ENG 121 WEEK 2 DISCUSSION 1

I love that moment at the end of the day, or the end of the week, or the end of the manuscript, which might be a couple of years, when I am reading it over and thinking , “This is what I meant to do. This is how I wanted it to sound.”

–Anna Quindlen

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Recognize the common misconcep- tions and fears about the writing process.

2. Describe the challenges and rewards of the writing process.

3. Summarize the difference between formal and informal language, and identify the reasons to avoid code switching.

4. Explain how to utilize useful tools for writers, including style guides, thesauruses, and etymological dictionaries.

5. Apply the use of resources such as online libraries, writing centers, and tutoring services.

1Introduction to College Writing

James Woodson, Digital Vision/Getty

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

Writing can be an enjoyable and rewarding process, and this class is an opportunity for you to strengthen your writing skills and to learn the methods of college writing. The writing process gives back to you, the writer, what you put into it. Writing helps you discover what you think. Have you ever written down your thoughts about a subject in a journal or notebook? If so, chances are that in doing so you learned something about your own thought process. While much of the writing that you will do for a college course will not be personal, all writing is reflective. In fact, journaling your thoughts on any writing assignment can be a great way to start sorting out what you will write in the essay.

One of America’s most famous authors, William Faulkner, once claimed that, “A writer needs three things: experience, observation, and imagination, any two of which, at times any one of which, can supply the lack of the others” (Faulkner, 1968, p. 248). If Faulkner— who wrote and revised tirelessly—had faith that the writing process could be cultivated so easily, then becoming an effective writer is a possibility for most people. This chapter is an introduction to the tasks, requirements, and elements of writing, and to the resources available to help you create well-written college papers.

1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

Some students believe that writing is an inborn talent: You either have it, or you do not—but this is completely untrue. So-called “good” writers commit time to work-ing on their writing, including revising. Since writing is an acquired skill, anyone can become a good writer through a combination of hard work and commitment. Reading formal or informal writing extensively is also an excellent way to work on one’s writing. Through reading and paying attention to various writing structures and techniques, writ- ers build a stronger vocabulary, a sense of how to organize ideas, and an understanding of writing structure.

You might be surprised to learn that most of the famous authors you have heard of kept to a daily writing schedule of several hours a day and threw away many drafts before arriv- ing at a “final draft.” Consider Mark Twain’s (1868) description of the writing process: “To get the right word in the right place is a rare achievement. To condense the diffused light of a page of thought into the luminous flash of a single sentence, is worthy to rank as a prize composition just by itself” (para. 3). Good writers practice writing, and the more you write, the more you will see your writing improve. No matter how much or how little natural ability you have, you can develop writing skills and strengthen the skills you currently have. Misconceptions people may have about writing can make them feel disin- clined toward the whole subject. Dismissing these misconceptions is perhaps the first step toward becoming a good writer.

Common Misconceptions About Writing Many people have ideas about writing that are negative and hinder their ability to write well. They may think that writing is, and always will be, difficult for them, or that it is not an important skill to learn, or that it is simply not fun. These misconceptions affect the way many students feel about writing, but luckily, there are several ways to overcome these ideas and create a more enjoyable writing experience.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

Myth #1: I’m Not Good at It Before starting the actual writing process, it is important to first examine your mental attitude about writing. American automobile pioneer Henry Ford is quoted as saying, “Whether you think you can, or you think you can’t—you’re right.” In other words, if you believe you cannot do something, you will probably be unable to do it—not because you do not have the ability, but because you will not devote the time and the energy necessary to develop that skill. Thus, it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. An unknown writer once stated this concept succinctly (see Writing in Action: Watch Your Thoughts). On the other hand, if you believe you can become a good writer through hard work, and you commit yourself to the writing process, you can certainly improve your writing skills.

Writing in Action: Watch Your Thoughts

Watch your thoughts, for they become words.

Watch your words, for they become actions.

Watch your actions, for they become habits.

Watch your habits, for they become character.

Watch your character, for it becomes your destiny.

—Unknown

(San Antonio Light, 1977)

Myth #2: Writing Is Easy for Some People but Difficult for Me Some people seem to write so beautifully. Their writing flows smoothly and is so easy to read that it seems effortless. However, good writers only make it look easy. Do not be fooled; writing is difficult for everyone. Perhaps at some point you had an opportunity to read one of the many books by the celebrated American novelist and short- story writer Ernest Hemingway. Hemingway wrote from the 1920s to 1950s and received two of the most prestigious awards a writer can earn, the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for his novel The Old Man and the Sea and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. Hemingway had a distinctive writing style and generally wrote in simple sentences, using clear, direct words. Often, however, he mixed lon- ger and shorter sentences to add variety and to create drama. This variety of sentence structure can be seen in the opening passage from The Old Man and the Sea, shown in Writing in Action: Open- ing Passage From The Old Man and the Sea.

Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS On the difficulty of writing, famous American writer Ernest Hemingway said, “We are all apprentices in a craft where no one ever becomes a master.”

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

Writing in Action: Opening Passage From The Old Man and the Sea

He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But after forty days without a fish the boy’s parents had told him that the old man was now definitely and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky, and the boy had gone at their orders in another boat which caught three good fish the first week . . . . .

The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on his cheeks. The blotches ran well down the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. But none of these scars were fresh. They were as old as erosions in a fishless desert.

Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated.

“Santiago,” the boy said to him as they climbed the bank from where the skiff was hauled up. “I could go with you again. We’ve made some money.”

The old man had taught the boy to fish and the boy loved him.

“No,” the old man said. “You’re with a lucky boat. Stay with them.”

“But remember how you went eighty-seven days without fish and then we caught big ones every day for three weeks.”

“I remember,” the old man said. “I know you did not leave me because you doubted.”

“It was papa made me leave. I am a boy and I must obey him.”

“I know,” the old man said. “It is quite normal.”

“He hasn’t much faith.”

“No,” the old man said. “But we have. Haven’t we?”

“Yes,” the boy said. “Can I offer you a beer on the Terrace and then we’ll take the stuff home.”

“Why not?” the old man said. “Between fishermen.”

The Opening Passage from The Old Man and the Sea (Hemingway, 1952, pp. 9–11)

This passage from The Old Man and the Sea is an example of Hemingway’s deceptively simple style of writing. He was able to convey strong emotions and create vivid visual scenes with his skilled use of language. Hemingway was also meticulous in revising his writing to be as good as he could make it, maintaining that he rewrote the ending of his classic World War I novel, A Farewell to Arms, 39 times. Hemingway never described writ- ing as easy. Instead, he said, “We are all apprentices in a craft where no one ever becomes a master.” What is the point of practicing something that even the experts agree is diffi- cult? The answer to that question is that writing can become a powerful tool in daily life because we learn something about ourselves in the process, and because it can be reward- ing and fun.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

Myth #3: Writing Is Not Fun It is never fun to engage in an activity when you perform poorly, but if you can find an aspect of the prompt or the reading that is interesting to you as your starting point, you will be more interested in the writing process, and will therefore be much more likely to produce good writing. As you become a better writer, you will find that being able to express your thoughts, feelings, ideas, and beliefs clearly and convincingly will give you a sense of enjoyment, accomplishment, and pride. You will also have a tremendous power through which you can share your ideas and influence others. Did you know that becoming a good writer will also help you become a good debater? There have likely been times when you disagreed with someone’s political or philosophical interpretation about something, but maybe you were unsure how to express your argument. Becoming a good writer will also allow you to communicate at a higher level verbally.

Myth #4: Writing Is Not Important Some students believe writing is not important or that they will not need to write in their jobs. Fifty years ago, this belief may have been true, but in our complex and technically oriented society, people in almost every occupation need advanced reading and writing skills. At least one expert believes that the reading and writing skills demanded by many entry-level jobs are even greater than those needed to be successful in college (Daggett, 2002). Almost all jobs today require workers to read highly technical manuals; to write instructions and procedures; and to correspond with customers, management, and even government officials via emails and letters. One business advisory committee estimates that most jobs demand 1½ hours of reading-related tasks every day, such as the ability to read and comprehend safety instructions and signs (Hryciuk, 1995). The idea that you can succeed in the workplace today without good reading and writing skills is a myth. Hope- fully, your career goals are in line with your interests, and you work in a field that you enjoy. This means that writing will help you attain your larger goals. In all likelihood, you will also have to write something as part of your job application, which will then be used to assess how qualified you are for a job.

Writing can also be valuable in one’s personal life apart from simply securing a job posi- tion. Whether you are writing a letter, a blog post, or an email, it is helpful in many arenas of life to be able to communicate clearly and effectively. Regardless of where you are start- ing from, you can significantly improve in any form of writing you wish to.

Becoming a Good Writer Writing includes a series of tasks that requires a set of skills. The chances are that you already possess certain abilities in some aspects of the writing process, while you may want to strengthen your skills in other areas. Some people have trouble getting started on a writing project; others have no problem generating ideas but have difficulty organizing those ideas. Some writers have storytelling ability, while others seem better at writing informational reports, letters, or instructions. While any sort of natural ability with lan- guage is meaningless if an individual does not cultivate that ability, a person who works on cultivating the skills he or she does have can easily exceed the abilities of the so-called “natural born writer.”

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

Master Writing Tasks One goal of this book is to help you discover your own writing strengths and weaknesses. It is important to consider writing weaknesses so that you can focus on improving in those areas. As you learn the fundamentals of effective writing and sharpen your skills, you will build your writing confidence. You probably will not excel at all writing tasks or at all dif- ferent types of writing the first time you try them. However, you can make the most of the abilities you have, and you may even discover talents you did not know you possessed. In this course, students may be asked to take diagnostic tests or quizzes. These help assess your writing abilities at the beginning of a term. Your instructors will use these diagnos- tics to gain insight about the strengths and weaknesses of your writing.

Review the list of writing tasks that are components or steps of a writing assignment in Writing in Action: Writing Tasks. Decide which writing tasks you find easiest and which tasks you would like to work on in order to become a stronger writer.

Writing in Action: Writing Tasks

Review this list and place an “S” next to at least three tasks you see as your strengths and a “W” next to at least three tasks that are weaknesses for you. A “strength” does not necessarily mean that you always perform this task well. It just means that you find this task to be one of the easiest aspects of writing, and it does not usually cause you a great deal of trouble. A “weakness” is a task that almost always causes problems for you. In this course, resolve to improve the weak areas you identified.

___ Getting started on a writing assignment

___ Reading and understanding the assignment

___ Finding a topic

___ Generating ideas for your paper

___ Conducting research on the Internet

___ Conducting research using a physical or online library

___ Writing a personal story

___ Writing a paper that explains an issue or shares information

___ Writing a persuasive paper

___ Writing a research paper

___ Creating in-text and reference list source citations

___ Typing the paper on the computer

___ Staying on topic when you write

___ Finding the right words

___ Organizing your ideas

___ Including details and elaborating on your ideas

___ Revising and editing your draft (continued)

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born

This text will teach you (or review for you) the fundamentals of each major writing task. If you have difficulty with a particular writing task, perhaps you have not learned the ele- ments required to perform that task well. If you already know the fundamentals, perhaps you have trouble because you have avoided writing opportunities and have let your skills become dull through disuse. You can think of your writing ability as a muscle: If you do not exercise it, it can become weak from lack of use. On the other hand, as soon as you start practicing again, you will begin to learn and ultimately, to improve.

Practice Writing As you complete your college degree and expose yourself regularly to written words through your reading and writing, you will naturally strengthen your language abilities and your writing skills. Athletes must train and practice regularly to be at their peak per- formance level; musicians must practice diligently to maintain the height of their skills. Writers, as well, must write continually to express their ideas with clarity. For this rea- son, many writing experts suggest keeping a personal journal or a diary. Besides being a wonderful way to chronicle your life and to record your experiences, journaling can be a useful tool for both reading comprehension and improving writing skills. Keeping a personal journal gives you an opportunity to think about what you have learned and can help you practice translating your thoughts and feelings into written words. Writing a blog (a public or private web journal, usually on a particular subject) on the Internet serves this same purpose; journals, however, are often kept private while blogs are often, but not always, shared with others. (Tip: Search the Internet using the keywords “journ- aling” or “blogging” for more information about these topics or to find journal and blog ideas.) Journaling or blogging may be the way you start to build a positive relationship with writing—and one thing all good writers have in common is that they come to enjoy the writing process.

If you have any fears about writing, you are not alone. Most writers, including some highly successful authors, feel the same way. American writer Natalie Goldberg believes that when we write, “we have to look at our own inertia, insecurities, self-hate, fear that, in truth, we have nothing valuable to say. . . .” (Goldberg, 2005). You may worry that you are not good enough or that no one will like what you have written. Perhaps you are afraid that you will not be able to finish the paper or that you will not be able to start. Or, you may dread exposing your true feelings, hate the frustration you experience when you write, or be concerned about being criticized. Keep in mind that this is a fear, but it is not the truth. The truth is that we all have valuable insights we can offer on a subject.

___ Using correct English grammar and punctuation

___ Spelling words correctly

___ Proofreading your work

___ Turning your assignment in on time

Writing in Action: Writing Tasks (continued)

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing

However, even with this in mind, it can still be difficult to overcome the fear associated with writing. What is the cure? Self-help guru Susan Jeffers’s answer, and title of one of her best-selling books, is: Feel the Fear . . . And Do It Anyway (2006). In other words, acknowl- edge the fear or the anxiety. It is natural to be apprehensive or even fearful about putting your ideas on paper, but do not let that fear stop you. As Jeffers explains, doing what we fear builds our confidence in ourselves, and that growing confidence helps make fear dis- appear. Usually with writing, most of the fear occurs before we have begun to write. Once you can move past that and put your first sentence down on the page, most of the feelings of fear will dissolve. It can be useful to remind yourself that what you first write does not have to be perfect. No one’s writing is perfect on the first draft, not even the material produced by professional writers! You may want to try to write out your thoughts on a particular subject first without worrying too much about grammar, and then later reread what you have written, trying to make sure your sentences are clear, grammatically cor- rect, and logical. It is important to remember that your sentences do not have to be perfect the moment they are first typed; save time to revise your ideas so that you can smooth out your sentences as much as possible.

Finally, each person approaches writing in a different way. What is most important is that you find a method that works best for you. You may want to start writing by simply brainstorming ideas on a piece of paper; you may want to begin by writing an outline, or plan, of what you intend to say; or, you may simply feel most comfortable by starting with paragraph one. Whatever your method may be, it is useful to try other methods in order to learn what works best for you. It will also help build confidence in your writing skills to gain a deeper understanding of the basic elements of writing, and these elements will be discussed in the next section.

1.2 Common Elements in All Writing

Regardless of the type of document—whether it is a novel, a school paper, a business report, or a speech—all writing is similar in several important ways. The writing situation and its context are always crucial to consider when writing. The Writing Situation and Context Whenever you write, you do so for a purpose. You usually have a goal in mind that you are trying to achieve, and that purpose or goal might fall into one of the following categories:

• To tell a story or to share personal opinions or experiences • To inform, explain, explore, analyze, or interpret ideas • To convince readers to share your point of view about a subject or to take

some action you recommend • To honor or commemorate someone or something • To acquire knowledge and/or to organize, analyze, and synthesize

information • To entertain the reader and provide an escape from daily activities

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing

For any writing task, ask questions about the audience for whom you are writing. Are you writing for your college instructor, a friend, your boss, or a customer? How you visualize your anticipated audience affects what and how you write. Just as you would use differ- ent language when you talk to your friend than you would if you were talking to your instructor, you want to craft your language to suit your audience when you write.

The Writing Situation The writing situation includes the occasion, audience, the writer’s per- sona or voice, and the argument of the writing. The writing situation also determines the genre or the type of writing required. For example, if your instructor asked you to give an oral presentation in class, you would not write and memorize an essay. Instead, you would write a presentation out- line that would probably include a thesis statement as well as examples to support your main points.

You can think of the occasion as the reason why you are writing. For instance, if you are writing a eulogy, a speech celebrating the life of a deceased person, the occasion is the funeral ceremony. In this example, the audience will include many family members and friends who are there to honor and celebrate the life of the deceased. The audience should be kept in mind while you write; the audience members likely would not appreciate negative comments about the deceased. However, they probably would enjoy positive statements about the person’s accomplishments, an overall serious voice, and perhaps even a few respectful jokes about funny things that the deceased did during his or her lifetime. Another aspect of the writing situation is the writer ’s or speaker ’s persona, or voice, which in the case of a eulogy will likely be somber and express familiarity with the deceased. Finally, part of the writing situation is the argument that you are making. In the case of a eulogy, this would likely be a claim about the deceased’s greatest qualities. Figure 1.1 illustrates the elements of the writing situation and can be a guide for determining what to write and how to write it.

Helena Schaeder Söderberg Developing a unique voice, or style of writing, is what differentiates a writer from others. We must also consider the audience when choosing our voice.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing

Outside Environment

Characteristics of the Audience

Writing Circumstances

AUDIENCEPURPOSE

WRITER

Writing Situation Figure 1.1: The context for writing

Considering elements of the writing situation such as the audience, the purpose for writing, and the outside environment will help you make writing choices that are appropriate for the occasion.

When you are writing for a class, the assignment itself is often the “occasion” for writ- ing. Your “audience” will generally be your instructor or TA. The “persona” or voice in which you write will be your own, but likely with a more formal or academic tone than you would use for writing an email to friend. And your instructor will often give you an essay prompt from which you will derive an argument. An argument is not a statement of fact; it is an interpretation that can be disagreed with. If a sentence is simply a truth of the text, then it is not yet an argument—add an interpretation about the significance of those details in order to turn the idea into an argument. For example, to say “In The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby is extremely wealthy” is probably not a sufficient argument on which to write a paper. However, “In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the extreme wealth of Jay Gatsby to demonstrate the corrupting power of money” would be a worthwhile argument to write about because it is a statement that someone could argue against.

As stated above, usually the writing prompt in itself determines your audience, persona, and the occasion. For an additional example, if the assignment asked you to write a speech to be delivered to your class, then that is the occasion. In this case, the audience would refer to your classmates, an educated group of individuals, and of course your instructor. When writing your speech, you should take into consideration the fact that your audience is knowledgeable about the subject and use appropriate formal language. If the speech requires you to take a position on a current topic, a mixture of enthusiasm and seriousness would create a persona or voice that seems reliable. The argument that you would make would be an answer to the essay assignment—for example, arguing that a character in a novel makes a good choice even though it leads to bad results.

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You have your own voice, a characteristic style of writing that will be different from the writing of anyone else. These elements of occasion, audience, argument, and persona cre- ate a unique writing situation.

Considering Context In addition to the writing situation, the writing circumstances, outside environment, and characteristics of the audience all play a role in writing. Always consider how the writ- ten material will be used. For example, the writing might be read aloud, used only for a classroom assignment, or be published somewhere. If the material is intended to be read orally, this circumstance would change the language and sentence structure of what you write. If your manuscript will be published, the publisher might have some specific lan- guage requirements.

The outside environment should also affect your writing, so you might want to think about what is going on in the reader’s experience that could influence what you say and how you say it. You might have written about terrorism differently, for example, if you wrote before September 11, 2001, or immediately after the 9/11 attacks.

You will also want to consider the backgrounds and attitudes of the audience. Some ques- tions you could ask yourself about your readers might be:

• How is the audience likely to react to what I have to say? • Will my readers like or dislike what I have written? • How important will this topic be to my readers, and what else might they

have read about the topic? • What do readers need to know about this subject? • How much do they already know? • What do I want them to think or to know when they have finished reading?

All the factors mentioned above—the occasion, audience, persona, argument, writing cir- cumstances, and outside environment—shape the way in which you will write. Under- standing these aspects of the writing situation and context helps you make decisions about such writing issues as the following:

• What type of paper should I write? • Who is the audience for the paper? • What point of view should I use—should the writing be in first person (I),

second person (you), or third person (they or the researcher)? • Should my language be formal or informal? • What terms should be defined, and what terms would the audience already

know? • What information should be included, and what should be left out?

Try to keep the elements of the writing situation and context in mind as you write.

We will revisit these issues throughout this course and discuss how to apply them to your college writing assignments. In many cases, instructors will supply the necessary infor- mation on the writing situation for your assignment.

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Rhetoric For writing to be effective, to accomplish its purpose, the language must be appropri- ate. This means that you must make conscious choices about the words you use and the way you use them. When thinking about the rhetorical context for your writing situa- tion, it is crucial to think about rhetorical devices and how you may be using them. The word rhetoric refers to the skill of using language effectively and persuasively. Rhetoric first arose as a major field of study under the ancient Greeks, and Aristotle defined it as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle, 350 BCE). Aristotle described three basic forms of rhetoric or of appealing to the reader. These three forms—pathos, ethos, and logos—will be discussed below.

Appeals to the Reader When a writer or speaker makes a special appeal to the audience’s emotions in order to persuade them, the writer is said to be appealing to the readers’ pathos. Appeals to pathos are used in public service announcements, advertising, and politics, to name just a few. Examples of such a kind of appeal are the television commercials from the ASPCA, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. The commercials make an appeal to pathos by making you feel deeply saddened by the examples of animal cru- elty that flash across your screen. And that appeal may in fact prompt you to act and donate money or time toward stopping animal cruelty. An appeal to pathos is not always wrong—clearly, animal abuse is a serious ethical issue. But the creators of the commercials did use appeals to pathos in order to persuade you to act. An appeal to ethos occurs when speakers emphasize their own credibility and authority on a subject. If someone seems to be an expert on a subject, the chances are that you are more likely to believe what that per- son is saying. But beware—some people may simply claim they are experts on a topic, and may not actually be. On the other hand, if someone refers to his or her credentials, such as having a Ph.D. on a subject, then that person probably truly is an expert in that area of study. Writers and speakers also sometimes make an appeal to logos, or an appeal to the audience’s sense of reason and logic. If a writer makes a step-by-step series of claims that add up to a conclusion, that is an appeal to logos. Table 1.1 breaks down the characteristics of these three types of appeals, and provides examples of each.

Table 1.1: Appeals to the reader

pathos An appeal to the audience’s emotions.

Example: How could you live with yourself if you don’t donate to this animal shelter? These poor animals need you.

ethos An appeal to one’s credibility or authority on the subject discussed.

Example: I have researched this subject for a very long time, so my interpretation is likely correct.

logos An appeal to the audience’s reason.

Example: Considering these clear statistics, it is only reasonable to conclude that global warming is a real phenomenon.

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Persuasion It is generally assumed that if one sounds logical and reasonable, then one can persuade others. But sometimes an argument may sound logical when in fact it is not, so read care- fully. At other times the argument may really be logical and the evidence used to support the argument may also be reasonable. Yet the evidence must be more than simply reason- able—the evidence must actually prove what the writer is trying to argue in order for it to be a fair appeal to logos. For instance, a writer can give you statistics that are true, but if they are about an unrelated subject, they really do not prove the writer’s argument. If a writer were to give you facts about how the use of toothpaste is clinically proven to reduce cavities, that evidence does not prove that a particular brand of toothpaste is the best one at preventing tooth decay. Almost all writing requires you to think critically about the subject you are writing on; always be sure to question evidence, claims, and conclusions a writer makes and make sure they are reasonable and logical.

Formal Versus Informal Language and the Standard College Essay Informal language tends to be used outside of the classroom and is defined as language you would use when speaking or writing to acquaintances or friends. Our communication may include slang, incomplete sentences, improper capitalization (or no capitalization at all), incorrect grammar, contractions such as “can’t” or “don’t,” or informal language such as the terms “ain’t” or “my bad.” The writing you do in your college classes should avoid the informal language used when talking, chatting, texting, or emailing with friends. The use of the first-person “I” is usually considered informal language. For the most part, unless you are writing a reflective paper or personal response, using “I” in your writing is unnecessary because it is already clear that the arguments and thoughts on the page are yours.

Formal language is more careful than everyday speech, usually sounds serious, is gram- matically correct, and avoids slang or other informal language that you would use with friends. It is the standard and most appropriate language for academic and professional papers, legal documents, and business writing. Editors frequently use such language when writing introductions to novels that give insight about the novel’s main concerns and themes. For example, in the introduction to Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre, Michael Mason uses formal language: “Jane Eyre is a thinking novel, right down to the fine grain of its expression. There is nothing automatic, everything is fresh and considered, to the point where the vocabulary can even teeter on the edge of the outlandish” (Mason, 1996, xiii). Vocabulary, sentence structure, and a tone appropriate for an educated audience are used here.

Formal language is not necessarily pompous or stuffy, nor is it wordy or difficult to read. Formal language is written for an educated audience, including your peers and instruc- tors. It attempts to be clear, accurate, and objective. Your college papers should also contain complete sentences that are organized into logical paragraphs, and you must remember to capitalize properly and check your grammar and punctuation before submitting your assignments. (Do not rely on your word processor’s spelling- and grammar-checking programs.) Most forms of college writing require you to write: (1) a thesis statement that is an answer to the essay prompt, (2) body paragraphs with argumentative topic sen- tences that state what you are going to prove in that paragraph, (3) claims using evidence in your body paragraphs to support your argument, and (4) a conclusion. See the Thesis

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Development Tool and sample outline in the Ashford Writing Center for an example of how all of these pieces can fit together in a typical paper outline.

Formal and Informal Writing and the Personal Essay The one major exception to the rule about the use of formal language is with the personal essay—such an essay asks you to discuss your thoughts on a subject while using the first-person narrative style, and, in some cases, you might use other elements of informal language, depending on the essay prompt and your instructor’s requirements.

Personal writing takes many forms, and may not always have a thesis or argumentative topic sentences. However, in personal essays written in a college setting, a thesis statement and reasoned argument are likely to be required. In “Mother Tongue,” Amy Tan discusses the American stereotype that Chinese Americans cannot excel at the English language:

Fortunately, I happen to be rebellious in nature and enjoy the challenge of disproving assumptions made about me. I became an English major my first year in college, after being enrolled as pre-med. I started writing non- fiction as a freelancer the week after I was told by my former boss that writing was my worst skill and I should hone my talents toward account management. (Tan, 1990/2007, p. 422).

The use of the first person in this excerpt gives the reader a direct account of the narrator’s thoughts and perspective. It is intimate and direct, and gives the reader insight into Tan’s desire to counter assumptions made about her based on race. The first-person style may draw us into the narrative more fully and may also enable us to identify with, or relate to, the narrator. Tan invites us to consider some of the negative effects of stereotyping, in this case stereotypes based on race.

Code Switching Written or spoken language can be thought of as a type of code. If people know the code, they can easily communicate. However, if they do not, communication is extremely dif- ficult. Without being conscious of it, people often change their language to fit the situa- tion or to adapt to the audience. Adapting to the audience is known as code switching. Writers should try to gauge their audiences and adapt their language so that the code is something the audience readily understands—otherwise, a writer should not use code at that moment. For example, you may be having a casual conversation with a close friend at work in which you are using slang words such as dude or abbreviations such as BFF (best friends forever). If your supervisor or manager approaches and joins the conversation, you might switch codes, lose the slang and any expletives (swear words), and use more formal speech than you were using with your friend.

In certain situations, writers may also use specialized terms, abbreviations, and acronyms at work that people outside one’s organization might not understand. In the military, for example, abbreviations such as DoD (Department of Defense) and BOQ (bachelor officers’ quarters) are clearly understood by other military personnel. As long as everyone knows the jargon, or highly specialized language, it can be very useful as a communication short- cut. However, if an outsider is present and does not understand the terminology, speakers

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade

must switch codes to communicate effectively with them. Typically, you would want to avoid using this form of code switching in all formal essay writing. One key to writing a good essay is to define all of your terms.

Code switching also takes place when people who speak more than one language unin- tentionally use words from different languages when they speak. For example, if you grew up speaking both Spanish and English, you might occasionally use a sentence that contains words from both languages. To make sure your communication is understood in formal essay writing, you must remain conscious of whether you are speaking to someone in Spanish or in English. If, however, you are writing an informal narrative essay, it might be appropriate to use this form of code switching. In “How to Tame a Wild Tongue,” Gloria Anzaldúa uses code switching between Chicano Spanish and English, and the effect is striking. She writes: “But Chicano Spanish is a border tongue which developed natu- rally. Change, evolución, enriquecimiento de palabras nuevas por invención o adopción have cre- ated variants of Chicano Spanish, un nuevo lenguaje. Un lenguaje que corresponde a un modo de vivir. Chicano Spanish is not incorrect, it is a living language” (Anzaldúa, 1987/2007, p. 33). For Anzaldúa, an ever-changing and evolving language corresponds to a way of living. Because Chicano Spanish is an adaptable language, Anzaldúa shows its adaptabil- ity by interweaving it with the English language. She is demonstrating what she means by using code switching. In college writing, remember to consciously switch codes from the language of everyday conversation to the formal language of academic papers and the professional workplace. (See Writing in Action: “Rules” of College Writing.)

Writing in Action: “Rules” of College Writing

College writing . . .

. . . uses formal language.

. . . is clear, accurate, and uses an objective tone.

. . . avoids jargon, slang, contractions, and the informal language of chatting, texting, or emailing.

. . . uses complete sentences.

. . . organizes sentences into logical paragraphs.

. . . uses proper capitalization, grammar, and punctuation.

1.3 Tools of the Trade

Like any craftsperson, a good writer needs a good set of tools. Some obvious tools for writing in the 21st century are Internet access and a computer with word process-ing and presentation software. Your school’s technology requirements should have been explained to you before you began this class. If you have any questions about these requirements, be sure to contact your college advisor.

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General Writing Resources Ideas for your college writing assignments may come to you when you are not at your computer—when you are traveling, sitting in the dentist’s office, cooking dinner, or lying in bed at night. Capture those ideas with your smartphone, tablet, or pen and paper before you forget them.

This text will also be one of the primary tools you will use for this course, along with your course syllabus and, if applicable, a style guide. A style guide is a reference that provides additional information to help you improve your writing and brush up on your grammar and punctuation skills. It also contains the essential information and standards you must follow when you write, such as how to format your papers and how to document any out- side sources you use. The American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines are the standard for formatting papers and documenting sources in many academic disciplines, and the Ashford Writing Center contains resources that explain APA style. Most of your Ashford University academic papers will conform to the APA-style information found in the Ashford Writing Center. You will want to refer to these resources in the Ashford Writ- ing Center throughout your degree program as you write your college papers.

Other helpful tools for college writers include a current dictionary (preferably one pub- lished within the past 10 years) and a thesaurus, which is an index of words and their synonyms. You might also want to bookmark some of these useful reference websites to help you with your writing:

• www.apastyle.org This American Psychological Association website has a tutorial on the basics of APA style, learning resources, an APA style blog, and frequently asked questions and other resources for help with APA format and citations.

• www.onelook.com To help you find just the right word, this website allows you to search defi- nitions and synonyms for words in more than 1,000 different dictionaries at the same time. It also contains a reverse dictionary and a “Word of the Day” feature that can help you build your vocabulary. Keep in mind that often synonyms for a word convey a slightly different meaning than the original. Make sure that you understand the word and how to use it before consider- ing using a synonym.

• www.etymonline.com This online etymology dictionary gives you the history and origin of words and can help you discover other words that are derived from the same root word.

Ashford University Writing Resources Ashford University strives to provide a learning environment that assists you in becom- ing a successful writer and college graduate. To help you achieve these goals, the uni- versity has developed an extensive set of research and writing resources. Be sure to take advantage of these resources, available free of charge, in this class and throughout your degree program. As you begin this course, take the time to familiarize yourself with the resources listed in the sections that follow and make it a habit to refer to them often. They will help you immeasurably in succeeding in not only this course but also in all your col- lege courses and in the workplace.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade

Ashford University Library The Ashford University Library gives you access, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, to an extensive collection of library and database resources to help with your college research and writing. In addition, Ashford University librarians are available to assist you with finding resources for your assignments. Some of the major resources are listed below, and a more detailed list of resources can be found in the library itself. Most of the Ashford University Library resources have tutorials, advanced search features, tips, and technical support information to help you use them as effectively as possible. Be sure to check these features in each resource. You can access the Ashford University Library from your Stu- dent Portal and from all of your Ashford University courses. ProQuest and EBSCOhost, the two largest general journal databases, are usually the best place to start your research. Consult Table 1.2 for more information on the databases available to you.

Table 1.2: Research Databases

ProQuest ProQuest databases provide access to more than 9,800 full-text journals and newspapers, covering all subject areas.

EBSCOhost EBSCOhost databases include full-text articles from more than 13,000 journals, covering all subject areas.

JSTOR JSTOR contains academic journals with excellent content in literature, history, and anthropology.

ebrary ebrary is a collection of over 78,000 electronic books with titles in all disciplines.

CREDO Credo Reference and World Book are both general reference collections with a wide variety of resources, including encyclopedias, dictionaries.

The library collection is constantly expanding and changing. For assistance with finding the best resources, please contact the Ashford University librarians at [email protected].

Ashford Writing Center Writing support from the Ashford Writing Center is another service provided to you at Ashford University. The writing center can be accessed through the “Learning Resources” tab of any of your Ashford University classes. The center provides a wealth of writing resources, some of which are outlined below. If you wish, you can download and print most of these resources to build your own resource library.

• Thesis Generator: This automated tool can help you develop a clear thesis statement for your academic papers. (We discuss thesis statements in more depth later in this text.) However, you might want to explore this tool now to see how it works. You can use the Thesis Generator as often as you wish to practice developing thesis statements for your academic writing and gener- ating sample outlines. While you should not exclusively rely on the thesis generator, it may be a helpful starting point. If you use the thesis generator, do not simply plug the results into your paper; try to modify the results to make your thesis more complex.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade

Figure 1.2: Thesis Generator

Submit

Thesis Statement Guide Development Tool

Follow the steps below to formulate a thesis statement.

1. State your topic.

2. State your opinion/main idea about this topic. This will form the heart of your thesis. An effective statement will

• express one major idea. • name the topic and assert something specific about it. • be a more specific statement than the topic statement above. • take a stance on an issue about which reasonable people might disagree. • state your position on or opinion about the issue.

3. Give the strongest reason or assertion that supports your opinion/main idea.

4. Give another strong reason or assertion that supports your opinion/main idea.

5. Give one more strong reason or assertion that supports your opinion/main idea.

6. Include an opposing viewpoint to your opinion/main idea, if applicable. This should be an argument for the opposing view that you admit has some merit, even if you do not agree with the overall viewpoint.

7. Provide a possible title for your essay.

regulating children’s television use

parents should regulate the amount of television their children watch

it is not always intellectually stimulating

it inhibits social interaction

it shortens children’s attention spans

television can be educational

Touch that Dial!

Submit

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade

• Writing resources: ° Writing samples of some types of college assignments that you will be

asked to prepare during your degree program ° Writing and grammar tutorials, exercises, and handouts to help you

improve your writing skills and avoid plagiarism ° eBook resources such as guidelines and tutorials ° Microsoft® Office guides to help you improve your use of Microsoft®

Word and PowerPoint software • Business writing guides:

° Samples of case studies, executive summaries, and papers that you will be asked to write in many business courses

° Grammar handouts ° Information on how to search the Ashford Online Library

• APA research guides and samples to help you: (1) understand and use APA style and (2) develop research papers. This section of the Ashford Writing Center also contains RefWorks, a Web-based tool that can assist you in creat- ing a reference page for your college papers.

Teaching Assistants/Writing Coaches Apart from these writing resources, students should be aware that writing-intensive gen- eral education courses, including this one, offer an additional writing resource: an Ash- ford University teaching assistant (TA), or writing coach. The role of the TA is to provide individualized writing feedback and to help you understand university policies and the mechanics of using your online learning platform for such issues as submitting assign- ments and viewing assignment feedback. Your course instructors and teaching assistants want to help you succeed. Be sure to contact them as early as possible in the course if you are having any problems completing the course assignments.

The Code of Student Conduct: Avoiding Plagiarism Finally, as you begin this course, also take time to familiarize yourself with the Ashford University Academic Catalog and read the sections of the catalog that contain the Code of Student Conduct. An electronic version of the catalog is on your Student Portal. The Stu- dent Rights and Responsibilities section of the catalog covers your rights and responsibili- ties as an Ashford University student and as an ethical writer. The section outlines some of the consequences of academic dishonesty:

A student who commits an act of academic dishonesty may face disci- plinary action, including but not limited to: failure to receive credit on an academic exercise, course failure, and/or dismissal from the University. Ashford University may also extend its jurisdiction to misconduct that occurs prior to, but not reported until after the graduation of the offending student. (26).

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade

As we discussed earlier, writing gives us a great power to impact and to influence others. We must always remember to use this power respon- sibly, which means to be profes- sional when we write, to respect the views of others, to use technology resources in ways that do not violate laws or the rights of others, and to not engage in academic dishonesty. We discuss your responsibilities as an ethical writer in more detail in Chapter 3.

Plagiarism is the use of another per- son’s or writer’s language, research, or ideas without citing and giving credit to that source of information. Many people may think of plagia- rism as simply rewriting someone

else’s sentences into one’s own paper; although this is a clear form of plagiarism, it cer- tainly is only one way to plagiarize. Other forms of plagiarism include:

• Copying text from any printed material that is not your own and placing it into your paper without acknowledging the source

• Altering someone else’s text by changing some of the words and not acknowledging it as a paraphrase

• Copying and pasting sentence fragments, whole sentences, or even para- graphs from Internet sources or someone else’s writing without citing

• Using any fragment of another student’s work or ideas is considered an act of collusion. Colluding with another student, even if the student agrees to “share” her writing, is a serious act of academic dishonesty, and is a form of plagiarism.

• Using materials purchased online or elsewhere • Reusing old papers of your own for a writing assignment without the instruc-

tor’s permission far in advance of the due date • Paraphrasing or summarizing another writer’s work or thoughts without

citing • Summarizing or using any ideas that are not your own. (In other words, if an

idea was not one that you developed on your own and you were introduced to this idea through some other written source, you must acknowledge it by citing the work.)

Plagiarism, therefore, is any attempt to include any amount of someone else’s ideas, thoughts, research, language, or even the way the writer has structured his or her ideas without acknowledging the fact that another source is being used. However, if some fact is common knowledge, you do not need to cite it. The year a major event occurred is common knowl- edge. If, for instance, you say that World War II began in 1939, you do not need to cite that

Maurizio Gambarini/AP In 2013, politician Annette Schavan stepped down from her position as Germany’s Federal Minister of Education and Research when an investigation by the University of Düsseldorf found that she had plagiarized portions of her doctoral dissertation, and her Ph.D. was revoked.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade

information because it is common knowledge. But any interpretation of historical facts, lesser-known information, or original research needs to be cited. As a general rule, if you are in doubt as to whether or not you should cite, then cite. If you are unsure, you should also ask your instructor about the use of sources in your writing. Your writing instructor will be happy to answer these questions since you are trying to be academically honest.

To put it in context, consider the different ways students might incorporate a piece of someone else’s writing into their own essay. In Johanna M. Smith’s “‘Cooped Up’: Femi- nine Domesticity in Frankenstein,” she indicates that “no women in the novel speak directly: everything we hear from and about them is filtered through the three masculine narrators . . . these women seldom venture far from home, while the narrators and most of the other men engage in quests and various public occupations” (Smith, 1992, p. 270). Here are three examples of ways in which students might use the above quote:

1. Student A: In Frankenstein, no women in the novel speak directly: Everything we hear from and about them is filtered through the three masculine narra- tors. (This paper is plagiarizing the scholar’s article because it uses Smith’s language and does not cite it.)

2. Student B: Women do not get to speak in the novel Frankenstein. This is because men are in control in the story. Male narrators tell us everything about the women in the novel. The women do not really go far from home. The men, on the other hand, engage in public outings. (This paper is also plagiarizing because it paraphrases Smith’s ideas and does not cite the article.)

3. Student C: As Johanna M. Smith notes, women are mostly silenced in the novel Frankenstein because they do not have their own voice. For the most part, male characters tell readers what the women think. Women stay mostly within the private sphere of the home, whereas men frequently act in the pub- lic sphere and also engage in travel (Smith, 1992). (This paper uses Smith’s article in a way that is acceptable. This student rephrases Smith’s language in the student’s own words and cites the article.)

As an aid toward promoting academic honesty, classes at Ashford University use the online research tool Turnitin (www.turnitin.com). Your paper is uploaded to the website, and then Turnitin compares your paper to all other papers in the system and to all con- tent from the Internet, and picks up matches to other materials in the event of plagiarism. With each assignment, your instructor will check Turnitin to evaluate the possibility of plagiarism.

Plagiarism has academic consequences. Ashford University’s policy is that plagiarism may result in receiving no credit on the assignment in question, failing the entire course in which the plagiarism was committed, and/or dismissal from the university. Depending on the case, the university reserves the right to carry out other academic consequences. That said, you have absolutely nothing to worry about if you do not plagiarize.

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CHAPTER 1Key Terms

Chapter Summary This chapter began by discussing some of the concerns and questions many students have about writing. Hopefully the information in this chapter has convinced you that the wide range of resources and tools you have at your school can help you build your writing skills and overcome any anxieties or fear you have about putting your ideas down on paper. As we embark on our studies of college writing, consider adopting the view of writing sug- gested by Donald M. Murray, who has been dubbed “America’s greatest writing teacher” (Newkirk & Miller, 2009). Rather than think of your academic papers as products you must produce, think of writing them as a process of discovery. In Murray’s words, writ- ing can be an exciting “process of exploration of what we know and what we feel about what we know through language. It is the process of using language to learn about our world, to evaluate what we learn about our world, to communicate what we learn about our world” (cited in Newkirk & Miller, 2009, p. 2).

To complete the writing tasks you will face in school and in your career, you must develop a set of skills and continually practice to improve those skills. Understanding the writ- ing situation, the context, and language choices is critically important to writing effec- tively. For your college papers, considering the context should also remind you to switch codes from the informal language of everyday conversation to the more formal language required in college classes and on the job.

The Ashford Online Library, Writing Center, and writing coaches are there to help—but you will only obtain the help you need if you take initiative and ask for it. Students should also keep the plagiarism guidelines in Ashford’s Student Rights and Responsibilities in mind; never hesitate to ask a teaching assistant if you are unsure whether or not a method of writing is plagiarism.

Remember, writing is never easy; it is hard work. However, being successful in college and in the workplace requires that you write well. You have all the tools and resources you need to achieve this goal. The rest is up to you. Learning to write well can be one of the most important accomplishments of your life.

Key Terms argument The position a writer takes on a subject, or an interpretation he or she makes about a text. An argument is not a statement of fact; it is an interpretation that can be disagreed with.

audience The individuals for whom an author is writing or to whom he or she is speaking.

blog An online journal space in which a writer frequently records thoughts, either publicly or privately, on a particular topic.

code switching Alternating languages and/or style according to what one’s audi- ence will understand. Code switching might include the use of informal lan- guage, multiple languages, expressions, or acronyms that only certain audiences will understand.

ethos A speaker’s or writer’s credibility or authority to speak on a particular subject.

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CHAPTER 1Key Terms

formal language The standard and most appropriate language for academic and professional papers, legal documents, and business writing. Formal language usually sounds serious, is grammatically correct, and avoids language that would otherwise be used in more casual settings.

genre The type of writing being used in a given writing situation.

informal language The type of language used when speaking or writing to acquain- tances or friends. It may include slang, incomplete sentences, improper capitaliza- tion (or no capitalization at all), incorrect grammar, and contractions.

jargon A specialized language particular to a group of people, usually of a particular profession or group. Specialized language can exclude those who do not belong to the group because they may not understand the language or terms being used.

logos An attempt to persuade by using reasoning and logic. This may include using clear examples, facts, or statistics.

occasion The reason for writing, or what someone is writing for.

pathos An attempt to persuade by making appeals to the audience’s emotions.

persona The voice used when writing or speaking; a unique character to one’s own writing.

personal essay A type of essay that typi- cally uses the first person to convey the thoughts, feelings, experiences, and ideas of the writer. It may or may not take a position at some point in the essay. Most of the topic sentences in a personal essay are not argumentative.

personal journal A place to record ongo- ing personal experiences. Personal journals can be shared broadly or with no one. It is helpful to keep a personal journal to keep track of ideas for a writing assignment.

plagiarism The use of another person’s or writer’s language, research, or ideas with- out citing and giving credit to that source of information. Any ideas or language that derive from someone else’s writing must be cited, even when paraphrasing.

rhetoric The use of language in order to persuade an audience. Someone who is trying to be persuasive should carefully consider what will be persuasive for the particular audience while writing.

style guide A reference book that pro- vides information on how to improve writing, grammar, and punctuation. It also contains essential information and standards that must be followed when writing, such as how to format a paper and how to document any outside sources used.

voice The character of the writer or speaker that is conveyed through the material. A writer’s voice is synonymous with persona.

writing situation The occasion, audience, writer’s voice, and argument of the writ- ing. The writing situation also determines the genre required.

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