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2Understanding Learners and Learning

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Children are a nice way to start people.

—adapted from a quote by Don Harold

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

ሁ Understand the ways that learners typically develop along distinct learning pathways. ሁ Describe typical development during early and middle childhood and adolescence. ሁ Discuss the impact of individual differences in intelligence preference, gender, culture, language, and special needs on curriculum considerations.

ሁ Explain the importance of a supportive learning environment for learning success. ሁ Describe classroom and school-level systems of support that promote positive social interactions and academic success.

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Introduction

Introduction To develop curriculum effectively, teachers must know more than the content they are attempting to teach. They must also have a firm foundation about how learners grow and develop. The teaching standards further acknowledge this need. The InTASC model of core teaching standards, introduced in Chapter 1, begins with the category of learners and learn- ing. Teachers must understand ways that learners bring unique individual differences to the learning process and their needs for a supportive and safe learning environment to help them succeed. Similarly, the 21st century framework calls for systems that help teachers to identify students’ unique learning processes and create learning environments that support 21st cen- tury outcomes. See the feature box InTASC Teaching Standards Addressed in Chapter 2, which lists the standards that inform the discussion of learners and learning in this chapter. These will appear in all the remaining chapters.

I N T A S C T E A C H I N G S T A N D A R D S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 2

Standard #1: Learner Development. The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences.

Standard #2: Learning Differences. The teacher uses understanding of individual dif- ferences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high standards.

Standard #3: Learning Environments. The teacher works with others to create envi- ronments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

2 1 S T C E N T U R Y F R A M E W O R K E L E M E N T S A D D R E S S E D I N C H A P T E R 2

21st Century Learning Support Systems Professional Development. Cultivates teachers’ ability to identify students’ particular learning styles, intelligences, strengths, and weaknesses. Helps teachers develop their abil- ities to use various strategies (such as formative assessments) to reach diverse students and create environments that support differentiated teaching and learning.

Learning Environments. Creates learning practices, human support, and physical envi- ronments that will support the teaching and learning of 21st century skill outcomes.

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

The first InTASC teaching standard addresses the link between learning, development, and curriculum. Teachers must understand how learners typically develop, as well as understand the ways that developmental patterns might vary, if they are to effectively design and imple- ment appropriate and challenging curriculum. Children go through distinct developmental phases while they are growing physically, cognitively, linguistically, socially, ethically, and psychologically. Development and learning are inextricably linked in an interrelated jour- ney, each path leading toward greater understanding and further growth. In this section, we explore learning pathways and how growth in these areas progresses during the develop- mental phases of early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence.

Learning Pathways Children learn and develop across several interrelated pathways: physical, cognitive, linguis- tic, social, ethical, and psychological (Comer, Joyner, & Ben-Avie, 2004). Children develop simultaneously within each of these pathways, but not necessarily in tandem or at the same rate. For example, a child may be advanced in physical development, but less mature in social development and may need more assistance there. Furthermore, development is also shaped by variations in cultural and social contexts, and the extent to which the pathways interact with each other. The goal for teachers is to recognize these pathways for learning and use appropriate curricular activities and experiences to advance and support children’s develop- ment (Comer et al., 2004; Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, Cheung, & Comer, 2003).

Physical

The physical pathway refers to the development of the body, including the development of the brain, motor skills, and coordination. For example, brain development occurring between ages four and eight enables the comprehension of abstract symbols, making reading possible. Similarly, around this time, fine motor skills and coordination develop to the point that the child can hold and manipulate small objects, a precursor to the skills needed to hold a pencil and learn to write. Physical development continues to affect student’s learning throughout the grades. The goal for teachers is to recognize how children’s physical pathways vary across the ages and to develop activities that promote healthy development.

Cognitive

The cognitive pathway refers to the ability to process information, think critically, and work toward goals and planned outcomes. Cognitive development is progressive, but children vary greatly in their progress across the ages. How each child develops cognitively depends on pre- vious learning experiences and nurturing received from social contexts, as well as individual differences in strengths and interests. For example, children who enter kindergarten with high-quality preschool experiences are ready to learn academic tasks of alphabetic principles and other early reading tasks; those without those early-learning experiences may struggle with these skills. Teachers need to be able to recognize children’s levels of cognitive develop- ment so they can structure activities and pace instruction to increase each child’s capacity to process information and achieve mastery in content areas.

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

Language

The language pathway refers to the development of receptive language, the ability to under- stand and interpret spoken, written, and nonverbal communication; and expressive language, the ability to communicate verbally and through writing. Language development starts early and is a continuous process that is greatly influenced by social and cultural contexts. For example, parents’ conversational styles affect how children use and understand language. Children who hear more words, complex vocabulary, and words of praise in their early years show accelerated language growth, whereas children from families who use fewer spoken words and more negative verbal directives show slower language growth (Hart & Risley, 2004). The goal for teachers is to help children develop their linguistic abilities, both recep- tive and expressive, in a variety of contexts.

Social

The social pathway refers to the ability to interact appropriately in a variety of social situa- tions, accept and celebrate differences in people, and develop and maintain healthy relation- ships. These abilities develop over time and are influenced by the social and cultural contexts in which children live. For example, in some cultures, direct expression of opinion is encour- aged; in others, this behavior would be considered impolite. When interacting socially, some children consider interrupting a conversation a normal part of communication exchange, while others are taught to wait until the speaker is finished before they respond. Most teach- ers understand that some social norms must be taught directly; their goal is to help children and adolescents to increase their capacity to interact appropriately in a variety of situations and build and maintain healthy relationships with adults and with peers.

Ethical

The ethical pathway refers to the ability to understand moral thoughts and actions, respect the rights and integrity of self and others, and recognize and practice appropriate and accept- able behaviors (Comer et al., 2004; Darling-Hammond et al., 2003) While it is normal and appropriate for children to act in their own self-interest, they must also think about the com- mon good and develop the capacity for acting with consideration toward others, as well. For example, elementary-age children learn the concept of sharing classroom resources, as well as respecting the personal space of others’ desks; they learn to act in consideration of fellow learners as they follow the behavioral norms established for the class. The goal for teachers is to help children and adolescents develop their ability to behave with justice and fairness toward others, support the development of citizenship, and make decisions that promote their well-being as well as the collective good.

Psychological

The psychological pathway refers to an individual’s self-identity. The development of a per- sonal sense of identity determines how children feel about their self-concept and competence in other pathways, and these feelings in turn guide their interests, their association with friends, and their self-expectations, including their willingness to put forth the necessary effort for their own advancement. Students’ personal identities may be further influenced by race, ethnicity, geographical location, or religion. Although developing a personal iden- tity begins early, it is the defining developmental task of the adolescent years (Elkind, 2001). The goal for teachers is to understand how social messages, as well as school and teacher behaviors, influence the development of self-identity. Children need to consider themselves

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

as capable learners so they can put in the effort needed to achieve and develop a positive aca- demic self-concept (Darling-Hammond et al., 2003).

The psychological pathway also refers to the ability to manage emotions. Managing emo- tions involves helping children to understand their own and others’ emotions, express their feelings appropriately, and handle frustrations without losing control or giving up. The goal for teachers is to develop emotionally supportive learning environments, relatively free from anxiety, where children feel safe so that they can focus and learn effectively (Brown & Corbin, 2004).

Learning Across Developmental Phases Children learn best when curriculum and activities are designed in synch with their devel- opment. Children go through three general phases as they negotiate the K–12 school envi- ronment: early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Even though these phases are based on typical ages of children, most children, especially those in elementary school, grow at different rates, based on their own unique patterns of development (National Associa- tion for the Education of Young Children, 2009). The generalized phases of development are as follows.

Early Childhood

The early childhood phase encompasses the prekindergarten years through around 6 years of age. Children go through tremendous growth during this phase as they continue developing through the learning pathways established during infancy. As they grow physically, their con- tinuing development of fine and gross motor skills enables them to care for themselves (e.g., dressing, bathing, and feeding) with greater independence. They become more coordi- nated and are in tune with movement and perceptions of their body in space. This time is also characterized by high levels of energy (Bastable & Dart, 2008).

Cognitively, children in this phase are developing an understanding of symbols, as in the alpha- bet and numbers, and what they represent, as in corresponding sounds and objects to be counted. Language skills accelerate during this phase as children learn the implicit orga- nization and structure of spoken language by listening and interacting with others in their environment. Although they do not have an explicit knowledge of appropriate grammar (e.g., identifying subjects and objects), they are able to produce spoken language and understand its structure and organization to convey meaning without direct instruc- tion in correct usage. For example, they may say, “Ernie is singing to Bert” and know that the statement “Ernie and Bert are singing” has a different meaning. Children who are fortunate enough to grow up in bilingual homes are able to develop this understand- ing implicitly in both languages (Massey & Brenneman, 2008).

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ሁ During early childhood, cognitive development allows children to begin to understand symbols and gain language skills.

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

Socially, they are learning to play and work with other children. Ethically, they are still ego- centric and unaware of others’ thoughts or the possibility that others may have a different point of view. They are beginning to understand the importance of acceptable behaviors, however, and are learning to share. Psychologically, they are beginning to develop their sense of identity and independence, looking to adults for guidance rather than constant direction (Megay-Nespoli, 2005).

Curriculum and instruction activities during these years emphasize exploration, physical movement, and physical manipulation of objects. It is also very important for teachers to develop a language-rich environment that allows for talking, listening, singing, and playing as means for developing language and thought (Darling-Hammond et al., 2003).

Middle Childhood

Middle childhood spans the time from approximately 6 to 11 years of age, which generally corresponds with the elementary grades of school (Bastable & Dart, 2008). During this time, children are receptive to learning reading, writing, computation, problem solving, and com- munication skills, and they begin to develop skills necessary for future learning (Megay- Nespoli, 2005). The goal for teachers is to focus on what children already know and move them forward toward new concepts. Consideration of developmental pathways assists teach- ers in developing curriculum that supports this growth process.

Physical growth during this period varies greatly from child to child. This is a time of increas- ingly more coordinated gross- and fine-motor abilities, allowing for greater dexterity than before this time. Toward the end of middle childhood, girls begin prepubescent changes and, on average, tend to exceed the boys in physical maturation (Bastable & Dart, 2008).

Cognitive pathways during this period mark a transition from concrete learning as children begin to emphasize symbolic thinking, moving beyond one-to-one correspondence as they learn to manipulate variables and learn to think abstractly. For example, in math, they are able to predict the effects on time if one variable, such as speed, is increased or decreased. In English/Language Arts, children begin to transition from concrete concepts to those that are more abstract, such as simile and metaphor. As they develop cognitively, they demonstrate an increased capacity to concentrate. They are better able to hold, process, and store knowledge, which lays the foundation for understanding more complex ideas. As the more practiced skills become automatic, they are able to make connections between new experiences and prior knowledge, and can organize what they know around principles. Teachers help children develop cognitively during this phase by developing curriculum and learning experiences that enable them to see the things they are studying, through field trips, using manipulatives, building structures, and observing living things (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007; Davis, 2008).

Language pathways in middle childhood are marked by growing communication abilities. If given a developmentally appropriate curriculum, their vocabulary not only increases, but they are also able to understand multiple meaning words and those with abstract or broader explanations. They learn how to understand the meaning of words from basic definitions. They develop advanced questioning skills and learn to interrupt in appropriate ways. Most importantly, they learn to use language for pleasure, delighting in word humor and enjoying playing with language (Bastable & Dart, 2008).

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

Children’s development along the social pathway during middle childhood centers on the question of belonging. They are beginning to detach themselves from their parents; teachers and other adults become more important (Darling-Hammond et al., 2003). Their relation- ships to teachers, however, are a hybrid of their parent relationship. Children who have expe- rienced conflict in their parental relationship may bring this feeling of alienation to the class- room, and they may struggle to connect with their teachers. Children who have supportive relationships with teachers and peers do better in school. Building a sense of belonging helps children to become more engaged in learning, seek help, and show a willingness to be socially responsible. Teachers may face challenges in cultivating this sense of belonging at this phase of development (Davis, 2008).

Same-sex friendships are also very important to children during middle childhood. These friendships teach children to understand others’ points of view, work out conflicts through give and take, and give and receive emotional support during times of stress (Megay-Nespoli, 2005). Teachers need to be aware, however, that this rise in friendship is coupled with an increase in bullying and victimization behavior; they must learn to recognize those signs. Teachers may not always be aware of acts of bullying or aggression, which can include more subtle actions such as excluding others from play or work groups, sarcasm, or not allowing others’ perspectives to be heard (Davis, 2008).

The ethical pathway during this period is characterized by an important shift in children’s moral thinking. While they may still think in black-and-white terms, especially in the begin- ning, they become resistant to following rules that do not make sense to them (Megay- Nespoli, 2005). They begin to reason about right and wrong and are able to make some moral evaluations. They develop logic and the ability to take multiple perspectives on moral issues. They are sensitive to, and seek to understand, mores and norms, especially when confronted with differences in class, gender, and race. Finally, they become aware of their own and oth- ers’ mental states (Davis, 2008). Teachers can advance this development by creating a safe environment for their students with opportunities to think about what it means to be respon- sible, set boundaries, deal with social pressures, and make decisions that may or may not have a clear answer (Davis, 2008; Darling-Hammond et al., 2003).

The psychological pathway is characterized by children’s ability to become more responsible for their own learning. They are able to attribute their successes and failures on tasks to abil- ity as well as to effort. They will also engage in behaviors that protect them from feeling infe- rior, perhaps by claiming lack of interest or avoiding the task (Bastable & Dart, 2008). During this phase, they can learn what it means to set goals, create a plan, and be responsible for the result. Teachers can support this development by encouraging children to become more self-directed, teaching them to evaluate their performance and identify areas of strength and weakness (Megay-Nespoli, 2005). Finally, the psychological pathway during middle child- hood is characterized by a continuation of the quest for self-identity. Children begin to rec- ognize different expressions of self across a variety of tasks or situations (Davis, 2008). For example, they may develop a self-identity as a fast runner, a capable artist, or as the leader of a particular peer group.

Adolescence

Adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence spans the time from approximately 12 to 19 years of age, a time typically associated with middle and high school

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

grades. This age group is challenging for educators because adolescence is a time of change, with changes in one area of development leading to, or occurring in tandem with, changes in other areas. Adolescents must be understood within the context of their family, school, and community, as well as within the context of their gender race, sexual orientation, and religious beliefs (APA, 2002). Considering developmental pathways and their challenges provides edu- cators with the opportunity to make a difference in these young people’s lives (Packard & Babineau, 2008).

The physical pathway is characterized by the changes young people go through as they transition to physical maturity. The process of puberty during the early part of adolescence brings about tremendous physical growth: gain in weight and height, as well as growth in sexual characteristics (breast and hip development and the onset of menstruation for girls; growth in testicles and penis and the deepening of voice for boys). Young women are typi- cally fully developed toward the end of adolescence, whereas young men continue to gain in height, weight, hair, and muscle mass (NIH, 2011; American Academy of Child and Adoles- cents, 2008).

The cognitive pathway is characterized by the development of even higher levels of reasoning and abstract thought. Adolescents are able to hypothesize and apply principles of logic to new situations, conceptualize ideas, debate various points of view, understand cause and effect, comprehend complex explanation, and make sense out of data. With these higher cognitive strengths, they are able to imagine possibilities. Their focus shifts to the future; they display increasing interests in careers and thoughts about their emerging role in life. It is important for teachers to introduce them to many future possibilities and encourage them to see them- selves in many different ways, because developing these interests is strongly related to contin- ued academic motivation (Packard & Babineau, 2008). When adolescents imagine themselves in certain professional roles, they are more likely to engage in the academic coursework that will lead to those goals. In contrast, if their future image does not require academics, they may disengage from schoolwork.

The language pathway is characterized by increasing sophistication in the use of oral and written academic language. Adolescents are expected to use advanced language skills, under- stand complex material presented both in lectures and in texts, and speak and write about abstract concepts. Although expository text (writing that explains, describes, or gives infor- mation) is now emphasized in earlier grades within the Common Core State Standards, understanding of, and the ability to use, sophisticated expository text remains a cognitive and academic leap that secondary students are expected to make. Curricular emphasis on exposi- tory text requires students to analyze and provide evidence for their views, requiring good language awareness skills (e.g., understanding when the word explain may be asking for a fact-based rather than an opinion-based response). Adolescents who have typically develop- ing advanced language skills are able to speak and write using sentences that express abstract thought and complex reasoning abilities. Adolescents who have difficulty with the language development pathway may act in ways that adults often confuse with behavioral issues. These include “class clown” behavior, forgetfulness, withdrawal, or failure to take turns when speak- ing (Brent, Gough, & Robinson, 2012).

Adolescents also use social language as the communicative basis for friendships and other close reciprocal relationships. Language skills are used to maintain positive social connec- tions through conversational interactions. They include responding to the conversational initiations of others and using situationally appropriate verbal responses. Much of the

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Section 2.1 Learner Development Across the Grade Levels

social language used during adolescence is informal and includes slang, idioms, or puns, and the ability to interpret body language. For example, the ability to detect and respond to sarcasm from peers is an important skill. When students do not have the social language skills to adequately respond to teasing or bullying, they become targets for more (Brent, Gough, & Robinson, 2012). Adolescents’ use of social language also reflects their sensitivity to how their peers perceive them. For example, they may begin to use foul language to fit in or seem tough.

The social pathway is characterized by a strong need for belonging to a peer group and for friendship, peer acceptance, and peer support (Bastable & Dart, 2008). Adolescents spend time with those they believe reflect an image of themselves that they themselves want to convey. Their peers act as their mirror as they consider who they are and what they want to become. Adolescents can change their peer-group membership by engaging in new and different activities, especially high-status activities such as sports or nonacademic clubs. Peer groups can also take the form of organized cliques or social categories (Packard & Babineau, 2008).

The ethical pathway also matures during adolescence. During the early stages, adolescents may try to test the rules and limits; but, by middle adolescence, ages 15–16, there is a more consistent evidence of conscience, and they show interest in moral reasoning (Spano, 2004). During this phase, adolescents search for role models. Teachers have an important role to play here, because having a positive relationship with even just one teacher can have a posi- tive influence on how adolescents view their own development and self-direction (Packard & Babineau, 2008). As they reach the end of adolescence, their focus shifts to issues of personal dignity and self-esteem, or how they feel about themselves (Spano, 2004). Unfortunately, per- sonal dignity and self-esteem can be influenced by the culture of high performance expected in today’s schools. Adolescents are under tremendous pressure to achieve. As a result, cheat- ing has become a problem, often starting in middle school, where the pressure to achieve accelerates, and continuing through high school, where high stakes associated with perfor- mance are directly linked to post-secondary options. Despite the ethics developed through- out childhood, the stakes for achievement are so high and cheating is so widespread that many adolescents (and often their parents) do not view it as an ethical violation (Packard & Babineau, 2008). Furthermore, the definition of cheating is often considered a matter of opinion. Using online posts of term papers and tests could be considered a gray area of ethics because a student may be merely using the information as a resource or actually copying the work to claim as his or her own (Packard & Babineau, 2008).

The psychological pathway is a continuation and an intensification of the quest for self- identity begun in earlier phases of development. In fact, identity development is its central task, as adolescents try to answer the questions, “Who am I and what do I want to become?” (Packard & Babineau, 2008). Adolescents struggle with these questions as they observe their own physical growth, grow cognitively and imagine new possibilities, develop their language and grow more articulate in academic and social situations, develop their social relation- ships as they try on new identities with different peer groups, and as they consider ethical dilemmas that have no easy answers. Each of these pathways contributes to the adolescent’s self-identity; each must be considered in its development. Teachers can help adolescents to answer the question “Who am I?” by encouraging them to explore options through course selection and extracurricular activities. Participating in long-term projects or community- service learning gives them the context for exploring possibilities while simultaneously con- tributing to positive feelings of contribution and self-worth.

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Considering the question “Who do I want to become?” involves developing a plan for getting there. A plan that outlines intentional steps to create the conditions to meet a goal (e.g., course of study choices, applications to post-secondary training, applications for scholarships and loans toward the goal of becoming an accountant) is called a self-regulatory plan. Teachers contribute to students’ progress in self-identify by helping them to develop a self-regulatory plan (Packard & Babineau, 2008).

2.2 Learner Differences Not all learner differences can be explained by typical variations in developmental pathways or phases. Children also bring their own sets of individual differences to the school commu- nity. In this section, we will explore differences in intelligence preferences, gender, culture, language, and special learning needs, and how they influence learning and considerations for curriculum development.

Intelligence Preferences Professional development that supports 21st century skills also asks teachers to identify and respond to students’ particular intelligences, strengths, and weaknesses. Teachers have long been aware that students vary in their abilities. Some are gifted socially, always knowing the right thing to say or having the ability to draw people to them. Still others have an eye toward nature and are motivated by anything having to do with animals—their study and care, or opportunities to be in their presence. Some children have musical talents, while others are athletic. These performance areas are not necessarily the ones that are celebrated in tradi- tional schooling. Most schools still measure intelligence using an IQ test, a set of questions and/or activities that have been correlated to a measure of general ability (hence, an overall IQ score). This score suggests a student’s capacity for learning, but it does little to acknowl- edge particular areas where a student may excel.

Intelligence preference is a term that describes how a student is smart, not how smart the student is. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) describes these intelli- gence preferences (Gardner, 1985). Gardner identified eight intelligences, described in Table 2.1. Most individuals possess all eight intelligences to some degree, but often show strengths in certain areas over others (such as musical over athletic), or have developed strengths in a combination of areas (such as strengths in logical-mathematical, spa- tial, and bodily-kinesthetic). Students can also develop strengths in nondominant areas through effort, practice, and instruc- tion (Dweck, 2007). Teachers can nurture student’s emerging strengths by showing them how to approach learning in ways that address how they think as well as acknowl- edge their interests.

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ሁ Intelligence preference suggests that students have preferences for how they learn. For example, some students prefer to learn using books and some prefer hands-on learning.

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Table 2.1: Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Eight Ways of Learning

Children who are highly . . . Think . . . Love . . . Need . . .

Linguistic in words reading, writing, telling stories, playing word games

books, tapes, writing tools, paper, diaries, dialogue, discussion, debate, stories

Logical-Mathematical by reasoning experimenting, questioning, figuring out logical puzzles, calculating

materials to experiment with, science materials, manipulatives, trips to planetariums and sci- ence museums

Spatial in images and pictures designing, drawing, visualizing, doodling

art, Legos®, videos, movies, slides, imagina- tion games, mazes, puz- zles, illustrated books, trips to art museums

Bodily-Kinesthetic through somatic sensations

dancing, running, jump- ing, building, touching, gesturing

role-play drama, movement, building things, sports and physical games, tactile experiences, hands-on learning

Musical via rhythms and melodies

singing, whistling, hum- ming, tapping feet and hands, listening

sing-along time, trips to concerts, playing music at home and school, musical instruments

Interpersonal by bouncing ideas off other people

leading, organizing, relating, manipulating, mediating, partying

friends, group games, social gatherings, community events, clubs, mentors/ apprenticeships

Intrapersonal in relation to their needs, feelings, and goals

setting goals, meditat- ing, dreaming, planning, reflecting

secret places, time alone, self-paced proj- ects, choices

Naturalist through nature and natural forms

playing with pets, gar- dening, investigating, nature, raising animals, caring for planet earth

access to nature, opportunities for inter- acting with animals, tools for investigating nature (e.g., magnifying glasses, binoculars)

Source: Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Reprinted with permission from the Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.

Traditional schooling has placed a premium on the demonstration of the first two intelli- gences: linguistic and logical-mathematical (Armstrong, 2009; Gardner, 2008). But these are not the only areas of strength envisioned in 21st century schools or by the Common Core

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Standards. The ELA Standards support linguistic intelligence, but they are also intercon- nected to interpersonal intelligence by encouraging appropriate social skills through group discussions, and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence by using reading skills to follow a set of instructions or engage in role playing or drama. Similarly, the Mathematics Standards emphasize more than logical-mathematical intelligences. Modeling math problems with images supports the development of spatial intelligence; computer simulations and hands- on learning support bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. The Standards’ emphasis on increasing responsibility for students’ own learning by setting goals and self-monitoring builds intra- personal intelligence.

The MI theory is a useful framework for understanding students’ different strengths and interests, but it should not be used to artificially add an “intelligence activity” to curriculum activities when it does not make sense to do so, or to classify students based on a quickly scored test or checklist and group students with like scores in similar activity groups. MI is difficult to measure using traditional notions of assessment because it refers to the capacity to perform or solve problems in an authentic setting, so it cannot be identified from tests in a simulated environment. This limitation makes it difficult to set up an experiment where one could “see” a performance of the intelligence. For this reason, several researchers who claim a lack of evidence for its existence have criticized this theory (Klein, 1997; Waterhouse, 2006). Gardner countered the criticism by stating that MI is indeed valid in educational set- tings and that understanding its application requires more dynamic research methods and an approach that is interdisciplinary and sensitive to students’ culture (Gardner & Moran, 2006).

Nevertheless, educators have embraced the MI theory as an approach for addressing students’ strengths. One of the best methods for determining these strengths is through observation. Notice how students spend their free time in school. Do they gravitate toward books, would they rather socialize, or do they prefer hands-on activities? Collect samples of classwork in addition to these anecdotal observations, perhaps through photos or recordings of presenta- tions, or organized into a portfolio (Armstrong, 2009).

Gender Gender differences begin early in life and play an important role in how children approach learning (Gurian, 2001; Sommers, 2013). In young children, girls’ language centers are better developed than boys, and they are better able to express emotions using words. Many girls begin reading sooner and display greater strengths in grammar and vocabulary than boys display. During upper-elementary grades, girls focus on relationship and communication. They prefer collaborative tasks and can better tolerate sedentary activities. They have less confidence in their abilities in science and math (Agosto, 2004; Halpern et al., 2007).

Young boys express their emotions through actions. They develop spatial abilities sooner than girls do and tend to have advantages in math. Boys have higher energy levels and metab- olism. Movement helps them to manage their impulsivity and maintain attention. Boys focus on action and exploration. They enjoy the opportunity to compete and move around. They have less confidence in their abilities as readers (Agosto, 2004; Senn, 2012).

While these learning patterns vary and may not be true for all, teachers should be aware of preferences and negative confidence levels influenced by gender. Children’s beliefs about their abilities influence their interests and performance in different subjects (Dweck, 2007). Developing new interests in areas stereotypically reserved for one gender or the other could give students the courage to imagine other possibilities. For example, girls may need

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

encouragement to build interest in math and science. They should be helped to understand strategies that expand and improve spatial abilities, and use their strong language skills to read about women role models in STEM careers (science, technology, engineering, and math). Boys, on the other hand, may have difficulty acquiring literacy skills and often see reading as a female-oriented activity. Offering choice in reading selections in “boy-friendly” areas of science fiction, sports, and fantasy can help to build literacy skills (Brozo, 2010; Sommers, 2013).

Cultural Differences Culture describes the characteristics of groups of people—their racial, ethnic, religious, and social identities, and their social behaviors. People who are part of a culture share a variety of customs, attitudes, practices, values, educational expectations, and ways of relating to others. Cultural dynamics influence classroom practice and are reflected in how teachers and students respond to questions, take turns in conversations, and acknowledge rules for classroom conduct.

Unacknowledged cultural differences sometimes lead to situations that conflict with stu- dents’ understanding or needs. When teachers do not consider cultural difference, students may feel unaccepted or may feel that an ethnic characteristic (skin color, diet, or dress) makes them feel different.

Unfortunately, America’s teaching population has remained homogeneous in contrast to the increasing heterogenic cultural identities found among students in the nation’s schools. Most teachers come from backgrounds that often do not reflect the diversity of their students (Ladson-Billings, 2011; White, Zion, & Kozleski, 2005). The majority of elementary and secondary school teachers are Caucasian (83 percent) and female (76 percent). African- American teachers and Hispanic teachers each comprise as little as 7 percent of the nation’s teaching force; Asian and Native-American teachers together comprise less than 1 percent (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2012).

Whatever their background, all teachers should strive to be culturally responsive. Culturally responsive teachers learn from and respectfully relate to students’ cultural backgrounds and traditions. This responsiveness begins with understanding one’s own culture, and rec- ognizing the role that culture has in school. Culturally responsive teachers actively learn about their students’ cultures and communities. They are aware of the issues facing the families in their communities and understand the pressures and barriers that their stu- dents face. They are curious about the beliefs and values of a variety of cultures, and strive to make all students feel welcomed, supported, and productive (IRIS Center for Training Enhancements, 2009).

Cultural characteristics often influence the manner in which students communicate (IRIS Center for Training Enhancements, 2009). The term linguistic diversity describes culturally based variations in communication. Some cultural groups may naturally communicate using physical gestures, loud voices, or interrupting the speaker to make a point (Foster, 2002). Some groups have a direct style, while others are more indirect. Students from groups that are more direct, such as European Americans, are more likely to look directly at the speaker while emphatically stating their opinions. Native-American students come from cultures where the communication style is more indirect. For example, a Native-American student may not vol- unteer an answer, even if known, to avoid standing out from the group. Table 2.2 offers other examples of diversity in communication style based on cultural differences.

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Table 2.2: Examples of linguistic diversity based on cultural differences

Dramatic presentation Demonstrative communication that includes vocal variation (e.g., loud- ness, emphasis on certain words) and exaggerated body gestures (e.g., a form of verbal communication that would not be characterized as being reserved).

Conversational and active participatory discourse

A listener interrupts with commentary (e.g., “You got that right,” “Tell it”) and physical gestures to indicate agreement with a speaker. When this communication style becomes cyclical, with the speaker and listener feeding off each other, it is sometimes known as Call and Response (Foster, 2002).

Gestures and body movement Physical motions or gesticulations meant to convey or emphasize a point, such as talking with the hands.

Rapidly paced rhythmic speech

Oral repetition in a cadence or to display a dramatic flair; may involve a poetic tone or persuasive intent (e.g., as in rap or hip-hop music, or as in the phrase from a famous trial, “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit.”)

Metaphorical imagery A reference to seemingly unrelated concepts as a vehicle for comparison or explanation (e.g., “The ice cream is a rock” (it is frozen solid) or “The girl is a horse” (she is wearing her hair in a ponytail).

Adapted from: The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements. (2009). Cultural and linguistic differences: What teachers should know. Retrieved from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/clde/#content

Students’ cultural styles are important linguistic elements. The goal for teachers is not to minimize this form of cultural expression, but to add to students’ cultural skill set (IRIS Cen- ter for Training Enhancements, 2009). Some students’ styles will need to be built upon so that they can also learn a more conventional style, such as when writing a paper or answering an exam question.

Language Differences Students who are learning English as a second language develop two types of language proficiency, social and academic. Social-language proficiency, a student’s ability to under- stand and converse in English in everyday social contexts, is called Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS). BICS are acquired over approximately 2 years. Academic- language proficiency, a student’s ability to understand and use more complex language necessary for academic success, is called Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). It can take from 5 to 7 years for students to acquire CALP. While social-language skills are adequate for the early grades, they will not meet the linguistic demands of upper elementary school and beyond.

Teachers may assume that students who have well-developed social-language skills also have adequate CALP, but this is often not the case. Students with adequate BICS may not be as fluent when using academic language and may continue to need linguistic supports (IRIS Center for Training Enhancements, 2009). Manipulatives, word walls, labels, multimedia, and cooperative-learning opportunities are examples of supports that can assist second-language learners in meeting academic goals.

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Special Learning Needs The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) guarantees a free, appropriate educa- tion to any child with a disability. The term special learning needs usually refers to one of 13 disabilities identified in this legislation—intellectual disability, hearing impairment (including deafness), speech or language impairment, visual impairment, serious emotional disturbance, orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, a specific learning dis- ability, deaf-blindness, multiple disabilities, or other health impairment. Students having any of these disabilities may need special education and related services if their disability adversely affects their educational performance. Table 2.3 provides a definition for disabili- ties recognized in the IDEA.

Table 2.3: Categories of disability according to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

Disability category

Definitions (Each definition also includes the condition that the disability “adversely affects a child’s educational performance.”)

Autism . . . a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and non- verbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three . . . Other characteristics often associated with autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resis- tance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.

Deaf-blindness . . . concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

Deafness . . . a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification.

Emotional disturbance . . . a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree

a. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sen- sory, or health factors.

b. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal rela- tionships with peers and teachers.

c. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

d. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. e. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with

personal or school problems.

Hearing impairment . . . an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, . . . that is not included under the definition of deafness in this section.

Intellectual disability . . . significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period. (Note: This disability was formerly known as Mental Retardation.)

(continued)

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Disability category

Definitions (Each definition also includes the condition that the disability “adversely affects a child’s educational performance.”)

Multiple disabilities . . . concomitant impairments . . . the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. Multiple disabili- ties does not include deaf-blindness.

Orthopedic impairment . . . a severe orthopedic impairment . . . (that) includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).

Other health impairment . . . having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or atten- tion deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome.

Specific learning disability . . . a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

. . . (It) does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

Speech or language impairment . . . a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) . . . an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impair- ment, or both. . . . (TBI) applies to open or closed head injuries result- ing in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem- solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. (TBI) does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.

Visual impairment . . . an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

Source: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, P.L. 101–476, § 300.8(c).

Table 2.3: Categories of disability according to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (continued)

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Section 2.2 Learner Differences

Some states also use the category developmental delay, which refers to a delay in physical, cognitive, communication, social, emotional, or behavioral development. This term usually applies to children from birth through age nine, and its specific definition and age range of eligibility is determined by each state’s regulations.

The child’s special education services are planned by a team that includes parents, teachers, and other school personnel. The team develops an Individualized Education Program (IEP), a written statement that outlines reasonable learning goals and states the services that the school district will provide for the child to meet learning goals and other needs. Special ser- vices are not considered a “place” (as in a special class), but instead are delivered in the most appropriate setting. In most cases, that setting is the general education classroom. Special education teachers, instructional assistants, or therapists often work side by side with class- room teachers so that the child with a disability can participate in school alongside peers. Schools may also arrange for places, such as resource room or a conference-sized room for itinerant instruction, when special education services cannot be provided adequately in the general classroom. The basis for this practice is called the “least restrictive environment,” a provision in IDEA that states:

“. . . to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities are edu- cated with children who are nondisabled; special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only if the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily.” (IDEA, 2004, § 300.114(a)(2)(i))

Most school districts practice inclusion, a term meaning that students with disabilities have full membership in the general-education program and receive the services they need to access and achieve in the core curriculum available to all other students. Appropriate inclusion includes a full continuum of placement options and services within each option. For example, a student with a chronic health condition may be a member of a fifth-grade classroom but may need to be taught by a home or hospital teacher during times of medical need. A student with a significant learning disability in reading may need intense instruc- tion in comprehension skills, which are provided in a location apart from his fourth-grade classroom. Or, a student with attention deficit disorder (classified as an “other health impair- ment”) may receive specialized math instruction in a seventh-grade class that is co-taught by the math teacher and a special education teacher. The major point is that the student who has a disability has the right of membership in the same classroom and the same school that he or she would otherwise have attended if there were no disability present. This was not always the case. In the days prior to IDEA, students were often transported to schools far from their home for the school district’s convenience in providing services all in one location. Or stu- dents were placed full time in special-education classrooms in their “home” school, but told that they must learn and earn the privilege of attending classes with their peers. Sadly, with that arrangement, few were successful.

Teachers can best serve students who have special needs when they understand the nature of the disability and work with special-education supports to help that student remain a wel- come member of the school’s learning community.

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Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

The previous discussions emphasize that while students of the same age may share some common characteristics, when it comes to how they learn, each one is different in an indi- vidual way. A single approach, where all are expected to complete the same work in the same way, works for some students, but not for others. The standards and frameworks clearly require teachers to create learning environments that that enable each learner to meet high standards. Here we review two frameworks for establishing learning environments that sup- port student differences—differentiated instruction (DI) and Response to Intervention (RTI).

Differentiated Instruction Differentiated instruction (DI) is a broad framework for supporting student differences by varying instruction and making adaptations that consider students’ strengths and weak- nesses (Tomlinson, 2001). The process for considering DI reminds us that while our goal is to teach the content, we are also teaching the content to a child (Tomlinson, 2001).

Figure 2.1 (Tomlinson, 2010) is a graphic depiction of the DI model. The first level explains general principles of best teaching practices, the foundational aspects that must be in place for differentiation to be effective. The second level depicts curricular elements, the means by which teachers can differentiate, and includes adjustments to content, process, and product, as well as affect and learning environment. The third level reminds teachers that all differen- tiation is in response to the varied characteristics that student bring to the classroom. Adjust- ments to teaching practice that work for one group of students may not work for others and are highly dependent on the uniqueness of individual learners. The fourth level offers sugges- tions for instructional strategies that make it all work together.

There are no hard-and-fast rules for implementing DI. Teachers are encouraged to begin dif- ferentiation using simple strategies and in small ways where it makes most sense to them and their students.

Figure 2.1 Differentiation model ሁ To support student differences, the differentiated instruction model allows teachers to vary

instruction in response to students’ strengths and weaknesses.

Source: Tomlinson, C. A. (2010). DifferentiationCentral. Reprinted with permission from the University of Virginia’s Institutes on Academic Diversity, www.differentiationcentral.com

Quality curriculum

Teaching up

Flexible grouping

Continual assessment

Building community

Teachers can differentiate through

Content Process Product Affect Learning environment

According to students’

Using instructional strategies such as:

Differentiation

is a teacher’s response to learners’ needs

Guided by mindset and general principles of differentiation

Respectful tasks

Readiness Interest Learning profile

RAFTS, Graphic Organizers, Scaffolded Reading, Cubing, Think-Tac-Toe, Learning Contracts, Tiering, Learning/Interest Centers, Independent Studies, Intelligence Preferences, Orbitals, Complex Instruction, 4MAT, Web Quests & Web Inquiry, etc.

han82148_02_c02_023-054.indd 40 3/3/15 2:52 PM

Quality curriculum

Teaching up

Flexible grouping

Continual assessment

Building community

Teachers can differentiate through

Content Process Product Affect Learning environment

According to students’

Using instructional strategies such as:

Differentiation

is a teacher’s response to learners’ needs

Guided by mindset and general principles of differentiation

Respectful tasks

Readiness Interest Learning profile

RAFTS, Graphic Organizers, Scaffolded Reading, Cubing, Think-Tac-Toe, Learning Contracts, Tiering, Learning/Interest Centers, Independent Studies, Intelligence Preferences, Orbitals, Complex Instruction, 4MAT, Web Quests & Web Inquiry, etc.

Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

Level 1: General Principles of Differentiation

Differentiated instruction begins with a solid foundation of effective practice. The founda- tions should include attention to respectful tasks, quality curriculum, teaching up, flexible grouping, continual assessment, and building community. The outcomes of differentiating are likely to be disappointing unless these elements are in place (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).

Respectful tasks (Figure 2.1) are purposeful, meaningful, engaging, appropriately rigorous and challenging, and connected to learning outcomes. Respectful tasks allow students to explore skills and understanding at appropriate degrees of difficulty. For example, even though all students sometimes have to do practice exercises to build fluency, it is not acceptable for struggling learners to only be assigned basic skills drills and never allowed to participate in activities where they can apply the information.

A quality curriculum (Figure 2.1) is the translation of standards into action—the goals, meth- ods, materials, and assessments that communicate what students should know, understand, and demonstrate. A quality curriculum focuses on the big ideas that all students should under- stand. There may be differences in students’ understanding of complexity or application, but the essential or big ideas remain constant.

2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

The previous discussions emphasize that while students of the same age may share some common characteristics, when it comes to how they learn, each one is different in an indi- vidual way. A single approach, where all are expected to complete the same work in the same way, works for some students, but not for others. The standards and frameworks clearly require teachers to create learning environments that that enable each learner to meet high standards. Here we review two frameworks for establishing learning environments that sup- port student differences—differentiated instruction (DI) and Response to Intervention (RTI).

Differentiated Instruction Differentiated instruction (DI) is a broad framework for supporting student differences by varying instruction and making adaptations that consider students’ strengths and weak- nesses (Tomlinson, 2001). The process for considering DI reminds us that while our goal is to teach the content, we are also teaching the content to a child (Tomlinson, 2001).

Figure 2.1 (Tomlinson, 2010) is a graphic depiction of the DI model. The first level explains general principles of best teaching practices, the foundational aspects that must be in place for differentiation to be effective. The second level depicts curricular elements, the means by which teachers can differentiate, and includes adjustments to content, process, and product, as well as affect and learning environment. The third level reminds teachers that all differen- tiation is in response to the varied characteristics that student bring to the classroom. Adjust- ments to teaching practice that work for one group of students may not work for others and are highly dependent on the uniqueness of individual learners. The fourth level offers sugges- tions for instructional strategies that make it all work together.

There are no hard-and-fast rules for implementing DI. Teachers are encouraged to begin dif- ferentiation using simple strategies and in small ways where it makes most sense to them and their students.

Figure 2.1 Differentiation model ሁ To support student differences, the differentiated instruction model allows teachers to vary

instruction in response to students’ strengths and weaknesses.

Source: Tomlinson, C. A. (2010). DifferentiationCentral. Reprinted with permission from the University of Virginia’s Institutes on Academic Diversity, www.differentiationcentral.com

Quality curriculum

Teaching up

Flexible grouping

Continual assessment

Building community

Teachers can differentiate through

Content Process Product Affect Learning environment

According to students’

Using instructional strategies such as:

Differentiation

is a teacher’s response to learners’ needs

Guided by mindset and general principles of differentiation

Respectful tasks

Readiness Interest Learning profile

RAFTS, Graphic Organizers, Scaffolded Reading, Cubing, Think-Tac-Toe, Learning Contracts, Tiering, Learning/Interest Centers, Independent Studies, Intelligence Preferences, Orbitals, Complex Instruction, 4MAT, Web Quests & Web Inquiry, etc.

han82148_02_c02_023-054.indd 41 3/3/15 2:52 PM

Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

Teaching up (Figure 2.1) means that students should be working at difficulty levels that are just above their individual comfort levels. This concept is grounded in learning and moti- vational theories, such as the sociocultural theory’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which states that learning occurs when students encounter “just manageable difficulties” (Vygotsky, 1978). Similarly, in the mindset theory, proposed by Dweck (2007), students learn that hard work results in successful growth. Teaching up is an important concept because all students deserve equitable access to a curriculum that prepares them for the future. For most of the past 50 years, schools in the United States have been organized around concepts of tracking students according to perceived ability levels. High-ability students were placed in advanced classes; lower-ability students were placed in classes that focused on remedia- tion. Lower-ability students never had the chance to experience rich and challenging learning opportunities (Tomlinson & Javius, 2012). Teaching up ensures that all students are given the opportunity to tackle demanding work. Teachers can implement this concept by planning first for an activity that would challenge the most advanced learner. Then, they can modify the activity for students who are currently (or temporarily) responding at lower-readiness levels.

Flexible grouping (Figure 2.1) gives teachers the means to balance instructional demands with student needs. Throughout the semester or the year, students should have frequent opportunities to interact in meaningful and productive ways with a variety of other students. There are times when the entire class will need to work as a whole, others when it makes sense for small groups to work together, and others for students to demonstrate what they have learned alone. The hallmark of these groups is their flexibility in response to the instruc- tional activity. Students may be grouped by interest, by same-skill for additional help, or with a variety of readiness levels.

Continual assessment (Figure 2.1) is the measurement of student responses to curriculum and instruction that informs teachers on what and how the content is understood. This includes pre-assessments to determine student entry points, formative assessments that inform plan- ning and support variance, and summative assessments that offer varied modes of expres- sion. Assessment can include traditional and nontraditional evaluation methods, including teacher observation, self-assessment, and project work.

Building community provides students with a sense of belonging. Teachers work to build a learning community where students help each other and share in each other’s success. Stu- dents feel safe and accepted enough to show what they know and express their thoughts without fear of reprisal or ridicule. They feel valued. A sense of community is built through a climate of shared decision making, mutual celebration of success, and fostering individual students’ identification as learners.

Level 2: Curricular Elements of Teaching

Teachers plan for differentiation in three essential curricular areas: content (the input, or what is taught), process (the methods or procedures for teaching), and product (a format for expressing learning). Teachers also attend to, and adjust for, student affect (how they express emotions and interest) and work to create a positive learning environment (a climate con- ducive to learning) (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). These concepts are depicted in the second level of the DI model in Figure 2.1. Although presented separately, quite a bit of overlap occurs between them. For example, teachers often think through the process, or teaching methods, while finding appropriate content (Tomlinson, 2001).

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Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

Content is what we want the students to learn (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Differentiating content refers to varying the means by which teachers present the concept. Most of the time, this variation involves finding multiple ways to present content without changing it by pro- viding models, examples, and differing formats for the same or similar information. The rich array of materials available on the Internet makes it easier to differentiate by content, but this concept is not just limited to online information. The same or similar concept can be achieved by collecting a variety of materials in multiple formats and with varying difficulty or inter- est levels (video, multimedia presentations, texts, primary sources, trade books, children’s’ literature, magazines, or newspapers).

Process refers to the activities and strategies that students use to make sense of the content (Tomlinson, 2001). Process provides a bridge between content and the product. Differentiat- ing process refers to giving students a choice of activities or multiple opportunities to think through and use the material they are learning. Offering a variety of bridges is especially important because the manner by which students come to understand or to “own” the con- tent is different for everyone. It also gives students the opportunity to explore key concepts and manipulate the content in such a way that they take ownership of material, internalizing the concepts or using the skill fluently.

A differentiated product refers to flexible opportunities for students to demonstrate what they have learned through the expression of key ideas, transfer of knowledge, or application of skills. It represents learning over a longer period of time and is usually not something that a student generates after a single lesson or a few activities. A differentiated product has a range of requirements and expectations for learning, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation (Hall, Strangman, & Meyer, 2011; Tomlinson, 2001). A differenti- ated product emphasizes quality over quantity and should be challenging, allowing students to stretch what they know and understand, even beyond the initial content. For example, a differentiated product for fifth-grade English/Language Arts in the area of informative or explanatory writing could give the student a choice of formats (newspaper article, letter, blog post, PowerPoint, or other multimedia presentation). The range of requirements might include a clear statement of the topic, an inclusion of facts, definitions, details and examples, and an appropriate conclusion. Expectations for difficulty level would be described (e.g., using at least five new vocabulary words, grammar and sentence complexity, etc.), as well as the method of scoring and number of resources. This structure gives students considerable choice in developing a product that would accommodate their interests and other learner characteristics.

Affect is the expression of the emotions or feelings that students bring to learning. Affective states influence how students learn and process new material. Teachers who differentiate the content, product, and process also understand the influence of affect. They work to know their students’ emotions and feelings well enough to offer encouragement when needed, and to spark the curiosity and interest needed to move learning forward (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Effective teachers are able to recognize emotional states of their students and respond in ways that positively impact learning (Goleman, 2006).

Adjustments to content, product, and process take place within a classroom learning environ- ment that is shaped by teacher beliefs and actions. A differentiated classroom has a learning environment that is physically and emotionally welcoming (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). A physically welcoming learning environment is one that maximizes the space with arrange- ments that are responsive to students, knowing that some may need a consultation corner,

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Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

space for collaboration, or a space for working with manipulatives. An emotionally welcoming learning environment demonstrates, through procedures and grouping practices, a respect for individual differences and shared decision making. Students feel safe and have access to a range of resources that make them feel respected, involved, challenged, and supported.

Level 3: Differentiating in Response to Student Characteristics

The third level of the DI model (Figure 2.1) asks teachers to plan ahead for differences in stu- dent characteristics—readiness, interest, and learning profiles that they are already aware of in their class or that they are most likely to see—and then to adjust the content, process, and product accordingly. The model guides teachers to look for manageable strategies that meet the needs of most learners at the same time, rather than trying to accommodate student char- acteristics on an individualized basis.

Readiness describes what students are prepared to do or learn next. Differentiating instruc- tion according to readiness means aligning the instructional task with students’ skills and understanding. As students’ knowledge and skills increase, so does their level of readiness for the next task (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).

Readiness varies and changes with the learning task (Tomlinson, 2001). There are times when students grasp concepts very quickly, and other times when those same students might need more time for processing. When a concept is new to a student, the materials or activities should be at a basic, foundational level. If the concept is one where the basics are quite famil- iar, students need materials and activities that transform what is learned to new applications.

Interest is what engages students and inspires their curiosity (Brophy, 2010; Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Interest is often an emotional experience; students are motivated by what they like. Determining what students are interested in is a relatively easy process. Just ask them, use an online interest inventory, or develop a questionnaire.

Interest can also be a cognitive experience (Brophy, 2010). If students find the learning activi- ties meaningful and worthwhile, they will work to get the intended benefits—perhaps a new skill or the opportunity to work with certain peers. New interests are developed through frequent opportunities for choice and autonomy. Strategies such as cooperative and problem- based learning provide those choices and are ways to socialize student motivation (Middleton & Jansen, 2011).

Learning profile refers to how students process information and interact with new ideas based on intelligence preferences, gender preferences, and cultural differences (Tomlinson, 2001). Teachers can differentiate in this manner by offering options for learning that are efficient or are a good fit. For example, differentiating in response to intelligence preference might involve a combination of visualization, step-by-step directions, self-checking materi- als, or interaction with peers. Gender preferences may be accommodated through choices in reading material or by setting up competitive teams or debates. Cultural differences can be honored by understanding students’ different styles of interacting with each other or provid- ing examples that are relevant to students’ neighborhood or local knowledge base.

Level 4: Strategies for Differentiation

Strategies are methods for differentiating teacher actions—decisions about content, process, product, affect, and environment—in response to student characteristics. The fourth level

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Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

of the DI model (Figure 2.1) names several instructional strategies. The Glossary of Instruc- tional Strategies (Rowan, 2010, accessed from http://www.beesburg.com/edtools/glossary .html) is an interesting website that describes over 1,000 strategies and methods and lists them in alphabetical order by name. This glossary may be useful in looking for suggestions for strategies that could be used to support DI concepts. For example, cubing, a strategy for exploring a topic from six different perspectives (corresponding to the sides of a cube) is described at this site.

Response to Intervention Response to Intervention (RTI) is a framework for offering more intensive support for stu- dents who do not respond to differentiated instructional practices in the core curriculum. This framework aims to help schools identify and support students before any difficulties they encounter become more serious. RTI (sometimes called multitiered system of supports, or MTSS) is a school-wide system used throughout both general education and special educa- tion programs. The National Center on RTI offers the following definition.

Response to intervention integrates assessment and intervention within a multi-level prevention system to maximize student achievement and to reduce behavioral problems. With RTI, schools use data to identify students at risk for poor learning outcomes, monitor student progress, provide evidence- based interventions and adjust the intensity and nature of those interventions depending on a student’s responsiveness, and identify students with learning disabilities or other disabilities. (NCRTI, 2010, p. 2)

The components of RTI are (1) screening, (2) a multitiered prevention system, (3) progress monitoring, and (4) data-based decision making.

Screening

Universal screening is the first step in identifying students who need additional support. In the elementary and middle grades, screening consists of a brief assessment of all students conducted at the beginning of the school year. At the secondary level, universal screening is a procedure that examines students’ academic records to date, as well as scores on eighth- grade examinations. Teachers establish a “cut point” for the assessments, which determines whether a student may need additional support. Students who score below the cut point are screened with additional, more in-depth testing or short-term progress monitoring to con- firm the need for additional support and target instructional goals.

Multitiered Prevention System

A three-tiered system provides for early intervention for students at risk for long-term learn- ing problems. These interventions represent a continuum of support that is patterned after RTI or MTSS general recommendations. The tiers are often illustrated as a triangle with hori- zontal lines dividing it into three sections (Figure 2.2). The first tier, closest to the base of the triangle, is the largest area and represents primary or core interventions available to all students. The second tier, located above the first, covers a smaller area and represents Tier 2 interventions for students whose academic or behavioral performance indicates they are at risk for failure or other difficulties. The top tier represents Tier 3 interventions for the most challenging students.

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Tier 1

Core Curriculum

Usually results in successful learning for 80–85% of students

Tier 2

Supplemental Instruction

Specific, targeted skills usually needed by 10–15% of students

Tier 3

Intense Instruction

needed by 5–10% of students

Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

Tier 1 is the core curriculum taught to all students and is the first line of intervention. Differ- entiated instruction is a key component of a strong core curriculum. A core curriculum with differentiated instructional practices usually results in successful learning for approximately 80–85 percent of all students (Reed, Wexler, & Vaughn, 2012). Students who do not attain adequate achievement (as measured through progress monitoring) are provided further sup- port with either supplemental or intensive instruction in Tiers 2 or 3. All students, however, continue to receive their core instruction in Tier 1, even while participating in the additional support. Students with and without disabilities receive instruction in this level.

Students encountering difficulties despite differentiated approaches in Tier 1 receive Tier 2 supports. Tier 2 is supplemental instruction, which is specific instruction of targeted skills to small, homogenous groups of students using practices that are evidence-based, or deemed effective from research studies. The instruction is delivered by the classroom teacher, a spe- cialized teacher, or other trained intervention teacher, and may include additional instruc- tional time or different methods for learning skills. Individual student progress is regularly monitored using curriculum?based measurements. Students participate in Tier 2 instruction in addition to the core curriculum, and they no longer receive these supplemental services when they make adequate progress in Tier 1. Approximately 10–15 percent of all students may need Tier 2 instruction at some point in time (Reed et al., 2012).

Tier 3 is intense instruction for students who have not responded to supplementary instruction provided in Tier 2. Tier 3 students receive explicit evidence-based instruction

Figure 2.2: Tiers of support in Response to Intervention ሁ There is not a standardized model for implementation, so schools and districts may each

implement the RTI model differently.

Source: Adapted from National Center on Response to Intervention (NCRTI) (2010). Essential components of RTI—A closer look at Response to Intervention. NCRTI at American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from http://www.rti4success.org/resource/essential-components-rti-closer-look-response-intervention

Tier 1

Core Curriculum

Usually results in successful learning for 80–85% of students

Tier 2

Supplemental Instruction

Specific, targeted skills usually needed by 10–15% of students

Tier 3

Intense Instruction

needed by 5–10% of students

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Section 2.3 Learning Environments That Support Student Differences

individually or in small homogeneous groups of students. This intervention is the most intensive, provided typically for a longer time period and more frequently (usually daily). Most models anticipate 5–10 percent of the student population will need Tier 3 instruction (Reed et al., 2012). In many school districts, Tier 3 is delivered as special-education service, but some districts may use this level of intervention to determine progress and reasons why the student may be struggling while special education status is being reviewed. Some districts have elected to form an additional tier, or Tier 4 interventions, for students who receive services through an Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Students in Tier 3 continue to participate in Tier 1 differentiated instruction in the core curriculum.

Progress Monitoring

Progress monitoring measures students’ responsiveness to tiered supports (at all levels) and identifies necessary adjustments to instruction. These assessments are given periodi- cally (at least monthly; often on a weekly basis) to determine if students are progressing toward the targeted goals with the intervention provided. Progress monitoring can be used to determine if students need more intense intervention. Changes to the intervention may include lengthening the time or increasing the frequency of instruction, reducing the size of the group, adjusting the level of instruction, or adding the services of a curriculum specialist or special educator.

Data-based Decision Making

Data-based decision making is a process for evaluating instructional effectiveness and making instructional decisions using data from progress monitoring and other school-wide assessments. On an individual student level, data from progress monitoring indicate the need for a change in instruction or level of support. Data from school-wide assessments are used to evaluate the success of the core curriculum and make decisions on instructional strategies or skills that should be emphasized. For example, if a large number of students showed difficulty with a particular skill on quarterly progress-monitoring assessments, the teachers might add additional strategies or interventions to teach those skills.

Implementing RTI

While most states are implementing some form of RTI, there is no single accepted model for implementation. Districts and schools may implement an RTI framework differently, based on their own unique characteristics. Some states use it as a school-improvement strategy, and either recommend or require it as an intervention for struggling schools. Other states and districts view RTI as a way to complement Common Core Standards as a strategy that allows teachers to know when students are behind and when to provide support or intensify efforts at differentiated instruction. RTI processes are best implemented by teams of teachers, and the PLC (Chapter 1) is especially suited for this process.

One school-based example of using an RTI process to offer weekly tiered support is the “Reteach and Enrich” program implemented in the Vail (AZ) School District. The website Edutopia offers a snapshot of Vail’s student support procedures at http://www.edutopia.org /stw-differentiated-instruction-budget-assessment-video

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Section 2.4 Cases From the Classroom

2.4 Cases From the Classroom

From the Desk of: Melanie

September 28

Hi Dr. Z.,

Well, we have been in kindergarten for 5 weeks now! I can’t believe how the time has f lown. My kiddos are all so cute! And they are all very much alike in so many ways. Let’s see—they are all very curious. And they all have so much energy—it is amazing to me where they get it all. The boys like dinosaurs, and action figures, and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles; the girls like princesses and dress up, and music from the movie Frozen is their favorite. And they all love to talk! My goodness, the stories they can tell. They come in every morning with something special to tell me about their day, or what is happening at home. Mary has a dance recital com- ing up next week, Olivia’s grandmother is coming for a visit, and Seth got a new puppy! That Seth, he just loves talking about animals. One of the neighbors near the school keeps a horse in a corral, and Seth talks about that horse and what he saw him doing every morning. I just love listening to them—and sometimes they surprise me with the big words they are beginning to use. Andrew described how he helped his father take a carburetor apart. And he said that word with confidence and even brought a picture of it to show us. The students love working in the centers. We have a post office, and a store, and two computers in the room—they enjoy the games and apps on the computers. They all seem to enjoy each other’s company and are so enthusiastic! They are truly a delight to teach—even more than I expected.

But now that we are getting down to business, I am beginning to see some real differences in how they learn, and in what they know. Like the other day—I read From Seed to Pumpkin, and I was asking them about the details from the story of how a pumpkin grows. Chantal sur- prised me—she came up to the book, pointed to each word in a sentence that had the answer and read it clearly! After the story reading, we drew pictures of 4 things we remembered about how a pumpkin grows. Sam drew 4 things and labeled many of the pictures—sun, water, soil. Carlos could only remember 2, and he waited for me to come to his desk and he wanted me to write the names of each picture so he could show his parents. Carlos is bilin- gual, and is very patient with me while I try to remember the Spanish he is teaching me. Jordan and Jenna, the twins, made up a song together about seeds sleeping in the ground and waking up as plants. They giggled and sang while they drew—and soon the others chimed in and started singing their new song. I took a picture of each of their drawings—will post those later—but it doesn’t begin to capture the fun we had.

So I am beginning to see how each student is different in their own way. If I wanted everyone to do the same work in the same way, it would work for some, but not for others. Some of my students had been to preschool, and came to school already counting and writing their num- bers. For others, this is their first school experience, and they have some catching up to do. But they are all learning!

I hope to see you at our “appy” hour this Friday!

—Melanie

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Summary & Resources

Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary

This chapter focused on learners and the individual differences they contribute to the learn- ing process. We first examined children’s patterns of growth and variations from patterns that occur both individually and across phases of development. We discussed how students may differ even further, in their intelligence preferences, culture, and language, as well as spe- cial learning needs. Finally, we discussed learning environments and supports that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and success for all students. From this foundation of learners’ development and their similarities and differences, the next chap- ter examines desired educational outcomes and standards that form the basis for instruc- tional goals and curriculum development.

Observation Notes From Dr. Zwijacz

September 29

This is the fifth or sixth week of school for these teachers. Melanie (kindergarten) is seeing some big differences in development and skill among her students—some are already reading, others are struggling to remember. It appears, however, that she has set up a nurturing and respectful environment. Ingrid, the fifth-grade teacher who had such a poignant story on the first day of school (Chapter 1), sees a similar pattern of differences in academic achievement. What pleases me the most, however, is that the teachers are also reporting on nonacademic differences—the preferences, interests, and gender differences that they see in their students. So, I need to go back through the posts to try to understand what it is that the teachers are seeing and reporting, and how they are using this knowledge to differentiate instruction for their students.

There is another observation from the posts this week. The elementary and middle school teachers have reported that their PLCs, or grade-level teams, meet weekly to go over the prog- ress of the students in that grade level. They bring in weekly assessments and discuss which students are ready for enrichment activities and which students need re-teaching activities. Then, they figure out how to re-group for that week, or for a shorter period of time (like a Friday schedule). I am not seeing this yet in the posts from high school teachers—I think the process is a bit more complex there due to scheduling.

—Celina Zwijacz, Ph.D.

Discussion Questions

1. What developmental levels was Melanie describing in her post? 2. What areas of difference among the kindergarteners are most evident? 3. How did Melanie express her understanding of learning preferences?

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Summary & Resources

affect An element of the differentiated instruction model that refers to how stu- dents express emotions and interest.

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) Language proficiency characterized by the ability to understand and converse in everyday social contexts.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) Language proficiency characterized by the ability to understand and use aca- demic language, such as reading and writing complex sentences and acquiring specialized vocabulary.

cognitive pathway The progressive ability to process information, think critically, and work toward goals and planned outcomes.

content An element of the direct instruc- tion model that refers to what is taught.

culture The characteristics of groups of people that include race, ethnicity, religion, social identities, and behaviors, and that influences customs, attitudes, practices, val- ues, and educational expectations.

data-based decision making Using data from progress monitoring and other assess- ments to evaluate instructional effectiveness and make instructional decisions in the RTI model.

differentiated instruction A framework for supporting student differences by varying instruction and making adapta- tions that consider students’ strengths and weaknesses.

ethical pathway The development of moral thought and actions, and the rights and integrity of the self and others.

gender differences Developmental pat- terns and learning preferences that are dif- ferent for males and females.

inclusion Students with disabilities are full members of general education classrooms and receive services, as needed, to succeed in the core curriculum that is available to all other students.

intelligence preference Particular areas of expertise or strength.

interest An element of the direct instruc- tion model that describes student engage- ment and curiosity.

language pathway The development of receptive and expressive language.

learning profile An element of the differen- tiated instruction model that refers to how students process information and interact with new ideas based on their intelligence preferences, gender preferences, and cul- tural differences.

least restrictive environment A provision in IDEA that requires children who are dis- abled to be educated alongside children who are nondisabled to the maximum extent that is appropriate for each child.

linguistic diversity Culturally based varia- tions in communication that may include physical gestures, volume, eye contact, or interruptions.

physical pathway The development of the body, the brain, motor skills, and coordination.

positive-learning environment An ele- ment of the direct instruction model that describes a safe and supportive classroom climate.

Key Terms

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Summary & Resources

process An element of the direct instruc- tion model that refers to the methods or pro- cedures for teaching.

product An element of the direct instruc- tion model that refers to the student’s expression of learning.

progress monitoring Frequent measure used to determine a student’s responsive- ness to tiered support and identify adjust- ments to instruction in the RTI model.

psychological pathway The development of self-identity and the ability to manage emotions.

readiness An element of the direct instruc- tion model that describes what students are mentally prepared to do or learn next.

Response to Intervention (RTI) A frame- work for offering levels or tiers of support, characterized by increasing intensity for students who do not respond to differen- tiated instructional practices in the core curriculum.

social pathway Development of the ability to interact appropriately, tolerate differ- ences, and develop and maintain healthy relationships.

special learning needs A child having a disability identified in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)— intellectual disability, hearing impairment (including deafness), speech or language impairment, visual impairment, serious emotional disturbance, orthopedic impair- ment, autism, traumatic brain injury, a specific learning disability, deaf-blindness, multiple disabilities, other health impair- ment, or developmental delay.

Tier 1 The first level of support in the RTI model that is characterized by the core instructional curriculum taught using dif- ferentiated approaches.

Tier 2 The second level of support in the RTI model that is characterized by supple- mental instruction of targeted skills to small, homogenous groups of students using evidence-based practices.

Tier 3 The third level of support in the RTI model that is characterized by intense and explicit evidence-based instruction admin- istered individually or to small groups of students.

universal screening A method for identify- ing students who need additional support within the RTI model.

Key Ideas

1. Learners typically develop along distinct but interconnected learning pathways that may or may not develop in tandem. These pathways are identified as physical (body, brain, and coordination), cognitive (thinking, processing, planning), language (speaking and understanding), social (interacting and building relationships), ethi- cal (moral thought), and psychological (self-identity and management).

2. Children grow in developmental phases along the learning pathways. School-age children go through three general phases—early childhood (ages 2–6), middle child- hood (ages 6–11), and adolescence (ages 12–18). Their development within these phases follows general patterns but may vary greatly from child to child.

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Summary & Resources

3. Variations in development do not tell the entire story of how children differ. Children also bring their own unique perspectives, personalities, and needs to the classroom. These differences are explained by learning styles, intelligence preferences, gender preferences, culture, language, and special learning needs.

4. Teachers can develop safe and welcoming learning environments that allow children to thrive academically and socially. One classroom-level strategy for developing a positive learning environment is the system of differentiated instruction.

5. School-wide systems support teachers’ classroom-based efforts at positive academic achievement and social development. Response to Intervention (RTI) is an example of a program that reaches beyond individual classrooms to ensure success for all students.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. This chapter discussed development within several learning pathways—physical, cognitive, linguistic, social, ethical, and psychological. Describe a time in your life when you experienced a spurt in one area of development. How did you feel about what was happening? You could describe a young person you know (student, sibling, offspring) instead.

2. What is a developmentally appropriate task? Provide one example and one non- example from your intended subject area or grade level, and give reasons for your choice.

3. Given your own cultural background, how can you begin to build your own skill set as a culturally responsive teacher? What elements of students’ cultural diversity are you most interested in exploring?

4. What surprised you about the discussion of individual differences in learners? What ideas do you have for using students’ preferences, strengths, and interests in teaching?

5. The first level of the differentiated instruction model (Figure 2.1) refers to general principles of effective teaching practices that must be in place for differentiation to be effective. Choose one of these practices and describe what it may look like for your intended subject area or grade level.

6. How do school-wide systems of support for students (such as RTI) also support teachers in creating effective learning environments?

Additional Resources

Websites

Comer School Development Program: This website provides information on the six learning pathways of development identified by Dr. James Comer. http://www.school developmentprogram.org/about/development.aspx

Center on Response to Intervention at American Institutes for Research: This website pro- vides information on the essential components of RTI. http://www.rti4success.org/

DifferentiationCentral: This website provides additional information regarding Differenti- ated instruction and features video clips from its primary author, Dr. Carol Ann Tom- linson. http://www.differentiationcentral.com/

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Summary & Resources

Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports: This website provides information on posi- tive behavior from the PBIS Technical Assistance Center sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education; it uses a framework similar to RTI to support positive stu- dent behavior. http://www.pbis.org/

Tips & Strategies for Effective Differentiation and Instruction: This website provides useful differentiation tips and strategies. http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=mVRY SC8YyYA&feature=fvwp

Investigating the Impact of Differentiated Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms: This website examines the impact of differentiated instruction on quality and equity dimensions. http://www.icsei.net/icsei2011/Full%20Papers/0155.pdf

Applied Differentiation: Making it Work in the Classroom: This website describes how applied differentiation works in the classroom. http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=3jO9cDzxaqg&feature=related

Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation: This paper discusses similarities between differentiated instruction and UDL. http://aim.cast.org/sites /aim.cast.org/files/DI_UDL_10.6.14_0.docx

School Climate and Discipline: Arne Duncan, secretary of education, addresses the need for positive school climates that support appropriate student behavior. http://www2 .ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/index.html

The Learning Classroom: Theory into Practice: This professional-development course, cre- ated by an advisory team led by Linda Darling-Hammond of Stanford University, comprises 13 sessions on topics including learning theory, development and learn- ing, and creating classrooms and schools that support learning. http://www.learner .org/courses/learningclassroom/

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