week 2 discussion

REDD76

02CH_Curenton_Cultural.pdf

Home >Education homework help >week 2 discussion

Juice Images/SuperStock

Learning Objectives

By the time you reach the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Discuss ways for early childhood educators to become culturally competent.

2. Describe NAEYC’s concepts of cultural competence.

3. Identify the elements of a culturally inclusive classroom.

4. Explain how prejudice develops in early childhood and describe teaching strategies to avoid it.

5. Discuss the effect media has on the way children perceive diversity and describe how to use media to promote diversity.

Building Early Childhood Professionals’ Cultural Competence

Jose Luis Pelaez/Iconica/SuperStock

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

Introduction

Eddie is a White preschooler with a genuine curiosity about everything. He was the first to ask how plants grow and how cars run. One day he asked Michael, an African Amer- ican classmate, whether his skin was brown because he had drunk too much chocolate

milk. Eddie was honestly attempting to make sense of what he observed: he noticed the pattern between the African American child bringing chocolate milk for lunch and having darker skin than the rest of the children in the class.

In situations like this, teachers have to think about how to guide such conversations between chil- dren. We do not want to stifle children’s natural cognitive development process, and we do not want to make them feel ashamed about being curious and asking questions. The goal is to be able to provide children with accurate, yet developmentally appropriate, information about why they might be observing certain physical differences between children.

The purpose of this chapter is to build the cultural competence of early education teachers so they will be able to effectively teach young children with ethnic, language, and cultural differences, as well as examine the biases in their own teaching and perceptions. This chapter also explores how prejudice and bias may develop inside and outside the classroom, such as through the media, and ways to combat these prejudices and biases by building a more culturally inclusive classroom that affirms the principles of multicultural education.

2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

How can Eddie’s question be answered so that he does not feel ashamed to ask more ques- tions and Michael does not feel insulted and hurt? Some avenues that Eddie’s teacher can take are to discuss the “science” of skin color: what skin is made of and why people

have different skin colors—including people and children from the same ethnic and racial groups. The teacher can also ask the reverse question of whether Eddie’s skin color is white because he drinks plain white milk or if his skin will turn brown when he drinks chocolate milk.

As the U.S. population becomes more diverse, young children will be asking more questions to understand how they are different and similar from the children and families around them. To determine the best approaches to address these types of questions, which children naturally have, teachers have to be culturally competent.

What does this mean? Being culturally competent is an ongoing and long-term process (Table 2.1) that demands enthusiasm and curiosity about other cultures and a willingness to adapt educa- tional practices to mirror the values and special characteristics of children and their families. Cul- turally competent teachers are able to effectively educate children and work with families from ethnic, racial, lingual, and cultural backgrounds that are different from their own. Within an edu- cational setting, cultural competence means finding ways to infuse knowledge and appreciation of other cultures into daily practice. Being culturally competent is not a skill we are naturally born with, but everyone can learn this skill and get better at using it (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989; Whittman & Velde, 2002).

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

As shown in Table 2.1, the first developmental stage is cultural destructiveness, which represents attitudes and behaviors that are typically destructive to cultures and individuals. One extreme example of this is cultural genocide, in which one group is trying to erase the presence of another culture. The period of Jim Crow segregation laws in the United States, when African Americans were dehumanized through various laws, also falls into this category. Cultural destructiveness often occurs in classrooms when children are prohibited from speaking their home language.

The last and most positive developmental stage of cultural competence is cultural proficiency, which involves the ability to respect and enjoy all cultures. Cultural proficiency is evidenced by flexible and culturally sensitive practices that take into account the cultures of children and fami- lies. Teachers display cultural proficiency when they are continually seeking ways to understand and incorporate various cultural practices and norms into all aspects of their classrooms and instructional practices. These teachers are aware of the culture of the classroom—how children may respond to that culture and how it may be different from their home culture—and they seek ways to bridge the gap. For example, if a teacher sees that the culture of the classroom is quite

Table 2.1: Developmental Stages of Cultural Competence

Stage Description

Cultural destructiveness The most negative stage, which is represented by attitudes, policies, and practices that are destructive to cultures and individuals (e.g., cultural genocide).

Cultural incapacity Not intentionally seeking to be culturally destructive, but lacking the capacity to help minorities, ensuring the system remains biased (e.g., discrimination, low expectation).

Cultural blindness Expresses a philosophy of being unbiased. Programs or individuals function with the belief that color or culture make no difference and everyone is the same. The consequences make services so ethnocentric that they are virtually useless to all except the most assimilated individuals of color.

Cultural precompetence Exemplified by the realization of bias in serving or interacting with minorities and attempting to improve some aspects for some groups. Dangers include a false sense of accomplishment or failure to move forward.

Cultural competence Acceptance and respect for differences, continuing self-assessment regarding culture, careful attention to the dynamics of differences, continuous expansion of cultural knowledge and resources, and a variety of adaptations to service models in order to better meet the needs of minority populations (e.g., seek advice from minority communities).

Cultural proficiency The most positive stage, which is characterized by holding culture in high esteem. Cultural proficiency is evidenced by attitudes that are less biased, policies that are more flexible and culturally sensitive, and practices that are congruent with the cultures of children and families.

Sources: Towards a Culturally Competent System of Care (Vol. 1), by T. L. Cross, B. J. Bazron, K. W. Dennis, & M. R. Isaacs, 1989, Child and Adolescent Service System Program Technical Assistance Center, and Assessing Preservice Teachers’ Cultural Competence With the Cultural Proficiency Continuum Q-Sort, by D. R. Cormier, 2021, Educational Researcher, 50(1), 17–29 (https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20936670).

https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20936670

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

(continued)

rigid, they may pursue strategies to increase flexibility in where and how children sit, as well as how children use time, because they have observed that some children benefit from additional movement, more peer-to-peer interaction, and less focus on structured segments of time.

Figure 2.1 is a self-test that helps teachers assess their areas of strength and weakness in cultural competence.

Figure 2.1: Cultural Competence Self-Test

The following self-assessment can assist teachers in identifying areas in which they can improve the quality of the classroom culture and environment to meet the needs of a culturally diverse population.

This checklist is intended to heighten the awareness and sensitivity of personnel to the importance of cultural and linguistic competence in early childhood education settings. It provides concrete examples of the kinds of beliefs, attitudes, values and practices that foster cultural and linguistic competence. There is no answer key with correct responses. However, if you frequently responded "rarely/never," you may not necessarily demonstrate beliefs, attitudes, values and practices that promote cultural and linguistic competence.

Directions: Please rate each item listed below.

Cultural Competence Self-Test

Physical Environment, Materials and Resources

Communication Styles

1. I display pictures, posters, artwork and other decor that reflect the cultures and ethnic backgrounds of children and families served.

2. I ensure that written materials, including books, magazines, brochures and other printed materials are of interest to and reflect the different cultures of children and families served.

3. When using videos, films or other media resources for learning, I ensure that they reflect the cultures and ethnic background of children and families served.

4. I ensure that printed information disseminated by me takes into account the average literacy levels of individuals and families receiving services.

5. I identify the primary language spoken by families.

6. When interacting with children and families who have limited English proficiency, I keep in mind that their limited ability to speak English has no bearing on their ability to communicate effectively in their primary language.

7. I use trained interpreters for meetings or other events for families who need or prefer this level of assistance.

8. When possible, I ensure that all notices and communications to families are written in their primary language.

9. I understand that it may be necessary to use alternatives to written communications for some families.

Frequently Occasionally Rarely/Never N/A

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

Figure 2.1: Cultural Competence Self-Test (continued)

But how does a teacher become culturally competent? This will likely entail developing “certain personal and interpersonal awareness and sensitivities, developing certain bodies of cultural knowledge, and mastering a set of skills that, taken together, underlie effective cross-cultural teaching” (Diller & Moule, 2005, p. 5). To build cultural competence, Diller and Moule (2005) pro- pose six essential skills: (1) valuing diversity, (2) engaging in self-assessment and self-awareness, (3) assessing the culture of your organization, (4) understanding the history of cultural interac- tions, (5) institutionalizing cultural knowledge, and (6) adapting to diversity (Figure 2.2).

Source: Adapted from Healthy Start Coalition of Pinellas. www.healthystartpinellas.org

Values and Attitudes

10. I avoid imposing values that may conflict or be inconsistent with those of cultures or ethnic groups other than my own.

11. I intervene in an appropriate manner when I observe other staff, children, or families engaging in behaviors that show cultural insensitivity, racial biases and prejudice.

12. I understand that age, gender and life-cycle factors must be considered in interactions with individuals and families (e.g., high value placed on the decision of elders, the role of eldest male or female in families, or roles and expectation of children within the family).

13. Even though my professional or moral viewpoints may differ, I accept families as the ultimate decision makers for services and supports they deem relevant for themselves and their children.

14. I recognize that the meaning or value of early care and education may vary greatly among cultures.

15. I accept that religion and beliefs may influence how families respond to requests from schools (e.g., teachers are the experts in teaching young children and not parents).

16. I keep abreast of the major research and issues for ethnically and racially diverse families residing in the geographic locale served by my program (e.g., violence, health challenges, school closure).

17. I am well versed in developmentally appropriate and best practices for ethnically and racially diverse children groups within the geographic locale served by my program.

18. I avail myself of professional development and training to enhance my knowledge and skills in the provision of a high quality learning environment to culturally, ethnically, racially and linguistically diverse children.

Frequently Occasionally Rarely/Never N/A

http://www.healthystartpinellas.org

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

Figure 2.2: Core of Cultural Competence

Skills such as valuing diversity and being self-aware are necessary for developing cultural competence.

Source: Based on Diller, J. V., & Moule, J. (2005). Cultural Competence: A Primer for Educators. Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth.

Valuing Diversity This first skill means valuing and respecting different cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds and customs. Those who value diversity understand that people have different cultural traditions, which can result in differences in communication, traditions, and family structures. For example, a matrilineal culture is one in which family history is traced through the mother’s ancestry. This is different from the patrilineal culture often seen in the United States, where family history is traced through the father’s ancestry. In matrilineal cultures, a child’s maternal uncle plays a cen- tral role in caretaking, while the father resides in another household. This uncle may have more of a relationship with the child than the father does, which is different from many mainstream U.S. families. In this type of family structure, only members of the mother’s family may attend school events and meetings, and important conversations regarding the child involve the child’s maternal uncle. Rather than assuming that a father is not around, a teacher should seek ways to determine whether there is a father or a father figure that should be engaged in the child’s learning.

Valuing diversity and respecting that people

have different traditions and norms

Engaging in self- awareness and

reflection that guide practices and

interaction

Understanding the history of cultural

interactions

Integrating culture in all aspects of organization,

classroom, teaching materials, etc.

Adapting activities to be more culturally relevant

to children

Assessing your organization’s culture

Core of Cultural

Competence

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

Other cultural variations are also seen in parenting. For example, in some cultures there are fewer parent-child verbal interactions because children are viewed as passive, which may be viewed as neglect through a Western, European-American lens. Research has also noted that African-American parents display more authoritarian parenting compared to White parents, who are viewed as more authoritative (Iruka & Barbarin, 2009). Authoritarian parenting has been characterized as control- ling, punitive, harsh, and intrusive, with little warmth or sensitivity directed toward the child. In con- trast, authoritative parenting has been described as sensitive, warm, and encouraging of autonomy, while also placing limits and expectations on children’s behavior.

However, when African American parenting is viewed through a culturally sensitive lens, it is found that African American parents show a distinct type of parenting that can be called “tough love,” which incorporates authoritarian and authoritative par- enting (Brody & Flor, 1998; Iruka, LaForett, & Odom, 2012). This type of parenting is used to ensure that children are safe and prepared for their life as an African American in a society that is biased against them. Thus, valuing the cultural variations in indi- viduals’ lives helps teachers to better connect with families and the children they teach. Understanding how parents’ life experiences shape their parenting styles can minimize judgment and ensure respectful collaboration.

It is also important to know that though there are similarities within racial or ethnic groups, there are also intracultural differences. This means, for example, that though African Americans may share many of the same historical and social experiences, they may differ along lines of region (e.g., north vs. south, rural vs. urban), gender, and social class. For example, consider a lower-income African-American family living on the south side of Chicago, Illinois, and a higher-income African-American family living in the suburbs of San Francisco, California. These two families may have different viewpoints about child- rearing (e.g., levels of permissiveness, amount of structure). Teachers who value diversity work to understand the similarities and differences among children’s and families’ lives, regardless of their own ethnic, racial, or religious background, for the purpose of creating an environment that values the cultures children are immersed in at home.

One way to begin to value diversity is to learn about the cultures and lives of all the children in your classroom. This can entail asking every child what they did on Saturday or asking each family to share events they celebrate and how they do so. Being curious and proactive in exploring the cultures and customs of children and families in your program can strengthen the home-school con- nection and the relationships among teachers, children, and families.

Brand X Pictures/Thinkstock

Each culture has their own ways of parenting their children. Early childhood educators must be aware of these differences and take them into consideration when interacting with children and their parents.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

Engaging in Self-Assessment and Self-Awareness This second skill means understanding your own culture, including how your experiences, beliefs, values, and interests shape your culture. For example, a preschool teacher may have grown up in

a two-parent, middle-class family that went to church every week and valued spending time with the extended family members who lived in the same neighbor- hood. This cultural background shapes the teacher and how she may interact with a child who is growing up in a low-income household with a single parent who describes herself as athe- ist. Awareness of your own cul- ture and how it differs from oth- ers’ can facilitate communication between teachers and children from different cultures.

Self-assessment also can lead to self-awareness about biases and stereotypes that you may hold about the groups to which you

belong—and those you do not. Unexamined biases can show up in both obvious and subtle ways, such as the pictures and books that a teacher selects for the classroom.

One way to begin a self-assessment is to ask yourself what are the positive aspects (or perceived positive aspects) of your cultural or ethnic groups and then asking what are the negative aspects (or perceived negative aspects) of your cultural or ethnic groups. Follow this same process with other cultural and ethnic groups. What do you see as the positive and negative attributes of other cultural and ethnic groups? For example, you may view your group as hardworking and see that as a positive characteristic. However, if you view another group as less hardworking and always seek- ing a “handout,” you may view children from that group as not being capable of working hard, and you may have low expectations of them. Being aware of how you see yourself and others will help you discern how certain expectations and behaviors influence interactions with and perceptions of others—especially children.

Assessing the Culture of Your Organization In addition to assessing your own culture, it is also important to assess the culture of your organi- zation, which may be incompatible with the cultures of some children and families you serve. For example, some early childhood programs have firm schedules, and children are expected to be present at specific times. In some cultures, exact time is not used or valued highly, so children’s “tardiness” may not be seen as negative (Curenton, 2011).

Assessing the culture of your organization also includes assessing the culture of your classroom. You can begin by examining the materials of the program or classroom to determine if they are anti-bias and inclusive. Do the pictures and characters reflect the program’s and the larger

Digital Vision/Digital Vision/Thinkstock

An instructor of diverse students must understand that students grow up in many different family configurations, including being raised by a single parent.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Building Cultural Competence Among Early Childhood Educators

community’s demographics? Do the events and activities draw from the many cultures repre- sented in the program and the United States as a whole? Do any languages in the materials match the home languages of the children in the program?

Another area to explore is the climate of the classroom and program. This can be examined by exploring how much “talking” is allowed, by whom, and under what circumstances. Children may perceive that only adults and certain children are allowed to talk, which may send a message to them that their thoughts and voices are not important. It is important to acknowledge these com- munication patterns, whether they reveal individual children’s voices being inhibited, or division due to children’s ethnicity, gender, or some other attribute. Continuous examination of classroom and program culture, which may unduly impact children’s experiences, is one way of becoming culturally competent.

Understanding the History of Cultural Interactions Historically, Native Americans and African Americans have experienced racism, discrimination, and oppression from members of the dominant White American culture. These experiences are embedded within the larger Pan-American culture, and have collectively fostered generations of mistrust between these groups and White Americans. This mistrust can manifest itself in many ways, even today. For example, a Native American teacher may perceive that her perspectives are often ignored by her White program director in favor of the points of view from her White col- leagues. A White teacher may feel isolated from her African American colleagues because she is not invited out with them for lunch and often is not part of their social conversations. Understand- ing the history of cultural interactions can help in ensuring that individuals do not feel that they are being insulted or excluded.

Similarly, understanding the history of cultural discrimination and oppression in the United States will provide background for teachers to help them understand that some parents hold prejudice and biases against certain groups and, thus, may be teaching their children negative stereotypes. In such situations, teachers must strike a balance between respecting families’ beliefs and feel- ings, while ensuring that all the children in their classroom are engaging respectfully with each other, regardless of their ethnic and cultural backgrounds.

Institutionalizing Cultural Knowledge A core part of cultural competence is integrating knowledge about culture into all aspects of the early childhood education program and its classrooms—from books and materials to activities and interactions. Representations of cultural groups should go beyond stereotypes to show groups in both historically traditional activities as well as modern day activities; for example, photographs can show Native Americans as judges and doctors, as well as participants in traditional ceremo- nies. Similarly, images of Black males should expand beyond their roles as athletes and entertain- ers to include the vast array of occupations they hold, from president to teacher.

Teachers can take advantage of professional and education opportunities that expand their cultural competence. Through increased knowledge and cultural competence, one can begin to provide suggestions and guidance to colleagues, as well as program administrators, about the importance of ensuring that the program is valuing diversity, engaging in self-assessment and self-awareness, assessing its own culture, understanding how history may influence interactions among staff, and seeking ways to integrate cultures into all aspects of the program.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 NAEYC’s Framework for Cultural Competence in Early Childhood Classrooms

Teachers may also be able to influence institutional cultural knowledge by engaging in conversa- tions regarding racial, ethnic, and language diversity with coworkers and seeking ways to learn about the different cultures of the families of the program’s staff. One avenue is monthly retreats or meetings at which the school community, including teachers and staff, share interesting aspects of themselves and their cultural traditions and history. Another avenue is teachers sharing with each other the best strategies they have found to ensure that their classrooms and instructions are culturally meaningful for all the children in the classroom. Retreats and meetings can also include families in order to learn about their cultural traditions.

Adapting to Diversity The sixth skill for becoming culturally competent focuses on adapting activities to fit the cultures of children in the classroom. This entails finding ways for children to experience a variety of cul- tures unfamiliar to them, as well as integrating their cultural and familial traditions into all aspects of the classroom. For example, learning centers can incorporate clothing, food, and artifacts from a variety of places. Books in the classroom can include differ- ent racial, cultural, and religious groups, as well as different types of families, such as gay, lesbian, and interracial families. Beyond ensuring that the materials are culturally relevant and meaning- ful for all children, teachers can also adapt to the diversity of their student population by asking for ideas from children.

The goal of cultural competence is to ensure that children’s lives and cultures are integrated into all aspects of the classroom to enhance their learning and engagement. In addition, beyond race, ethnicity, and culture, chil- dren are also diverse in their interests and learning styles. Thus, ascertaining children’s indi- vidual perspectives, learning styles, and cultures of origin can help teachers ensure they are meet- ing the cognitive and emotional needs of all the children in their classroom.

2.2 NAEYC’s Framework for Cultural Competence in Early Childhood Classrooms

In 1995, NAEYC published a position statement emphasizing that linguistic and cultural diver- sity is an asset that should be nurtured in education environments. In this statement, NAEYC charged early childhood programs with creating education environments that respect diver-

sity, recognize children’s emotional ties to their families, and promote second language acquisition

John Moore/Staff/Getty Images News/Getty Images

Karina Medina’s Old Home New Home is a picture book illustrating a young boy’s journey as he leaves his own country and settles in the United States. Having books like this available in your class can help you, and your students, become more culturally aware.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 NAEYC’s Framework for Cultural Competence in Early Childhood Classrooms

coupled with efforts to preserve the home language. In order for culturally and linguistically diverse students to develop, early childhood professionals must be culturally competent.

In order to help programs improve their use of culturally competent practices, NAEYC started the Pathways to Cultural Competence Project, an ongoing process of developing multiple and various solutions to improve practices in early childhood programs. Because changes must happen at the individual and at program levels, this project focuses on helping teachers and program directors reflect on which of their practices are culturally competent and how to go about improving them. The activities reflect the six characteristics of cultural competence shown in Figure 2.2. Program directors and teachers are provided with checklists covering eight concepts related to culturally competent practices. Table 2.2 presents the eight concepts with examples of the checklist’s prac- tices for each one.

Table 2.2: NAEYC Concepts of Cultural Competence and Examples of how to Meet Them

Concept Examples

Concept 1: “Children are nested in families.”

Find out children’s primary caregivers and do not assume they are mothers and fathers.

Provide opportunities for families to give input, such as on the schedule of events.

Create a formal space in the classroom or program where families can visit.

Concept 2: “Identify shared goals among families and staff.”

Identify families’ short- and long-term goals for their children and align them with classroom objectives and developmentally appropriate practices. A short-term goal could be children learning their letters.

Explore and support meaningful ways family members can contribute to students’ learning in the program, such as through developing activities for a specific lesson plan or leading certain activities, such as story time.

Concept 3: “Authentically incorporate cultural traditions and history in the classroom.”

Invite family members to share information about their cultural backgrounds with program staff and teachers.

Encourage families to share artifacts, music, stories, or other culturally relevant information in the classrooms and with their children’s teachers.

Select a few days throughout the year when families can lead a majority of the class activities or lessons.

Concept 4: “Acknowledge child development as a culturally driven, ongoing process that should be supported across contexts in a child’s life (e.g., at school and at home).”

Invite families to define their ethnicity or culture (rather than assuming it based upon appearances) by asking them to talk about it.

Recruit role models from diverse cultural backgrounds to visit or volunteer in the program.

Make sure that the staff, including student interns and volunteers, is diverse and represents the cultures and languages of the children and families.

(continued)

CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 NAEYC’s Framework for Cultural Competence in Early Childhood Classrooms

Table 2.2: NAEYC Concepts of Cultural Competence and Examples of how to Meet Them (continued)

Concept Examples

Concept 5: “Individuals’ and institutions’ practices are embedded in culture.”

Seek opportunities to help program staff find the time and resources necessary to interact with children and families outside of the program setting and in the communities where they live.

Seek professional development and training opportunities to strengthen culturally sensitive approaches to interacting with families.

Encourage staff, colleagues, families, and children to learn about each other’s racial, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds by initiating a variety of year-round program-wide activities (e.g., culturally meaningful play enacted by students, families, and staff).

Concept 6: “Ensure decisions and policies embrace home languages and dialects.”

Use children’s home languages for multiple learning purposes— not just in giving directions or managing behavior—such as showing them affection.

Provide opportunities for children to learn in their home languages through materials in the classrooms or educational video programming.

Encourage children to speak their home languages to other children, staff, or parents from the same backgrounds.

Concept 7: “Ensure policies and practices embrace and respect families’ cultural values, attitudes, and beliefs toward learning.”

Share strategies and ideas with colleagues on how the program can support children’s identities, honor home languages, and address issues of bias. For example, there could be weekly ideas shared by staff on one way they have supported children’s cultural identity, which others may replicate.

Work together with colleagues to create program activities that integrate appreciation and respect for diversity (e.g., songs, stories, finger plays, rhyme).

Review all events in the program (including those that have been in place since inception) and ensure that they show appreciation and respect for diversity.

Concept 8: “Equalize balances of power; counter stereotyping and bias through intentional teaching.”

Seek professional development opportunities on ways to counter stereotypes and bias through intentional teaching. Strategies can be shared with colleagues and program leaders about how to spot and address bias.

Have an “open door” policy for individuals to discuss when they have experienced or witnessed bias or discrimination.

Support colleagues and program leaders in helping children dispel any misperceptions they may hold toward other groups.

Encourage colleagues and program leaders to support each other and themselves through positive reinforcement, particularly when you see growth (individuals becoming more culturally competent).

Source: Adapted from NAEYC (2010). Pathways to Cultural Competence Project.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 NAEYC’s Framework for Cultural Competence in Early Childhood Classrooms

NAEYC (2010) suggested four guiding principles for program directors and teachers as they worked on the checklists. These four guiding principles are

1. Teacher Reflection—(a) reflect on how your individual values, beliefs, and practices regarding children’s learning are influ- enced by aspects of your own personal culture and linguistic experience and (b) reflect on how the program where you work is influenced by culture and language.

2. Intentional Practice—(a) identify shared childrearing goals with families; align your classroom decision-making and practices with these goals and (b) plan ahead to address potential lan- guage or cultural barriers.

3. Strength-Based Perspective—(a) acknowledge that you can learn from families (b) recognize that diversity enriches and provides depth to the overall learning experience (c) understand that dif- ferent does not mean dysfunctional (d) respect and support the preservation of children and families’ home languages, cultural backgrounds, and childrearing beliefs, goals, and practices and (e) incorporate aspects of children’s cultural and linguistic back- grounds in daily learning activities by demonstrating strengths that exist across cultures.

4. Open, Ongoing, Two-Way Communication between teachers and families—(a) ensure that families have opportunities to give you input rather than solely being recipients of information and (b) plan ahead to address language barriers. (NAEYC, 2010)

In addition to its Pathways to Cultural Competence Project, NAEYC also examined how its stan- dards for developmentally appropriate practices incorporated culturally relevant practices. Among NAEYC’s 10 broad standards of best practices for such topics as curriculum and physical environ- ment, there are 417 accreditation criteria, approximately 31 of which are related to diversity (e.g., “Teachers and families work together to help children participate successfully in the early child- hood setting when professional values and practices differ from family values and practices,” and “Children are provided varied opportunities and materials to build their understanding of diversity in culture, family structure, ability, language, age, and gender in non-stereotypical ways.”) (NAEYC, 2012a, p. 3). See the Spotlight on Research feature, “Can You Find the Diversity-Related Items?” for a chance to compare these criteria to your ECE experiences.

A team that visited 127 early childhood programs in 2009 found that cultural competence criteria were infused in many aspects of NAEYC standards for developmentally appropriate practices serv- ing young children (NAEYC, 2012a). Furthermore, the team found that some cultural competence– related criteria and indicators are more challenging to incorporate than others (e.g., “Children are provided varied opportunities to gain appreciation of art, music, drama, and dance in ways that reflect cultural diversity”), and some are more likely to present barriers to achieving NAEYC accreditation (e.g., “As a part of orientation and ongoing staff development, new and existing pro- gram staff develop skills and knowledge to work effectively with diverse families”). This suggests that many teachers may not get access to professional development that improves their cultural competence and working with diverse families.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Culturally Inclusive Classrooms

2.3 Culturally Inclusive Classrooms

The outcome of becoming a culturally competent and proficient teacher is the creation of a classroom where all children feel valued, respected, and heard. An inclusive class- room considers the multiple identities of children, which include their physical abilities

and characteristics, gender, age, family structure, race/ethnicity, and language. Children and families should see their lives and experiences represented throughout the classroom environ- ment through things like decorations, materials, books, and activities. Children should also have opportunities to share their thoughts and feelings through interactions with teachers and other adults and peers in the classroom.

Culturally Inclusive Adult-Child Interactions Research finds that adult-child interactions, a key way to ensure that classrooms and programs are inclusive, are critical for children’s development and learning (Burchinal et al., 2008). The key areas of adult-child interaction found by Pianta, LaParo, and Hamre (2008) include emotional sup- port, classroom organization, and instructional support, which is observed through the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) used in all Head Start programs.

• Emotional support is seen in a positive classroom climate where children respect and enjoy interactions with adults and their peers, teachers are aware and responsive to children’s academic and social needs, and teachers are inter- ested in children’s points of view and interests.

• Classroom organi- zation is important because orderly class- rooms provide the best opportunity for children to learn. Features of well-organized classrooms include effective behavior management to ensure that students are productive and the use of a variety of learning formats to engage children.

• Instructional support is key to children’s learning in that it is the process teachers use to build children’s deeper learning, including their cognition and language. Instruc- tional support features include concept development, which is teachers’ use of activities to promote higher order thinking, feedback and encouragement to extend children’s learning and thinking, and language modeling, which is teachers’ facilitation and encouragement of children’s language development.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Adult-child interactions are strengthened in an inclusive program when they include emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

TESOL (2010) developed a position statement on language for dual language learners (DLLs) 3–8 years old. Their rationale was that DLLs have a challenge in learning in a monolingual English class. Language is the means for instruction, interaction, and overall functioning in an early childhood environment. Strategies that teachers can use in interacting with DLLs include

• using their home language as much as possible, especially when beginning a new les- son, which can ensure that the children feel emotionally supported in the classroom.

• providing DLLs with different modalities to learn, such as observing, touching, listen- ing, talking, and interacting. Children are not able to learn much when they are only lis- tening and sitting still; they have to learn through play and interaction. The classroom organization needs to provide different ways for DLLs to be engaged in the classroom.

• giving children time to understand, rather than assuming that all children who are English language learners will learn English at the same time; they each have different skills and different exposure to the English language. Scaffolding and individualizing children’s learning experiences are types of instructional support.

Culturally Inclusive Environments and Activities The physical environment can ensure that classrooms are culturally inclusive. An inclusive class- room environment—inside and outside—has developmentally appropriate and diverse materials and toys to meet the needs of all children in the classroom, including children with special needs. Further, the environment should be rich and stimulating; children should see a variety of pictures, including ones related to their lives and cultures, as well as feel and touch an array of natural materials, such as different textures of hair—straight, curly, or kinky.

Activities constructed for children should be developmentally appropriate and focus on the whole child in the four broad areas of cognitive, socio-emotional, creative, and physical development. These activities should also promote cultural inclusivity; they should bring the objectives of the curriculum and lesson plans alive for children by relating them to their lives. For example, if the theme is clothes, how can you incorporate cultural diversity while also building children’s cogni- tive, socio-emotional, creative, and physical skills? Children can draw an outfit someone in their family would wear; or they could think of words for pants, dress, and shirt in other languages.

2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

One aspect of cultural competence is recognizing and appropriately dealing with cultural misunderstanding. In our opening vignette, we talked about Eddie, who was curious about whether chocolate milk was the reason for Michael’s skin color. What if Eddie spoke more

negatively about other attributes of his African-American classmates, such as their hair, clothing, or the way they speak?

How Racism Operates Racism operates through stereotypes and prejudice. Stereotypes are generalizations about the typical characteristics of a group related to their race, gender, nationality, sexuality, religion,

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

region, or some other characteristic. Stereotypes lead to prejudice, a preconceived judgment or opinion, usually unfavorable, that is based on a person’s membership in a social group. Examples include the assumptions that girls should only enjoy playing with “girl” toys (e.g., dolls, kitchen settings) and that Black boys will be violent and disruptive. Stereotypes and prejudice can then lead to discrimination—making a distinction in favor of or against a person based on the group, class, or category to which that person belongs rather than on individual merit.

Children can learn racist stereotypes from societal icons and images, from their family, and even from the media. For example, Tatum (1997) describes a research project in which one of her stu- dents asked White preschoolers (3- and 4-year-olds) to draw a picture of a Native American. Most of the children did not know what a Native American was, but when the researcher rephrased the request and asked them to draw an Indian, all the children produced an image of a person wearing feathers, and many drew the person acting aggressively and holding a knife or tomahawk. When children were asked how they knew this was what an Indian looked like, the children explained that they got this information from cartoons.

The traditional way that we have been taught to view racism is as intentional acts of malice per- formed by individuals with negative attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes about ethnic minorities that cause their prejudice and bigotry; this is active racism. Passive racism, on the other hand, consists of subtle acts, such as laughing when a racist joke is told (telling a racist joke would be active racism); accepting an omission of people of color from the curriculum; letting exclusionary hiring practices go unchallenged; or accepting a special favor that you know is due to your race (Tatum, 1997). Passive racism can also be seen when children do not intervene or bring to the teacher’s attention situations in which children are being excluded because of specific character- istics, such as skin color, hair, accent, or ability. In today’s society, most of us are guilty of passive racist acts, more so than active racist acts.

Recognizing Racism and Prejudice, Discrimination, and Bias in the Classroom/Program Racism is a cultural problem that affects all of us. Typically, we think of racism as interpersonal transgressions between individual people or groups of people, such as one person using a racial slur against another or a young child not wanting to share toys with peers who don’t look like her. However, those interpersonal transgressions are only one level of racism, and in fact, this level of racism happens much less often than it did in the past.

The level of racism that is more prevalent today is called institutional racism. Institutional rac- ism is defined as a system of advantage and disadvantage based on race or ethnicity. We are all affected by institutional racism because it is part of our national history, societal customs, and cultural traditions. It is expressed in cultural messaging and institutional policies and practices that advantage members of a certain race(s), typically Whites or people of European descent. In order to understand institutional racism, we must think about racism as systematic oppression that has been institutionalized in society through cultural icons, ideological narratives that pres- ent “whitewashed realities,” and systematic privilege (Adams, Biernat, Branscombe, Crandall, & Wrightsman, 2008).

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

White Privilege In societies where there is institutional racism or systematic oppression, there are beneficiaries of these discriminatory practices. The systemic advantage that people in the White racial group enjoy is called white privilege. White privilege is described as unearned rights, advantages, and favors that are bestowed on people for their membership within the White racial/ethnic group. Peggy McIntosh (2001), a feminist scholar from Wellesley University, in a famous article called “Unpacking the Knapsack,” explores how she as a White woman experiences white privilege. She describes white privilege as

an invisible package of unearned assets which I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was “meant” to remain oblivious. White privilege is like an invis- ible weightless backpack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools and blank checks. (p. 188)

In her discussion of white privilege, McIntosh notes that often people focus on the disadvantages of various groups based on race, ethnicity, sexuality, religion, income, or language, rather than on the privileges and advantages experienced by people in power—namely, White people and men. McIntosh developed a list identifying some of the daily effects of white privilege in her life. See the Cultural Reflection feature, “What Privileges Do You Enjoy?” which offers an opportunity to consider how privileges of membership in powerful groups affect your classroom and program.

Cultural Reflection: What Privileges Do You Enjoy? Though McIntosh’s list is focused on White privilege, it is also important to consider other potential privileges, such as being a native English speaker vs. a non-English speaker, being a woman versus a man in an early childcare environment, being a teacher or adult versus being a child in the classroom.

As a way to further consider how one may be privileged, do the following:

1. Download McIntosh’s “privilege checklist.” 2. Complete this checklist, regardless of your race or ethnicity. 3. Select three items from the checklist that you “checked” and imagine whether the families of

the majority of children in your classroom or program would have also checked these items. Consider what this may mean for their experiences in your classroom/program and interactions with you.

4. Select three items from the checklist that you did not “check” and imagine whether the families of the majority of children in your classroom or program would have also not checked these items. Consider what this may mean for their experiences in your classroom/program and inter- actions with you.

https://also-chicago.org/also_site/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/white-privilege.pdf

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

Spotting and Addressing Bias in the Classroom There are many areas and aspects of the early childhood environment where prejudice, discrimi- nation, or bias can be spotted—and rectified. They can occur in interactions between children, between children and staff, between staff and families, and between staff in the program. Detailed below are some of the places where biases may occur in your classroom or program and examples of possible actions to address the bias.

• Language and Interactions—Some language can be viewed as prejudicial, such as lump- ing people into groups (e.g., “All Black people are . . . ,” “Hispanics are always . . . ,” “Boys are always . . . ,” “White people always . . . ,” “Poor people are always. . .”). In interactions with children, we may encourage stereotypical behavior, such as boys being allowed to play only with “boy” toys. In another example, a sense of exclusion and bias may result when some children are discouraged from speaking in their home language but other children are allowed to converse in their “made up” language. Similarly, some families may be put at a disadvantage if written information is sent home only in a language that they do not understand. Some of the ways to address these situations include

￮ immediately bringing attention to situations where groups are being lumped together;

￮ encouraging and actively engaging boys in playing with “girl” toys, and vice versa, such as using the cooking utensils to make breakfast for mom or asking a girl to play an action hero;

￮ allowing children to speak in the language they are most familiar and com- fortable with, even if it is a language you don’t understand, and asking chil- dren to share some words in their home language; and

￮ finding out the families’ preferred language and method of communication, and using a variety of modalities to communicate with parents, including phone, texting, or video chatting.

• Environment and Organization—Teachers need to also consider the messages that are being sent by the configuration of many aspects of the classrooms, such as girls being in the front of the class or line and the boys in back of the class or line, or the child in a wheelchair being placed on the side of the classroom for the whole day. Other aspects of the classroom environment that may create bias include stereotypical images in classroom materials (e.g., White doctor, Black athlete, Latina maid). Some of the ways to address these challenges include

￮ ensuring that children have the opportunities to engage with children from diverse backgrounds by changing their seating and order of lining up through- out the school year;

￮ paying attention to how children are configured in all aspects of classroom functioning to avoid sending messages that certain children are more special because they are always in the front;

￮ being creative in how the classroom can be configured (many early child- hood programs have a circle set up or stations to ensure that there is no front, side, or back); and

￮ seeking ways to diversify images that children see so that they are not stereotypical.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

• Staff and Leadership—The first thing that children and parents see when they come to the program are the staff. Lack of diversity in staff (in terms of gender, race, eth- nicity, and age) fails to convey that a program values diversity—as does a program in which the janitor is the only minority staff. Some of the ways to address lack of diversity in your classroom or program, even if you don’t have responsibility for hiring, include

￮ inviting individuals from the community and family members to be part of the classroom or program in a meaningful way, such as leading classroom activi- ties or mentoring children;

￮ when hiring opportunities come up, ask families and community members for potential applicants for the position; and

￮ if you are in a position to hire, ensure minorities are not hired only for certain positions (e.g., janitor or teaching assistant).

• Activities and Materials—Materials and activities are the primary vehicles through which teachers impart information to children. For children to be engaged in the materials and activities, they have to be connected with their experiences, including their culture. Some activities can disadvantage children, such as children who have physical difficulty (e.g., challenge with fine motor skills) or are non-English speakers (requiring responses in English only), and class materials may be limited in the images they portray. Ways to address these challenges include

￮ ensuring that all classroom activities can be adapted so that all children can participate;

￮ allowing children to respond nonverbally, such as pointing, and responding to them nonverbally; and

￮ seeking ways to diversify the materials in the classroom by looking at online and library resources, asking colleagues for recommendations, asking families and community members for recommendations, and going to local book- stores that cater to the needs of the community.

• Assessments—Often, children are assigned to certain programs, classrooms, or group- ings due to the assessments they take. Teachers often assess children to determine what children know and what children are learning throughout the school year. How- ever, assessments may be biased against children in various ways, such as focusing on children’s verbal language rather than other aspects of communication, not accepting children’s responses when they are not Standard American English, using only scores from standardized measures (e.g., Bayley or Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, which are standardized tools to assess young children’s cognitive and receptive language), or focusing on only one aspect of children’s learning and development. To avoid poten- tially disadvantaging some children, some action steps to take include

￮ assessing multiple aspects of children’s development, including their expressive (i.e., ability to communicate) and receptive (i.e., ability to understand) skills,

￮ valuing rather than penalizing children when they use language that may not be viewed as proper English but is part of their culture (e.g., African American English Vernacular),

￮ assessing children in their home language, and ￮ not solely using standardized measures, which may not have included a

diverse sample when generating items for the test.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

Impact of Prejudice and Discrimination on Children’s Development It is a common belief that children’s innocence allows them to be oblivious to the prejudice and racism that exists in society. “Children are color-blind,” it is often claimed. Unfortunately, this is not true. An experiment by Dr. Kenneth Clark and his wife, Dr. Mamie Clark (1939), shows the stereotype and prejudice held by children based on skin color. In the classic Clark Doll Experiment, Black children were asked to choose between a black and a white doll that were the same, except for the skin color, along several attributes. Children were asked to do the following:

• “Show me the doll that you like best or that you’d like to play with,” • “Show me the doll that is the ‘nice’ doll,” • “Show me the doll that looks ‘bad,’” • “Give me the doll that looks like a white child,” • “Give me the doll that looks like a colored child,” • “Give me the doll that looks like a Negro child,” • “Give me the doll that looks like you.”

Most children thought the white doll was nicer than the black doll.

In 2005, Kiri Davis repeated the Clark Doll Experiment in Harlem as part of a short film called “A Girl Like Me.” She asked 21 children who were from Black and Latino backgrounds, and 71% told her that the white doll was the “nice” one. In this video, she also talks about how Black girls see themselves and how others see them. In 2010, CNN asked developmental psychologist Margaret Beale Spencer to repeat this experiment with two groups of black and white children: 4- and 5-year-olds and 9- and 10-year-olds. To see how these children understand race and skin color, watch “Inside the AC360 Doll Study”.

Together, these three studies demonstrate that institutional racism still exists and that it has been affecting children’s views of Blacks and other minorities for at least the past seven decades.

The Negative Effects of Stereotyping As early as 4 or 5 years old, children have stereotypes about their group and other groups that they think others may share. Researchers have also found that African-American and Latino children are more likely to know more stereotypes about their group than White and Asian children—often, the stereotypes are about intellectual ability and work ethic (McKown & Strambler, 2009). Negative ste- reotypes may limit children’s academic achievement and social interactions by giving them subtle messages that they are not smart enough or valuable enough to be in higher quality schools (e.g., those with better facilities and materials) than their peers. Social psychologists Steele and Aronson (1995) coined the term stereotype threat for the anxiety people feel in a situation where there is the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their racial or cultural group; this anxiety can interfere with academic achievement.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fmt1OR5aA4Q

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DYCz1ppTjiM

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

Girls sometimes shy away from anything involving math or science (to avoid the threat of not being smart enough in those subject areas) or they under- perform when confronted with situations involving math or science.

In the case of social interactions, researchers Brown and Bigler (2005) theorized that the more children know about stereotypes and prejudice, the more likely they will view situations in a racialized way. For example, if a child holds the belief that White people do not like Black people, then he may see a situa- tion where a Black child is being reprimanded by a White person as an act of discrimination. Perception by children that they are not good because of their race, gender, religion, or some other characteristic can also have an impact on their interactions with peers and adults, their engagement in the class- room, and subsequently their school success.

Sometimes even a positive stereotype about a group can have negative consequences for children, such as the stereotype that all Asians are smart. If an Asian American child has a learning disability, she may be viewed as lazy or “less than” because she is not meeting an expectation about Asian children. If the child believes this stereotype, she may have a negative perspective about her skill and ability, such as not persisting when learning to read or problem solve.

The Development of Prejudice in Children and Strategies for Dealing with It Even though children tend to have a positive worldview, they are very intuitive and systematic about how they process information about the world. In early childhood, children’s ability to sort objects that are similar and different increases; we even foster this ability through activities and conversations about what things are similar and different. So it is only natural that children observe similarities and differences among people. Bigler and Liben (2007) argue that it is a natu- ral part of children’s cognitive development to classify people based on observable similarities and differences like skin color, hair texture, eye shape, or sex. The physical characteristics of racial and ethnic minority children are often noticed more than those of White children; when minority children are fewer in number in the classroom, their differences stick out more.

Hemera/Thinkstock

Perpetuating stereotypes, such as girls not succeeding in math, can damage children’s educational development.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

Once children make these categorizations, it is again a natural part of their cognitive development to generate reasons for why these differences and similarities exist. This can be seen in the open- ing vignette of Eddie who held a genuine curiosity about whether drinking chocolate milk was the reason for his African-American classmate’s skin color. In situations like this, teachers have to think about what to do and how to guide such conversations between children.

First, teachers must recognize and understand the natural developmental progression of racial, ethnic, and national prejudice that occurs in children. Based on the findings of over 100 interna- tional (mostly European and U.S.) research studies from the last several decades, Raabe and Beel- mann (2011) report that overall prejudice toward ethnic and racial minorities increases during early childhood (ages 2–7) and then begins to drop off during middle childhood and adolescence; Figure 2.3 illustrates these developmental changes.

Figure 2.3: Developmental Change in Prejudice

According to this graph, prejudice peaks at ages 5–7 and then again around ages 14–16.

Source: Raabe, T., & Beelmann, A. (2011). Development of ethnic, racial, and national prejudice in childhood and adolescence: A multinational meta-analysis of age differences. Child Development, 82(6), 1715-1737. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x

There are some interesting caveats to their work, however. First, the decline in prejudice seen in middle childhood is only evident when children are asked to openly and consciously report their biases; a decline in prejudice is not evident when children are acting in an unconscious manner, such as when they fail to choose playmates that are from different racial or ethnic groups. Sec- ond, Raabe and Beelmann (2011) note that ethnic and racial minority children show an increase in prejudice during middle childhood; some researchers believe this may be due to the earlier experiences of discrimination and victimization these children experienced (Verkuyten & Thijs, 2002). Understanding the developmental changes in prejudice can help early childhood teachers determine potential areas to address with younger children to minimize prejudice and bias that children are likely to experience or be exposed to over time.

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

C h

an g

e in

P re

ju d

ic e

2 to 4 5 to 7 8 to 10 11 to 13 14 to 16 17 to 19

Age Groups

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x

CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Dealing With Cultural Misunderstandings, Racism, and Bias

So, given that prejudice peaks in early childhood, early childhood teachers need to use classroom strategies to decrease prejudice in young children. Table 2.3 describes a few strategies that are based on a body of research (Bigler & Liben, 2007; Gaias et al., 2018; Killen et al., 2022; Qian et al., 2017; Raabe & Beelmann, 2011). These strategies build teachers’ competence while also expos- ing children to different cultures. The first is for teachers to examine and seek ways to address their own biases and prejudice by, for example, immersing themselves in other cultures and then sharing what they learn with the children in their classroom to broaden their experiences and images of various cultural groups. See the Real World Dilemma feature, “Parent-Teacher Confer- ence About a Racial Slur,” for ideas about how to defuse and positively address situations that occur between children in the classroom.

Table 2.3: Strategies to Reduce Prejudice in Young Children

Strategy Suggestions for Classroom Activities

Critically and honestly examine your own biases and prejudices and work to get rid of them.

• Talk with colleagues from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds about their experiences and feelings.

• Immerse yourself in other cultures in order to learn more that you can share with children and broaden your own horizons.

• Ask a colleague to observe your instruction, taking note of whom you interact with the most and least.

Elevate the status of minority groups.

• Read books that depict characters from lower status ethnic minority groups.

• Speak positively of cultural events and traditions that are aligned with minority groups.

• Speak positively of obvious ethnic differences between children.

Strategy Suggestions for Classroom Activities

Plan for regular contact between children from different ethnic and minority groups.

• Work with program administrators to ensure the classrooms have ethnic, racial, and language diversity.

• Bring volunteers or special guests into the classroom, such as police officers and faith-based leaders, who are ethnic or racial minorities and who occupy positions of power and prominence in the community.

• When children are paired with their peers, try to ensure ethnic, racial, and linguistic diversity within each group or pair.

State your expectations about anti-bias.

• Verbally communicate the classroom norms regarding being equitable and treating everyone fairly.

• Positively communicate that differences between people are good and that we are all supposed to look different.

• Create a sense of community within the classroom; show that the children are all the same inside by talking about feelings and thoughts that they all share.

Sources: Bigler (1999); Diversity Exposure in Preschool: Longitudinal Implications for Cross-Race Friendships and Racial Bias, by L. M. Gaias, D. E. Gal, T. Abry, M. Taylor, & K. L. Granger, November/December 2018, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 59, 5–15 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.02.005); Reducing Prejudice Through Promoting Cross-Group Friendships, by M. Killen, K. Luken Raz, & S. Graham, 2022, Review of General Psychology, 26(3), 361–376 (https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680211061262); Perceptual Individuation Training (but Not Mere Exposure) Reduces Implicit Racial Bias in Preschool Children, by M. K. Qian, P. C. Quinn, G. D. Heyman, O. Pascalis, G. Fu, & K. Lee, 2017, Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 845–859 (https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000290); and Development of Ethnic, Racial, and National Prejudice in Childhood and Adolescence: A Multinational Meta-Analysis of Age Differences, by T. Raabe & A. Beelmann, 2011, Child Development, 82(6), 1715–1737 (https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.02.005

https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680211061262

https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fdev0000290

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

Although parents and other family members are an important source of young children’s beliefs about difference, media is increasingly another source. Young children now have access to many kinds of media, including cable/satellite television, Internet, smartphones,

tablets, computers/laptops, video games, and videos and movies. Consequently, the NAEYC has issued guidelines for children’s use of interactive media. In addition, teachers must also be aware of media’s power to reinforce stereotypes and look for ways to use it instead to affirm diversity.

The Role of Media in the Lives of Children A study by Common Sense Media (Rideout & Robb, 2020) found that not only did young children (ages 0–8) have access to computers, tablets, phones, online videos, television, video games, and social media, but they also used them often. As shown in Table 2.4, children under age 2 spend an average of 49 minutes a day on screens and children ages 2 to 4 an average of 2.5 hours per day. This study also found that children spent significantly more time watching television and vid- eos (45 minutes for children under 2 and more than 2 hours for children ages 2 to 4) than being read to/reading (28 minutes and 33 minutes, respectively). This study was conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic, during which screen time rose among children of all ages (Toombs et al., 2022).

Real World Dilemma: Parent-Teacher Conference About a Racial Slur Amanda, a White girl in your classroom, just used the “N-word” to refer to Keon, a Black classmate. Amanda informs you that she heard it at home and on television and did not know it was a bad word since no one seemed mad. You addressed the use of racial slurs and bad words with the whole class- room. Now you have scheduled a parent-teacher conference with Keon’s and Amanda’s parents about this incident.

1. What specific things would you like to get across to each family? 2. What challenges do you foresee with the families? 3. What information do you need from Amanda’s family to ensure that this does not happen again? 4. What information do you need from Keon’s family to ensure there are no lasting effects from the

words? 5. What steps do you take with parents, other parents, and the whole school?

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

Table 2.4: Time Spent with Media, by Activity and Age, 2020

Among 0- to 8-year-olds, average amount of time spent in a typical day . . . Under 2 2 to 4 5 to 8

Watching television/videos :45a 2:02b 2:00b

• Television :18a :25b :27b

￮ As aired :16 :18 :20

￮ Recorded/on demand :02a :07b :07b

• Online/subscription :17a 1:21b 1:24b

￮ Streaming/subscription :13a :33b :35b

￮ Online videos (YouTube/social/other) :04a :48b :49b

• DVDs† :10 :16a :09b

Reading/being read to :28 :33 :34

• Print :26 :28 :29

• Electronic :02 :05 :05

Playing video games :01a :15b :40c

• Console games :00a :04b :14c

• Computer games *a :01a :05b

• Mobile games :01a :10b :21c

Listening to audio :35a :33a :20b

• Music :34a :31a :17b

• Podcasts/stories/audiobooks :01 :02 :03

Other digital activities :01a :08b :20c

• Video chatting * :01 :01

• Homework/educational‡ *a *a :05b

• Virtual reality :00 * *

• Anything else§ :01a :07b :14c

Total screen media :49a 2:30b 3:05c

Total media 1:50a 3:31b 3:54b

* Less than one minute but more than zero. † Prior to 2020, this item also included time spent watching videotapes. ‡ Prior to 2020, time spent doing homework digitally was measured on computers; in 2020, tablets were also included. § Such as taking or looking at photos or videos, looking things up, social networking, or using other types of activities or apps not already covered. Note: Items with different superscripts differ significantly (p < .05). Items with no superscript, or those with the same superscript, do not differ significantly. Significance should be read across rows (between age groups). Source: The Common Sense Census: Media Use by Kids Age Zero to Eight, by V. Rideout and M. B. Robb, 2020, Common Sense Media (https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/2020_zero_to_eight_census_final_web.pdf).

https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/2020_zero_to_eight_census_final_web.pdf

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

A recent study indicated that 75% of children under age 2 use screens, and higher levels of screen time at age 2 are associated with decreased communication abilities and life skills at age 4 (Sugi- yama et al., 2023). Among 2-year-olds who frequently played outside, however, some of the nega- tive effects of screen time were mitigated.

Children’s technology skills are advancing rapidly. Many early childhood educators have advised that media, especially television, should be restricted, so that young children can build their physical and social skills with plenty of opportunities for hands-on learning, playing outside, and connecting with other children. Many educators also worry that technology is limiting children’s artistic and creative side, as well as their language and cognitive skills. Some even worry that technology may change children’s brain development and how they learn.

But the biggest concern may be what children are watching. Some content helps children learn words, letters, think, and cooperate with other children, but children also learn bad words and behaviors from screen media. The problem is that technology is part of the 21st century; it cannot be avoided.

On the plus side, technology, such as websites and computer programs, that shows how children in other parts of the world live can help children and staff become more culturally competent. Through texting and video chatting, technology can also provide a means for families and teachers to communicate and share ideas, and it can provide translation for teachers and parents. Technol- ogy can also help teachers to share children’s accomplishments in a timely fashion with parents through video diaries and pictures. Just as important, assisted technology, when used appropri- ately, is a powerful way to empower children with disabilities and to enable them to be engaged with both the teacher and the other children. Table 2.5 lists a few pros and cons of technology for young children. Do you have others to add?

Table 2.5: Pros and Cons of Technology for Young Children

Pros Cons

Offering different ways to learn Learning negative things (e.g., aggressive behaviors)

Learning new things earlier (e.g., educational apps, educational shows)

Advertisements affecting behavior and eating (e.g., link to high obesity)

Learning new language or subtle ways of communicating

Spending less time on stimulating activities, such as reading and interacting

Connecting with families across the world Diminishing critical thinking skills

NAEYC’s Statement About Technology and Interactive Media To address early childhood educators’ concerns about interactive media, NAEYC (2012b) devel- oped a joint position statement with the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent College in 2012, entitled “Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8.”

In this statement, interactive media is defined as “digital and analog materials, including soft- ware programs, applications (apps), broadcast and streaming media, some children’s television

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

programming, e-books, the Internet, and other forms of content designed to facilitate active and creative use by young children and to encourage social engagement with other children and adults” (p. 1). As Curenton, Piotrowicz, and Rendon (2013) point out, interactive media can be a net benefit or a net negative to society, depending on how it is used. Thus, the challenge is how to safely, responsibly, and effectively use these tools to enhance children’s development.

NAEYC and Fred Rogers Center developed six key recommendations for early childhood programs:

1. Select, use, integrate, and evaluate tech- nology and interactive media tools in intentional and developmentally appropri- ate ways, giving careful attention to the appropriateness and the quality of the content, the child’s experience, and the opportunities for co-engagement.

2. Provide a balance of activities in pro- grams for young children, recognizing that technology and interactive media can be valuable tools when used intentionally with children to extend and support active, hands-on, creative, and authentic engage- ment with those around them and with their world.

3. Prohibit the passive use of television, videos, DVDs, and other non-interactive technologies and media in early childhood programs for children younger than 2, and discourage passive and non-interactive uses with children ages 2 through 5.

4. Limit any use of technology and interactive media in programs for children younger than 2 to those that appropriately support responsive interactions between caregivers and children and that strengthen adult-child relationships.

5. Carefully consider the screen time recommendations from public health organizations for children from birth through age 5 when determining appropriate limits on technol- ogy and media use in early childhood settings. Screen time estimates should include time spent in front of a screen at the early childhood program and, with input from parents and families, at home and elsewhere.

6. Provide leadership in ensuring equitable access to technology and interactive media expe- riences for the children in their care and for parents and families (p.11).

In addition to following the NAEYC guidelines, educators in multicultural centers and classrooms need to remember that not all children have access to interactive media. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2023d), approximately 3% of children ages 3 to 18 do not have access to the Internet at home. Therefore, teachers should find out from families whether they have a computer or mobile device, such as a smartphone or tablet, to access the Internet from their home, especially if teachers suggest websites or computer programs to supplement chil- dren’s learning.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Using the NAEYC’s recommendations for computer use will help you establish safe and responsible parameters for using technology when working with young children.

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

How Media Promotes and Prevents Discrimination Before using any digital app or game in a multicultural classroom, teachers should evaluate whether it is developmentally appropriate, culturally relevant, and free of bias, just as they evalu- ate pictures, books, and activities.

The Impact of Negative Stereotypes in Media Media plays a role in the stereotypes that children form and the prejudicial attitudes they have toward individuals. Ethnic minority children and children from low-income homes consume more screen media than do children from higher-income and White families (Rideout & Robb, 2020), and many racial and ethnic identities are underrepresented or unfairly portrayed in contemporary media. In an analysis of media constructions of race, Dixon et al. (2019) found that on prime-time television shows, Black characters are proportionately represented but are depicted as “immoral and despicable” three times more often than White characters (Dixon et al., 2019, “Black Enter- tainment Television Imagery”). People of Hispanic origin are significantly underrepresented and frequently hypersexualized or cast in low-status professional roles. Asians and Native Americans are even more drastically underrepresented.

According to a report by Common Sense Media (2021), child-focused television shows overrepre- sent White people but also contain slightly more Asian, Native American, and Hispanic characters compared with adult-focused media. Recently, some media organizations have announced initia- tives to increase on-screen diversity. The following is an initiative at PBS:

Every PBS KIDS producer is asked to share their plans to create content that hon- ors a diversity of cultural values, norms, and points of view (including but not lim- ited to children from racially and ethnically diverse groups, children with different abilities, and children living in poverty). (PBS, 2023, p. 19)

Encountering positive depictions of people with differing backgrounds helps combat stereotypes, which minimize the diversity among individuals and within groups. Negative stereotypes are par- ticularly demeaning because they devalue the purpose and worth of an individual.

Studies have shown that media—television, for example—can influence children’s racial stereo- types and perceptions (Mayhew & Weigle, 2018; Sierra, 2019). In one study with elementary school children, it was shown that children who overheard a negative message about a social group maintained negative attitudes toward that group 2 weeks later (Conder & Lane, 2021).

Just as children learn new words from watching television, they are also capable of learning other things through media, such as attitudes about certain groups. To combat the negative impact of media on young children’s attitudes and beliefs about specific groups, positive role portrayals of minority group members are needed. In the meantime, teachers can find ways to use media con- structively and selectively.

Using Media Positively to Enhance Learning and Promote Cultural Diversity Even considering the dangers of media, they have vast potential to enhance learning and promote cultural diversity. Sesame Street and similar educational programs typically portray children from diverse backgrounds and families and with different abilities and languages. These programs show that children from different backgrounds can get along. Because one form of learning is through

CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Media Portrayals of Diversity

observation and mimicking, these educational shows may provide schemata for children to mimic when interacting with children who are different from them. Children not only mimic bad words and behaviors, but they also mimic good behaviors, such as sharing, showing affection, and read-

ing. See the Design an Activity feature, “Evaluate a TV Program,” for questions that can help you analyze the explicit and implicit messages and models of a television program or video.

Media can also help children explore other cultures, regions, and countries. For example, teachers can take their preschoolers on a virtual trip to another country or another part of the United States. They can also talk with children about the way things are done in this place: the food, the clothing, how children go to school, what school is like. The media can also be used to create a learning story. Studies show that television programs and videos that directly address specific racial problems or conflicts and model effec- tive solutions can “positively influence children’s racial knowledge, attitudes, and preferences” (Graves, 1999, p. 721). For example, a video clip can be created with children in the classroom addressing issues of bias, such as re-enacting a situation in which children use hurtful racist words and resolving it.

However, media alone is not enough. Addressing chil- dren’s stereotypes and prejudice about subgroups requires multiple and varied experiences that are interactive and explicit rather than a one-time event. For example, exposing children to 30–45 minutes of

activities, movies, art projects, reading, and discussion every day for 30 days focused on a specific subgroup (e.g., famous Hispanic inventors, African American Civil Rights leaders, Native American authors) may be more beneficial in minimizing children’s stereotypes and prejudice about a certain group than just a one-day or one-time event (Persson & Musher-Eizenman, 2003).

Hemera/Thinkstock

Children can develop negative attitudes about certain ethnicities via the media, so it is important for you to incorporate positive portrayals of monitories to combat these notions.

Design an Activity: Evaluate a TV Program Select a favorite children’s television show and use the questions below to reflect on the messages this show is sending to you and to other viewers:

1. What is the ethnic or cultural diversity of the cast? (Consider also socioeconomic status, gender, sexuality, and language.)

2. What are the roles of the different cast members? Are there stereotypical roles (e.g., are White men the bosses, are Latinos/Latinas the gardeners or maids)?

3. Who is the dominant cast member (e.g., the star, with the most speaking and camera time)? 4. Who seems like the “irrelevant” or “add-on” cast member (i.e., only speaks one line)? 5. What is the language use among cast members (e.g., dialect, slang)? 6. What does the story line tell you about society in regard to race, culture, special needs, religion, etc.? 7. Is there anything else about the characters and location that tells you something about a culture or

its members?

CHAPTER 2Discussion Questions

Chapter Summary

2.1: With the growing diversity in the U.S., it is critical that ECE teachers are culturally competent. Cultural competence is an ongoing and long-term process that demands enthusiasm and curiosity about other cultures and a willingness to adapt educational practices to mirror the values and special characteristics of children and their families. Culturally competent teachers are able to effectively educate children from cultural backgrounds that are different from their own, working with children’s families as a part of that endeavor. We are not born culturally competent; we go through stages to become culturally proficient.

2.2: Strategies are beginning to emerge to enhance ECE teachers’ cultural competence. One example is the NAEYC Pathways to Cultural Competence Project, which is an ongoing process of self-reflection and learning to improve culturally competent practices in early childhood programs. Part of becoming more culturally competent is through engage- ment with families, incorporating families and culture throughout all aspects of the ECE programs, and providing professional development to address bias and discrimination.

2.3: The key to creating a culturally inclusive classroom is positive adult-child interactions, which include emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support. In addition, teachers can design the physical environment and activities to facilitate inter- actions that are inclusive and meet the needs of culturally diverse children.

2.4: Racism, discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes are all around us, and thus they can’t, and should not, be ignored. They take many forms and they are not as obvious as they were in the past. There are many ways to spot and address all forms of bias and dis- crimination, including examining the language we use, how we organize the classroom, how we hire teachers, and how we create and fill leadership positions in the school. Discrimination, prejudice, bias, and assumptions of privilege affect how children view themselves, the world, and others. Often, minority children are viewed more negatively than White children.

2.5: Media and technology also play a key role in how children view themselves, the world, and others. Though media can reinforce negative stereotypes and images about groups of people, they can also be a source of learning, developing children’s minds and expanding children’s experiences. Technology needs to be equally accessible to all children in a program and their families. However, use of media must be monitored to ensure it is not perpetuating negative images and stereotypes about groups of people.

Discussion Questions

1. What are some of the barriers to being culturally competent? What role does upbringing have in being culturally competent?

2. In what ways can the interactions and environment children experience in the early education classroom affect how they view their culture, racial, or ethnic group?

CHAPTER 2Key Terms

3. What is the best way to deal with young children who display prejudice or bias against certain groups? What about parents who display prejudice or bias against certain groups?

4. Should television viewing be banned for young children as a way to reduce potential prejudice or bias?