and, in particular, how does it envisage the role and duties of a wife. (We will look at the role and duties of a mother later).

In general, Hinduism puts a lot of emphasis on marriage. According to the mainstream schools, there are four stages (ashramas) in a human life:

1. Student (youth)

2. Householder (young adulthood)

3. Forest-dweller (senior years)

4. Ascetic (senior years)

In each stage there are duties to be fulfilled that will result in good karma and an improved state in the next reincarnated life. In the later stages, the ideal is to leave home for the forest and dedicate one’s time to prayer, fasting, sexual abstinence and meditation, at least for men. In the householder stage, however, men and women are strongly encouraged to marry and have children. The wedding ceremony itself is a special life-cycle ritual (samskara), potentially bringing an abundance of good karma. For women in particular it is usually the most important religious event in her life. Even today, Hindu weddings are lavish affairs in which the bride and groom are dressed and adorned like gods.

So how has Hinduism understood the role of a wife and what are some of the main areas of concern for feminists? In this lecture we will look at three key issues often discussed in this context:

1. Spousal obedience

2. Child Marriage

3. Dowry Problems

1. Spousal Obedience

The Vedas do not contain much information about married life but there are some hints that women were considered to be auspicious and there may even have been a degree of equality between spouses. One often quoted verse from the Rg Veda (8.31) says:

O Gods, with constant draught of milk, husband and wife with one accord Press out and wash the Soma juice. They gain sufficient food: they come united to the sacred grass, and never do they fail in strength.

The references are to offerings of milk, sacred juice and grass, and the implication is that a husband and wife probably worshipped together as equals in this ceremony.

There are also tantalizing hints in a famous Vedic hymn (Rg Veda 10.85) that a wife had a reasonable amount of authority in her home. She is described as the mistress of the house who addresses a gathering:

Go to the house to be the household's mistress and speak as lady to thy gathered people. Happy be thou and prosper with thy children here: be vigilant to rule thy household in this home.

She has authority over her in-laws (not something that was common in later times):

Over thy husband's father and thy husband's mother bear full sway; over the sister of thy lord, over his brothers rule supreme.

Yet the same hymn still refers to her husband as her “lord”:

Closely unite thy body with this man, thy lord. So, shall ye, full of years, address your company.

When we turn to the Laws of Manu, the situation is much more explicit. There are some positive verses that call upon men to honour the women in their lives:

Women must be honoured and adorned by their fathers, brothers, husbands, and brothers-in-law, who desire (their own) welfare. Where women are honoured, there the gods are pleased; but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards. (Laws of Manu 3.55-56)

However, chapters 5 and 9 of the Laws of Manu contain some of the most controversial and explosive statements regarding the status of women in all of Hinduism:

By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house. In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent. (Laws of Manu 5.147-148)

Day and night women must be kept in dependence by the males, and, if they attach themselves to sensual enjoyments, they must be kept under one's control. Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in youth, and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence (Laws of Manu 9.2-3).

The insistence of Manu on a wife’s unquestioning obedience to her husband is repeated many times such as in these verses:

5.151. Him to whom her father may give her, or her brother with the father's permission, she shall obey as long as he lives, and when he is dead, she must not insult (his memory).

Moreover, Manu explains that this obedience must be offered to the husband even when he is morally flawed:

5.154. Though destitute of virtue, or seeking pleasure (elsewhere), or devoid of good qualities, (yet) a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife.

The extent of her obedience and subordination to a husband, irrespective of his moral character, is spelled out in more detail in chapter 9 when Manu states:

9.78. She who shows disrespect to (a husband) who is addicted to (some evil) passion, is a drunkard, or diseased, shall be deserted for three months (and be) deprived of her ornaments and furniture.

Manu goes on to admit that there are some grounds for a wife legitimately disobeying her husband but these are rare:

9.79. But she who shows aversion towards a mad or outcast (husband), a eunuch, one destitute of manly strength, or one afflicted with such diseases as punish crimes, shall neither be cast off nor be deprived of her property.

In order to reinforce the authority of the husband over the wife, Manu insists that a woman could only marry a man from the same caste or higher. Conversely a man must marry a woman from the same caste or lower. In other words, the husband should not be from an inferior caste:

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3.13. It is declared that a Shudra woman alone be the wife of a Shudra; she and one of his own caste as the wives of a Vaishya: those two and one of his own caste as the wives of a Kshatria; those three and one of his own caste as the wives of a Brahmin

(Note: Brahmin = priestly; Kshatriya = warrior; Vaishya = merchant; Shudra = servant)

Such verses eventually led to the idea of ‘pativrata’ (“husband vow”). This meant that a Hindu wife should treat her husband with the same sort of unquestioning, faithful devotion that she would offer to her god. But there is nothing about the converse, ie a husband adoring his wife like a goddess. Indeed, the living out of pativrata was considered a form of worship on her part and one that would earn her much good karma. It was even seen as the equivalent of an older man going to the forest for the last of the life stages. The literary example usually held up as the model for such spousal loyalty was Sita, the wife of Rama, who stood by her man in every circumstance, even when he wrongly accused her of infidelity and had her banished.

2. Child Marriage

The second key issue concerning the status of wives in Hinduism touches on the age at which girls have been traditionally married. Historically, most Hindu marriages were arranged by the two families, and not always with the consent of the couple themselves. Indeed, the Laws of Manu gives its opinion concerning 8 different types of marriage (nb. note where it places marriage where two people have fallen in love):

1. Brahma: when the bride’s family pays a dowry (gift) to the groom - highly recommended.

2. Daiva: when a groom cannot be found and a daughter is given in marriage to a priest -recommended in the circumstances.

3. Arsha: when the groom pays a bride-price to the girl’s father – allowed.

4. Prajapatya: when no dowry or bride-price is involved – allowed.

5. Asura: when the groom is from a lower caste than the girl – disfavoured.

6. Gandharva: when the couple have fallen in love and the families do not consent – highly disfavoured.

7. Rakshasha: when a girl is abducted and forced into marriage – forbidden.

8. Paishacha: when a girl is seduced whilst sleeping or drugged or because she is disabled – forbidden.

Given the heavy traditional involvement of families in arranging marriages and selecting suitable partners, the question of the couple’s age, in particular the bride’s age, is a source of much concern. Today, according to UNICEF, a child marriage is a union in which one or more of the spouses are less than 18 years old. Such marriages are common in many cultures across the globe but the statistics indicate a conspicuously high rate in India, where, as recent as 2006, 47% of girls were married before they turn 18 and 18% before they turn 15. Given these figures, many think that Hinduism itself has had an influence here and indeed there is evidence that the Hindu tradition has condoned if not encouraged early marriage for girls.

The Vedas mention the term ‘kanya-vivaha’ - the marriage of a young, possibly pre-pubescent maiden, suggesting that it was probably a practice at that time. The Laws of Manu are even more explicit in the recommended ages for groom and bride:

A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases him, or a man of twenty-four a girl eight years of age; (Laws of Manu 9.94)

Some commentators think that the explicit age reference of “8 years” parallels Manu’s stipulation elsewhere that a high caste Brahmin boy receive his adult initiation, involving the gift of a sacred thread, when he turns eight years of age.

Apart from this text, there are other factors behind the tradition that have encouraged families to marry off their daughters at very young ages. For one thing, the younger the girl, the less dowry required and so there is financial pressure to plan early weddings if you have daughters. Given the Hindu religious duty to have children, there is also considerable pressure to maximize a girl’s fertility years by starting as early as possible. Another factor is the traditional concern to ensure that one’s daughter is a virgin when she marries - a concern that does not apply necessarily to the groom. Thus, the younger the girl marries, the less opportunity there will be to lose her virginity before her wedding day.

UNICEF and other child-welfare organizations have repeatedly pointed out the problems associated with underage marriage. Typically, the girl’s education ceases since she becomes a full-time wife and mother, primarily responsible for care of the home and the children. There are also considerable health risks to mother and children when girls fall pregnant and give birth at very young ages. Finally, there is statistical evidence that a young girl will be more likely to suffer from domestic violence. Consequently, the Indian government has attempted to address the issue on a number of occasions. In fact, there have been two important legislative initiatives in modern times. The first was the 1929 Child Marriage Restraint Act, which set the minimum legal age for marriage as 21 years for a boy and 18 years for a girl. However, the practice continued, especially in rural areas where more conservative world views prevailed. So, in 2006 the government passed the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act. Whilst the minimum ages were maintained, the change of title from “restraint” to “prohibition” indicated a greater intention to eradicate rather than just control the practice and stronger punishments were introduced. The Act specifies up to two years imprisonment for offenders, including anyone performing the wedding, any groom over 21 years of age and any parent or family member who had responsibility for the child or children at the time. The Act allows the couple to dissolve the marriage if they wish but it also protects the legal status of any children born. In addition, it provides medical and legal aid as well as counselling to those involved.

Alongside the legislative strategy, the government has also introduced a deterrence program based on financial incentives, known as Apni Beti, Apna Dhan (ABAD) (“Our Daughter, Our Wealth”). In essence, the government establishes a long-term savings fund in the daughter’s name for those who register with the scheme.

The fund is kept in trust and can be cashed in on the girl’s 18th birthday provided she is not married. The scheme began in the late 1990s and early evidence indicates that it is having an effect. Indeed, in March 2018, UNICEF announced that the under-18 marriage rate had dramatically fallen to 27%:

http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-06/child-marriage-in-india-nearly-halves-in-decade/9519504

3. Dowry

The third women’s issue associated with Hindu wives is the practice of dowry and the problems that this is generating. Technically a dowry is a gift given by the family of the bride to the groom (or his family) at the time of the wedding. The converse is usually designated as a “bride price” in which the groom provides some sort of gift to the bride (or her family) at the time of the wedding. So, both involve a gift but the difference is the direction in which it is given. In Hindu society, there are in fact both forms. Bride-price is reasonably common among low caste groups, because the wife is usually expected to work after her wedding. In contrast, dowry is the normal practice among middle and high caste Hindus.

The dowry can consist of anything of value: from cash to furniture; from jewellery to appliances and so on. Traditionally the value was negotiated between the families, and often it has been linked to the groom’s status, caste or income. A recent report stated that “90% of government employees actively seek and get a dowry from their bride's family, matching the market rates of their job”

The practice seems to have ancient roots. If you recall, the favoured form of marriage according to the Laws of Manu was an arranged marriage with a dowry payment (the first on the list of eight types mentioned earlier). Indeed, many cultures encourage the prospective bride to prepare a ‘glory box’ or collection of valuables to take to her new home and often her family contributes a significant amount of this. In traditional Hindu society this was called ‘stridhan’. However, some say that problems began when the British colonial rulers banned women from owning any property in their own right. This meant that any gift given to the couple by the bride’s family necessarily became the property of the husband. Sadly, in recent decades, abuse of the dowry tradition has increased dramatically.

Often the dowry becomes a means of extortion by which unscrupulous grooms or their families demand exorbitant dowry payments not only at the time of the wedding but on an ongoing basis afterwards. When such payments are not forthcoming, often the bride becomes victim of harassment and even physical abuse. In extreme circumstances, it has actually led to her suicide or her murder (sometimes disguised as an accident or suicide). This is the curse of the “dowry deaths” in India. In 1988, approximately 2200 deaths were due to dowry extortion or harassment. By 2015 the figure had ballooned to approximately 8000 deaths per annum (Indian Express 312/7/16), and the practice had spread beyond Hindu families into Christian, Sikh and Muslim groups. As in the case of child marriage, the Indian government has had to intervene and in 1961 the Dowry Prohibition Act was passed, forbidding anyone requesting or demanding a dowry payment as a pre-condition for marriage. The punishment was 6 months in prison or a modest fine but as the statistics above indicate, the 1961 legislation and subsequent revisions in 1976 and 1985 have not solved the problem.

Moreover, in August 2017, in response to an increasing number of false accusations by wives against husbands, the Indian Supreme Court ruled that any accusation must be substantiated by a state-based welfare committee before it can proceed further.

(to be continued in Hinduism B)