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1Psychology for Teaching

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Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Explain how psychology and education are related. ሁ Describe how teacher competence is evaluated. ሁ Identify the differences between quantitative and qualitative research. ሁ Define theories, laws, principles, and beliefs, and explain how they are related. ሁ Summarize the three basic elements of a useful model of teaching. ሁ Identify characteristics shared by expert teachers.

Thousands . . . Kiss the book’s outside who ne’er look within.

—William Cowper, Expostulation

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Introduction

Pretest

Determine if the following statements are true or false.

1. The Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) describes 10 basic principles that summarize the most important reasons to assess teachers. (T/F)

2. Laws and principles have the same meaning and can be used interchangeably. (T/F) 3. Discovery- and problem-based learning, peer-based cooperative learning, and

open classroom discussion are more associated with direct instruction than with constructivist instruction. (T/F)

4. Teacher burnout is a collection of stress-related behavioral symptoms. (T/F) 5. Long vacations, prestige, and respect would all be classified as intrinsic rewards of

teaching. (T/F)

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction Each chapter in this textbook opens with a list of learning objectives. Learning objectives indi- cate some of the topics you should know and understand more clearly once you have finished reading. At the end of each chapter, the learning objectives are translated into more practical review questions and exercises. The learning objectives are followed by introductions. These introductions organize and summarize important concepts and increase the meaningfulness of material to be learned—sometimes by stimulating recall of important previous learning, sometimes by providing new information, and sometimes by clarifying concepts. This first chapter is a preview for the remainder of the textbook. Among other things, it points out that there are some important reasons for taking this course other than the fact that it might be compulsory.

My teaching career began with John George Scott. He and I started school on the same day up in the wilds of northern Saskatchewan—a one-room school where my father was the teacher. John George, whose family had recently arrived in the area, spoke neither English nor French.

The first thing my dad did that morning was underline, in both French and English, some of the rules of the school like where’s the cloakroom for boys and the one for girls and don’t go into the wrong one and how many fingers to raise for a call of nature depending on the nature of the call.

Shortly after that, John George turned, stared at the door for a second or two, and then, as if he’d just made up his mind, pulled himself out of his desk and lurched outside. “He’s bolted,” I thought, half wishing I had enough courage to do the same.

But John George hadn’t bolted at all. He had simply felt the call of nature. So, what the hey, he had gotten out of his desk, trotted to the far corner of the school yard, squatted, and was now attending to that call. Watching through the windows, some of us laughed so hard we had to fight a call of nature of our own.

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Section 1.1 Psychology for Teaching

My father, a resourceful and cunning teacher, rushed outside immediately. We watched as he tried to explain to John George, using very interesting body lan- guage, that the little building in the other corner was equipped to handle prob- lems of the kind John George had already solved. But some gestures are all Greek to frightened six-year-old boys whose pants have settled around their ankles.

So my dad came back and made me a teacher. “Show him where it is and what it’s for,’’ he said. This, in retrospect, colored a big part of my life.

I took John George with me and showed him.

1.1 Psychology for Teaching Showing people things is an important part of teaching. In fact, in Spanish the word enseñar means both to teach and to show. Good teachers show students, or help them discover for themselves, all sorts of things like what ideas are and how they can be used, the meanings of numbers, how to operate machines and computers, and so on.

However, teaching is often more complex than it might appear from straightforward tasks such as showing people about outhouses—my successful assignment with John George notwith- standing. And although this textbook, Psychology for Teaching, might not have been very useful to me that day—hey, I could scarcely read—it would have come in handy many years later when, as a beginning teacher, I tried teaching other less natural things to people whose need to learn was not quite so insistent. You see, contrary to what I had hoped, teaching skills are not heredi- tary; we can’t count on our genes to endow us with teaching ability, or with what is called the “craft knowledge” of teaching—the knowledge that expert teachers seem to have. Fortunately, though, we now have a large body of information to help novice teachers become more expert. This information can contribute dramatically to the effectiveness of teachers and of schools. This textbook is your introduction to that information. Its goal is to make you a better teacher. As its title indicates, it presents a psychology for teaching.

Psychology’s potential contribution to education becomes clear when viewed in terms of what is involved in teaching. Psychology, after all, is most likely to provide us with answers to important questions such as: How can we use what we know about learning to increase the effectiveness of our instructional procedures? What do we know about people that might be of value to teachers who face student misbehavior or want to avoid being faced with such behavior? How can we motivate learners? And a thousand other related questions.

Assessing and Improving Teacher Competence How can you, or anyone else for that matter, know whether you have what it takes to become a competent, perhaps even an outstanding, teacher? How will a college or university decide whether to admit you into a teacher training program? How can schools support and help beginning teachers?

Pretty important questions, these—so important, in fact, that tests have been developed to help answer them. Most of these tests are based on 10 basic standards that summarize the most important characteristics of competent teachers, the so-called InTASC standards (InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards, 2013). InTASC stands for Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (Table 1.1).

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Section 1.1Psychology for Teaching

Table 1.1: Core InTASC standards mapped to the chapters of this textbook that relate to each principle

Broad area of teacher expertise Statement of standard

Most relevant chapters

Standard 1 learner development

The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas. The teacher can provide learning opportunities that are developmentally appropriate and challenging.

2, 3, 5, 6, 8

Standard 2 learning differences

The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high standards.

3, 4

Standard 3 learning environments

The teacher works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

2, 3, 5, 6, 8

Standard 4 content knowledge

The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content.

1, 8

Standard 5 application of content

The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to authentic local and global issues.

3, 6, 7

Standard 6 assessment

The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s decision making.

Standard 7 planning for instruction

The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context.

2, 3, 4, 7, 8

Standard 8 instructional strategies

The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways.

6, 7, 8, 9

Standard 9 professional learning and ethical practice

The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community).

1, 8, 10, parts of all chapters

Standard 10 leadership and collaboration

The teacher seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for student learning; to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth; and to advance the profession.

10, parts of all chapters

Source: Council of Chief State School Officers. (2013, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards and Learning Progressions for Teachers 1.0: A Resource for Ongoing Teacher Development. Washington, DC: Author. Adapted with permission.

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Section 1.1 Psychology for Teaching

The most widely used tests of beginning teacher competence, the Praxis® exams, are based on InTASC descriptions of the skills, the attitudes, and the behavior of competent begin- ning teachers. Developed by the Educational Testing Service, different forms of these exams are designed to be used before teacher training and for teacher certification and licensing (About the Praxis® Tests, 2016). For example, many teacher training institutions require that students show a minimum level of competence in basic skills such as reading, writing, and arithmetic before they are admitted to a teacher training program. For this, the Praxis® Core Academic Skills for Educators (Core) tests might be used. The Praxis® Subject Assessments, which look at subject-area knowledge as well as specific teaching skills, may be required for acceptance into the student teaching component of a program or for certification.

Although the Praxis® exams are widely used, a number of states have developed their own testing programs and instruments. As a teacher candidate, what’s important for you is that you develop the knowledge, the skills, and the attitudes embodied in the principles underly- ing these assessments. One of the goals of this textbook is to help you do that.

Teaching and Your Beliefs Much of what the teacher is required to do in the classroom is immediate: There is often little time for careful reflection. Hence, many of the teacher’s actions are based on habit and on pre-established beliefs. Even our most impulsive and habitual actions reveal our underlying convictions and implicit theories—in other words, our beliefs. For this reason, suggest Bain and McNaught (2006), getting teachers to change is often a very difficult undertaking. In fact, as politicians well know, getting anybody to change their beliefs is sometimes very difficult. We don’t easily discard old beliefs and adopt new ones.

What Are Beliefs? Beliefs are personal convictions. Unlike knowledge, which tends to be impersonal and impar- tial, a belief often has strong emotional components. Thus, beliefs are reflected in attitudes, prejudices, judgments, and opinions. And beliefs based in stereotypes can play an important role in teacher behavior and in student achievement. Some studies indicate that learners for whom teachers have high expectations are more likely to achieve at a high level (the so-called halo effect) than are students for whom teachers have very low expectations (Sorhagen, 2013; Tenenbaum & Martin, 2007). Thus, teacher expectations, which may be closely related to the beliefs teachers have about how certain groups typically achieve, can have either posi- tive or negative effects on student achievement.

Beliefs are often formed early in life and may be maintained even in the face of strong contra- diction. Such beliefs act as a sort of filter through which people view the world and interpret information. How teachers teach often reflects the values and beliefs about learning that they developed through their own personal experiences. Fortunately, however, beliefs result not only from personal experiences, but also from information acquired through education and other sources. For example, what we believe about the effects of smoking may reflect what we have read or heard rather than what we have experienced. Similarly, what we believe about the characteristics of children or about human learning may be based partly on our own expe- riences and partly on what we have learned from more formal educational experiences.

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Section 1.1 Psychology for Teaching

How Beliefs Affect Decisions All teachers have beliefs about their work, their students, how learning occurs, and the sub- jects they teach. Especially important, as Charalambous (2015) points out, are the beliefs a teacher has about knowledge and learning. A teacher who believes students learn best by memorizing assigns memory work; one who is convinced students remember only what they understand takes more pains to explain and clarify. A teacher who believes students cheat when given the opportunity supervises her examinations closely; one who thinks students are basically honest prepares her lessons while students take their tests.

As an example, see the case “Last Weekend, Tommy and I . . .” Note that Mr. Busenius believes, among other things, that:

1. Offenders must be made to stop immediately before misbehavior spreads. 2. It is better to reprimand silently and at close range without disrupting ongoing class-

room activities.

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M : L A S T W E E K E N D , T O M M Y A N D I . . .

The Situation: Mr. Busenius’ sixth-grade language class. The students are generally well behaved; most appear interested and attentive—except for Helena who, in Mr. Busenius’ words, is “a bit of a challenge.”

Today, students are asked to write two paragraphs describing the most interesting thing that happened to them over the weekend. Helena has no interest in the assignment. Instead, she begins to brush her hair.

But before she has completed her third stroke, Mr. Busenius has quietly reached her desk, taken the brush from her, and jabbed his finger emphatically on the blank sheet of paper on Helena’s desk.

She bends to her task. “Last weekend,” she writes, “Tommy and I, I don’t know if I should write this, but I will, what we did is . . .”

Mr. Busenius might have selected other options. For example, he might simply have ignored Helena if he believed that her behavior was designed to get attention and that it would, there- fore, be less likely to be repeated if he ignored it. Or he might have used some form of punish- ment, such as detention, believing that Helena would subsequently change her behavior to avoid punishment. Alternatively, he might have gone over to Roberta and praised her remark- able paragraphs just loudly enough to draw Helena’s attention, believing that this might encourage Helena to build her own astonishing paragraphs. Also, he might have taken the time to explain how important it is to learn to express oneself, in the belief that this might motivate Helena to greater efforts. Or he might have explained to Helena that her hair brush- ing was distracting and upsetting the others, believing that her need for social approval would convince her to put her brush away.

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Section 1.2 Educational Psychology

Which of these behaviors is best? Is it always best? Which of these beliefs is most accurate and most useful? In this textbook there are answers for some of these questions.

This Textbook and Your Beliefs Although some beliefs about teaching and learning are already well established by the time teachers begin their training, and although beliefs are often resistant to change, many beliefs are certainly changeable. For example, Choi (2008) found that teachers who participated in a course that emphasized an inquiry approach to teaching science changed their beliefs sig- nificantly about the best ways of teaching science. Most important, their teaching behaviors actually changed. They had developed different beliefs and different expertise.

There have traditionally been two rather different sets of beliefs about teaching and learn- ing. One, which might be called a teacher- and content-centered orientation, emphasizes the teacher’s role in imparting structured bodies of knowledge. The other orientation is more student- and learning-centered: It emphasizes the student’s role in the teaching-learning pro- cess. Clearly, if you believe that one of these orientations is highly preferable to the other, that belief will be reflected in your approach to teaching and in your interactions with learners.

One of the important aims of this textbook is to encourage you to examine your beliefs—espe- cially those that have to do with learners and with teaching—and to discard or alter them if necessary. This textbook tries to do this in two related ways: first, by providing you with important information about learners of different ages and about the processes involved in learning, organizing, remembering, thinking, solving problems, and being creative; and sec- ond, by describing and illustrating practical strategies for facilitating the teaching–learning process.

1.2 Educational Psychology Psychology is the science that studies human behavior and thinking. It looks at how expe- rience affects thought and action; it explores the roles of biology and heredity; it examines consciousness and dreams; it traces how people develop from infants into adults; it investi- gates social influences. Basically, psychology tries to explain why people think, act, and feel as they do.

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that studies human behavior in educa- tional settings. It involves applying existing psychological knowledge to educational theory and practice, as well as developing new knowledge and procedures. Accordingly, educational psychology deals with learning processes, human development and motivation, social learn- ing, human personality (especially characteristics such as intelligence and creativity), disci- pline and other aspects of classroom management, the measurement and evaluation of stu- dent development and learning, and other related issues. These broad topics (divided into 10 chapters) are the substance of this textbook.

There are two main approaches to research in fields such as educational psychology: quanti- tative research and qualitative research.

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Section 1.2 Educational Psychology

Quantitative Research Quantitative research, in its simplest sense, is research that deals with things that can be measured (that can be quantified). The methods of quantitative research are the methods of what we commonly understand as science. Science is an approach that insists on precision, consistency, and replicability. Accordingly, the methods of science are based on rules intended to eliminate subjectivity, bias, and the influence of random factors. Science’s most important tool in the quest for understanding has been the experiment.

An experiment is a situation where the investigator systematically manipulates aspects of the environment to determine the effect of so doing on some important outcome. What is manipulated or controlled is called the independent variable; the effect of this manipulation is reflected in the dependent variable. Most experiments can easily be worded in terms of an “if-then” statement. The experimenter is saying, in effect, “If this particular set of conditions exists, then we should see this outcome.” The “if” part of the equation is the independent vari- able; the “then” part is the dependent variable.

As an example, consider the prediction (termed a hypothesis) that rewarding learners will have a positive effect on subsequent learning. Phrased as an if-then statement, this might be translated as “if learners are rewarded, then there will be an improvement in their subsequent learning.” An experiment designed to examine this hypothesis might consist of an arrange- ment where some learners are paid for their grades and others not, all are later exposed to a learning experience, and the performance of the rewarded group is compared to that of the unrewarded group. In this case, the independent variable (the “if” part of the if-then equation) is the monetary reward; the dependent variable (the “then” part) is the learner’s subsequent performance (see Figure 1.1).

Qualitative Research Whereas quantitative research deals with things that are measurable, qualitative research deals with things that are describable in terms of their qualities. The main objectives of quali- tative research are not so much to arrive at conclusions that can be replicated and widely generalized, but rather to arrive at an in-depth understanding of how individuals experience the world, of how they feel, and why they react as they do.

The most commonly used approaches in qualitative research include in-depth interviews, observation, focus groups, and journals and diaries (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2014; Marx, 2016). Interviews and observations, as well as sessions with focus groups, are often recorded. As a result, unlike experiments, which typically yield numbers that can be analyzed and graphed, the methods of qualitative research often produce a vast wealth of detail, the analysis and interpretation of which can be very difficult and which sometimes span enor- mous periods of time.

Many researchers have dismissed qualitative methods as overly subjective and unreliable. In-depth interviews, often of a single individual, typically don’t yield results that can eas- ily be shown to be valid and that can be generalized to other individuals or groups. In fact, the results of qualitative research fare very poorly when measured against science’s insis- tence on precision, replicability, and generalizability. But, as Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) note, while these criteria are entirely appropriate for quantitative research, qualita- tive research needs to be subjected to different methods of analysis and to be judged by other standards—standards such as those of credibility and confirmability.

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Section 1.2 Educational Psychology

Which method to use, say Palys and Atchison (2013), should depend on the questions being asked and the reasons for asking them, and not on some predetermined notion of which of these two approaches is best. If you want to know how your students feel about your revo- lutionary approach to accordion lessons, you might want to study their personal journals and diaries, or perhaps meet with them in small focus groups, or use some other qualitative research strategy. But if you want to know whether they achieve better in mathematics when allowed to use colored pencils rather than ordinary ones, an experiment designed to look at the quantifiable outcomes of your teaching might be far more appropriate.

Theories Research, whether quantitative or qualitative, is geared toward accumulating facts and increasing our understanding. In this context, however, the word fact is perhaps too strong; it implies a degree of certainty and accuracy that is not always possible in psychology or educa- tion. In spite of science’s insistence that observations be made under controlled conditions so that they can be replicated, different researchers sometimes observe very different things.

Figure 1.1: Example of an experimental design ሁ A simple experiment designed to test a hypothesis. Note that hypotheses can generally be worded

as “if-then” statements. The “if” part of the statement is the independent variable (in this case, the payment students in the experimental group receive); the “then” part is the dependent variable (in this case, the grades obtained by members of the experimental group).

Hypothesis:

If students are rewarded, then they will achieve better.

Students are randomly assigned to one of two groups.

Independent variable

Experimental group

Students are paid according to their grades: the higher the grade, the

greater the pay.

Control group

Students are not paid for their grades.

Dependent variable

Grades obtained by members of the experimental group are compared with those of the

control group.

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Section 1.2 Educational Psychology

Facts (or observations), by themselves, would be of limited value to educators and psycholo- gists if they were not organized, summarized, and simplified. That’s where theory comes in. In a simple sense, a theory is a collection of related statements whose principal function is to summarize and explain observations. For example, when I observe that tenth-grader Roland Littlefork repeatedly refuses to join other students for lunch or to be involved in sports, drama, music, or any other extracurricular activity, I might develop a theory about his behavior. “I have a theory about Roland,” I might say, and everybody would understand what I meant. “He doesn’t like social gatherings,” I might continue. “He’s probably a very shy person.” That, in a nutshell, would be my limited theory. It summarizes and explains my observations admirably. It is a statement that might be described as a naïve theory. Naïve theories differ from more formal theories in one important respect: Naïve theories express personal convic- tions that need only be believed but not scientifically proven; formal theories must be tested.

Some theories are more useful than others. Some, for instance, don’t reflect all of the facts. Let’s say, for example, that Roland Littlefork socializes regularly with a large group of friends outside of school, that he is choir leader in his church, that he directs the church’s annual Christmas pageant, and that he organizes political rallies in his spare time. If this were true, my theory about Roland’s behavior would not fit all the facts and would therefore be highly misleading.

That a good theory reflect all important facts is only one requirement. Thomas (2005) sug- gests several others: A theory is good if it (1) accurately reflects observations, (2) is expressed clearly, (3) is useful for predicting as well as explaining, (4) lends itself to practical appli- cations, (5) is consistent rather than self-contradictory, and (6) is not based on numerous assumptions (unproven beliefs). A good theory should also be thought provoking and should provide satisfying explanations. See Table 1.2 for an example involving fertilizer. This theory holds, in part, that horse manure stimulates potatoes and carrots, that chicken droppings invigorate cabbages, and that dried cow dung excites flowers.

Table 1.2: Criteria of a good theory, applied to grandma Francœur’s fertilizer theory

Criteria of a good theory Grandmother Francœur’s fertilizer theory

Does it reflect the facts? Yes, if carrots, potatoes, and other plants behave as expected under specified conditions.

Is it clear and understandable? It is quite clear.

Is it useful for predicting as well as explaining?

Very. For example, the theory allows the gardener to predict in the spring what will happen in the fall depending on the fertil- izers used. And the predictions are clearly falsifiable. Thus, the theory can be tested directly.

Is it practically useful? Clearly, yes, for those engaged in the growing of vegetables.

Is it internally consistent? Unfortunately, no. Grandma has sometimes claimed that chicken droppings are better for potatoes than horse manure.

Is it based on many unverifiable assumptions?

No. The assumptions upon which it is based could be verified— or falsified.

Is it satisfying and thought provoking? Oh yes!

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Section 1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning

The most useful theories not only explain observations but also predict events. My naïve theory about Roland Littlefork, for example, allows me to predict that he will be reluctant to accept an invitation to participate in a school play. As we saw, however, in this case the predic- tion may be quite inaccurate because the theory does not account for certain important facts (specifically, that he is highly involved in church plays). Presumably, a theory that fits the facts better would lead to more accurate predictions.

Some of the statements that make up psychological theories may be described as laws, others as principles, and many as beliefs.

Laws, Principles, and Beliefs Laws are statements whose accuracy is generally beyond question. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, and other natural sciences have discovered many important laws. One example is Newton’s law of gravity. This law states that all objects exert a gravitational pull toward each other and that the strength of this pull is directly proportional to the mass of each object and inversely related to the square of the distance between them. Where laws such as this apply, they can be used to make very precise predictions about the motion of objects, such as falling apples or orbiting planets. As we saw earlier, however, human behavior is rarely character- ized by the regularity and unwavering predictability of laws.

Principles are statements that are probable rather than certain. Unlike laws, they are always open to a degree of doubt, to a certain level of probability (and improbability). Accordingly, most psychological statements about human behavior and experience take the form of prin- ciples rather than laws. For example, as Chapter 5 explains, a learning principle predicts that under certain conditions behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to occur again. This principle can be very useful in a teaching-learning situation.

Beliefs are more private and personal than either principles or laws. Beliefs are our indi- vidual convictions, our personal attempts to explain observations. Beliefs are often based on personal experience but can also be based on the same sorts of scientific observations that give rise to more formal theories. As we saw earlier, beliefs can reflect stereotypes and biases, and can therefore be either negative or positive. Accordingly, beliefs can dramatically influence teacher and learner expectations and interactions. One of the most important goals of Psychology for Teaching is to encourage you to examine and evaluate the consequences of your own beliefs. One key step in that direction is to look at the sorts of models that underlie your thinking.

1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning A model is like a pattern or a blueprint; it’s a representation of how things are or of how they can or should be. In a sense, a model is an organized set of beliefs about something important.

Models can be very specific and concrete and are often included in, or derived from, theories. For example, there are models of atomic structures, models of the universe, and teaching models.

Models can also be very general: They can represent all of our beliefs and assumptions about human nature. In this sense, each of us has implicit models that govern our view of the world and guide our beliefs and our behavior.

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Section 1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning

As we saw earlier, one model of teaching views learning as being largely a process of acquisi- tion by learners—a process of progressively accumulating information. This model empha- sizes the teacher’s role in presenting well-organized bodies of knowledge to the learner.

A second model views participation as the most important basis for learning. It emphasizes the student’s role in the teaching-learning process.

Constructivism and Direct Instruction Teachers who subscribe to the acquisition model typically view their role as one of helping students accumulate information and concepts. Those who subscribe to the participation model are more concerned with the student’s active participation in learning.

These two models lead directly to two basic approaches to instruction. The highly teacher- centered acquisition model says, in effect, that because learning is largely a matter of acquir- ing information, the teacher’s principal role should be one of direct instruction. This view of learning and teaching sees the teacher as the principal source of information and assigns to the teacher the role of organizing and imparting information in the most effective way possible.

In contrast, the participation model leads to the view that the learner should be an active participant in the teaching–learning process—that learners are, in fact, responsible for dis- covering and constructing information for themselves. Accordingly, constructivist approaches to instruction are highly student- rather than teacher-centered. Discovery and cooperative approaches to teaching are good examples of constructivism.

Some writers in education believe that teaching has, for some time, been experiencing a revo- lution—specifically, a constructivist revolution. Thus, the term constructivism is often paired with descriptive terms such as progressive and new. In contrast, direct instruction is more likely to be associated with terms such as status quo, traditional, and old. Others point out that in many ways this is not a revolution at all but simply a continuation—or perhaps a revival— of some century-old ideas first popularized through the writings of John Dewey (1933). What is now labeled constructivism was then called progressive education.

One of the recurring conclusions in this textbook is that there is not, and should not be, a clear dichotomy between constructivism and direct instruction. As a teacher, you don’t have to select one or the other model and use only its approaches to teaching. The truth is that even in the most progressive, student-centered schools, the methods of direct instruction (for example, lecturing, telling, directing, guiding, giving information) may well be far more com- mon than the methods of constructivism (for example, discovery learning and cooperative learning).

A Model of Teaching To simplify without unduly distorting reality, teaching can be described in terms of three stages: before teaching, teaching, and after teaching (see Figure 1.2). Each of these stages is characterized by different demands on the teacher. And contrary to what we might imme- diately assume, the teaching stage is no more important than what occurs before or after teaching.

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Section 1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning

Before Teaching To be an effective, perhaps even exemplary, teacher, you must make some critical decisions before you even walk into your classroom and actually engage in the business of teaching. First, you must decide on both the long-range and short-term goals of the instructional pro- cess. To determine these goals, you need to answer some questions for yourself: What specific learning outcomes do you intend and expect? How do these tie in with the broad goals of the educational process in this subject? This grade? This school? This city or county? How do these goals fit in with your values and beliefs? How important are they?

Figure 1.2: A teaching model ሁ A three-stage teaching model outlines the instructional process in terms of teacher actions and

responsibilities.

*Indicates chapters containing relevant information.

Teaching

Implement one or more instructional models

Inquiry, discovery, and problem-based learning

Peer-based cooperative learning

Open classroom discussion

Constructivist 2, 5, 6, 8 Direct instruction 2, 5, 6

Expository teacher presentation

(Telling directing)

Modeling

Structured, small group, teacher-guided presentations

Before teaching

1. 2. 3.

Establish goals 1, 4, 8, 10* Determine student readiness 2, 3, 4, 8 select instructional strategies; collect/prepare materials 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 Plan for assessment and evaluation 10

After teaching

Assess effectiveness of teaching strategies 10 Determine extent to which goals have been met 10 Reevaluate student readiness 2, 10

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Section 1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning

Once you have determined your instructional goals, you need to select a teaching strategy to attain these goals, and you must invent, make, or at least collect materials that are useful for teaching. What is required here is not only knowledge of the strategies themselves but also of the skills required to implement them effectively. And, perhaps most important, you must know whether students are ready for this specific teaching–learning experience. Student readiness involves a variety of factors, including essential prerequisite knowledge and skills and appropriate motivation. Clearly, students who are eager to learn are most likely to profit from instruction, and students who have already mastered prerequisite knowledge and skills are more likely to attain instructional objectives. These considerations highlight the impor- tance of knowing how students learn and develop and what motivates them.

Another critical step in the preteaching phase is planning for assessment: How will you deter- mine to what extent instructional goals have been met? By what procedures will you evaluate the instructional process itself and the changes that might occur among learners? How will the results of your evaluation procedures influence subsequent teaching decisions?

In summary, the preteaching phase involves at least four steps: setting appropriate goals, determining student readiness, selecting appropriate instructional strategies, and planning for assessment.

Teaching The instructional process—commonly called teaching—involves implementing strategies designed to lead learners to attain certain goals. In general, these strategies involve communi- cation, leadership, motivation, and control (discipline or management). As we saw earlier, the precise nature of your teaching strategies will be heavily influenced by your model of learn- ers and learning—for example, whether you view learning as largely a matter of acquiring and accumulating information, or whether you see it mainly as a process where the student’s participation is central.

Lemov (2014) describes a wide variety of instructional methods used in schools. Among approaches that reflect a constructivist model are those involving discovery- and problem- based learning, peer-based cooperative learning, and open classroom discussion. The meth- ods of direct instruction are reflected in expository teacher presentations (where the teacher does most of the telling, directing, and guiding), modeling approaches (where written, sym- bolic, or real-life models are used to show students what they are to learn), and highly struc- tured, small group, teacher-guided learning.

Which of these methods is most effective? That, of course, depends on the purposes of the instruction as well as on the characteristics of both teacher and learners. However, it’s pos- sible to summarize some of the characteristics of effective teachers (and effective teaching). The InTASC standards described in Table 1.1 do just that. Among other things, these stan- dards state that effective teachers understand the subjects they teach, the different charac- teristics of their learners, and the variety of instructional strategies available to them. The standards also stipulate that effective teachers can motivate and manage students and make effective use of assessment. Some important characteristics of effective teachers include the following, which were derived from InTASC standards. The effective teacher

• understands the subject(s) being taught; • is aware of how children learn and develop;

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Section 1.3 Models of Teaching and Learning

• is sensitive to individual differences among learners; • has a repertoire that includes a variety of instructional strategies; • understands individual and group motivation; • communicates effectively to foster inquiry and a positive classroom environment; • takes subject matter, learners, and goals into account in planning instruction; • uses assessment effectively; • actively reflects to evaluate choices and actions in light of his or her efforts; • fosters positive relationships with colleagues, community members, and learners.

After Teaching The third phase of the teaching process involves assessing the outcomes of instruction in rela- tion to the goals that you set in the preteaching phase. This process of evaluation reveals the effectiveness of your teaching; it might also say a great deal about the appropriateness of your instructional goals, the readiness of your students, the success of your teaching strategies, and even the relevance and fairness of your evaluation procedures. This is the phase during which reflective teachers actively consider the effects of the choices they have made and con- sider how they might improve aspects of the teaching–learning process.

Teaching as a Reflective Activity Reflective teaching implies a process where teachers systematically and actively think about (reflect upon) their teaching activities and the effects of these activities on learners. Although the widespread use of the expression reflective teaching is relatively new in education, the concept is many decades old. Almost a century ago, John Dewey defined it as “the active, per- sistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it” (1933, p. 9).

Advocates of reflective teaching encourage teachers to consider the consequences of their actions, to examine the beliefs upon which they base their behaviors, and to take an active role in acquiring new information and in improving their teaching (Pollard & Black-Hawkins, 2014). The object of reflec- tion is to arrive at a clearer understanding of the beliefs that underlie teaching behav- iors, to re-examine these beliefs, and to evaluate teaching behaviors in the light of values and objectives as well as in the light of how effective they are with respect to stu- dent learning.

Teachers are often encouraged to use narratives to help them reflect on their teaching. For example, they might keep diaries or blogs in which they narrate stories of specific teaching experiences. They are encouraged, as well, to use case studies of other teachers and teaching experiences as an aid to reflection.

The use of personal narratives, blogs, and case studies is an example of action research— research that occurs during the activity being investigated. Action research provides teachers

Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock ሁ Writing down important teaching experiences

and learning from other teachers can help teachers reflect and improve.

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Section 1.4 Teaching as a Craft

with a nonexperimental, highly personal attempt to demystify and improve some aspects of the act of teaching.

1.4 Teaching as a Craft There is a great deal more to teaching than simply reflecting on the processes involved. In fact, there are many specific skills and strategies that teachers can learn and use effectively in their teaching. Specific teaching strategies make up what is sometimes referred to as craft knowledge—that is, knowledge related to the craft of teaching.

Craft knowledge is a sort of practical knowledge that cannot always be clearly verbalized but can be learned through study and practice and perhaps by analyzing cases that illustrate teaching problems and principles. Craft knowledge includes general information as well as specific information about teaching particular subjects and lessons. Knowledge of the craft of teaching is often evident in the patterns and routines that you see in classrooms—routines relating to classroom management and discipline as well as to actual instruction. Accord- ingly, acquiring these patterns and routines—that is, learning the craft of teaching—requires a wealth of information about learners and the process of learning. Craft knowledge is one of the things that distinguish expert teachers from nonexperts.

Expert Versus Nonexpert Teachers One of the defining characteristics of expert teachers is that they are especially adept at applying elements of the craft of teaching. However, expert teachers are not simply teachers who have been teaching a long time. In fact, there are many nonexperts who have years of experience and perhaps more than a few experts who have newly joined the ranks of teachers.

Expert teachers are those who, by virtue of experience, training, and other more intangible skills, share several characteristics that make them better, more effective teachers. After look- ing at the qualities of a group of highly expert teachers, Sternberg and Horvath (1995) identi- fied three areas in which experts share common characteristics: (1) knowledge, (2) efficiency in problem solving, and (3) insight with respect to solving educational problems.

Knowledge Not surprisingly, expert teachers tend to be more familiar with the subjects they teach than are nonexpert teachers. That is, they have greater content knowledge. And, to a large extent, this greater subject-matter proficiency allows expert teachers to see relationships and con- nections more easily. This is one reason why expert teachers are better teachers.

Not only do expert teachers have more content knowledge, but they also have more pedagogi- cal knowledge—that is, knowledge of teaching and learning principles. Thus, expert teachers are better able to organize and deal with subject-matter issues and are also better classroom managers.

Efficiency As a result of relegating more teaching activity to well-practiced and highly effective routines, expert teachers are better able to monitor the flow of their lessons, to anticipate problems, to

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Section 1.4 Teaching as a Craft

evaluate their teaching, and to modify their teaching activities. Schempp and Johnson (2006) note that expert teachers seem to have a different set of perceptual skills than less expert teachers. They are better able to focus on events relevant to student performance, are more sensitive to unusual occurrences in the classroom, and make more rapid and more accurate inferences on the basis of their observations. As a result, they do more in less time and some- times with much less apparent effort. Thus, they are better problem solvers. They are also better planners. Expert teachers have developed sequences of routines and strategies that they can apply almost unconsciously as they teach.

Insight Expert teachers appear to be more reflective, and consequently more insightful, than non- experts. Their reflections are directed toward understanding, evaluating, and improving the teaching-learning process. Not surprisingly, experts are more likely to arrive at creative or insightful solutions for problems. With respect to classroom management prob- lems, for example, experts appear to be more sensitive to the possibility of rest- lessness and inattention even before these occur. Not only are these teachers skilled at recognizing potential problems, but they are also adept at applying unobtrusive solu- tions. Automatically—and without breaking the continuity of their ongoing activity— they can bring into play new patterns of interaction to shift the focus, draw students back into the flow of activity, and rechannel student attention. Their classroom manage- ment is more insightful. In sum, consider some of the following characteristics shared by expert teachers (Schempp and Johnson, 2006; Sweeny, 2007; Chi, Glaser, and Farr, 1988, and Sternberg and Horvath, 1995). Expert teachers

• excel at teaching; • possess a high level of content knowledge; • possess a high level of pedagogical knowledge (knowledge of the craft of

teaching); • perceive meaningful patterns and relationships in their teaching; • are effective at reading critical cues in a learning environment; • are highly efficient in responding to students and making rapid teaching

decisions; • understand teaching problems at a deep level; • are good at recognizing present problems and anticipating potential problems; • devote considerable time to analyzing teaching problems; • arrive at insightful solutions for pedagogical and management problems; • have become skillful at monitoring and evaluating teaching behaviors; • have well-developed memories for ongoing teaching behaviors.

Marie Lefrançois/Marie’s Photography ሁ A characteristic of an expert teacher is

being able to identify potential challenges and addressing them before they occur. For example, this teacher allowed her students to lie down to prevent them from becoming restless.

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Section 1.4 Teaching as a Craft

The Art of Teaching There is more to being an expert teacher than can be learned in one textbook—or even in a dozen textbooks. You see, teaching is not only a science; it is also an art. Sadly, however, the art of teaching does not lend itself to analysis as readily as does its science. The art of teaching has too much to do with the complexities of human interactions, with classroom ambience, perhaps with magic and poetry, and almost certainly with the personalities of teachers and of learners. The personality traits of exceptional teachers may be somewhat different from those whose skills are less remarkable. As Berube (2010) puts it, they are marked by the “X” factor—a lucky assortment of traits that include sensitivity, self-reflection, high moral values, and caring.

A textbook such as this is forced to deal with the science rather than with the art of teaching. Keep in mind, however, that art isn’t something that a teacher should resort to only when sci- ence fails; rather, art—that is, poetry, laughter, magic, emotion—can and should be a part of all classroom activity. Art can have a place in even the most apparently mundane lesson in an ordinary classroom on an otherwise boring Tuesday.

Some Challenges, Problems, and Rewards of Teaching Teaching is important. It’s stimulating and exciting, and it can be highly rewarding. But it isn’t overwhelmingly lucrative. According to the National Education Association (NEA), the aver- age teacher’s starting salary in the United States in 2013 ranged from $27,274 in Montana to $48,631 in New Jersey (2012–2013 Average Starting Teacher Salaries by State, 2013).

In addition, teaching is not exceedingly easy. In fact, report Gold and associates (2010), stud- ies indicate that teaching is a highly stressful occupation. Possible effects of stress associ- ated with teaching include teacher apathy and alienation, cynicism, chronic absenteeism, and, occasionally, the decision to abandon a teaching career—symptoms sometimes collectively labeled teacher burnout.

There are a wide variety of possible sources of stress for teachers. Yong and Yue (2007) iden- tify various classes of factors associated with teacher stress and possible burnout. These include student factors, such as discipline problems and unmotivated students; job factors, such as low salaries, lack of prestige, and overcrowded classrooms; school factors, such as too many responsibilities, time pressures, and poor school conditions; and personal factors, such as inadequate mastery of the craft of teaching and unrealistic expectations. Follow- ing a survey of 358 teachers, Agai-Demjaha Minov, Stoleski, and Zafirova (2015) report that among the greatest sources of stress for teachers are unexpected changes in job conditions and increases in responsibility, often in the absence of the authority required to make rel- evant decisions.

Besides the stresses associated with these factors, dramatic increases in the amount of infor- mation available to today’s teachers (and students), coupled with increasingly sophisticated tools for handling that information (computers and other electronic communication technol- ogy, for example), have made teaching far more demanding than it was in my father’s time. In some ways, there is too much to teach, and we can no longer teach everything. More and more, we have to equip learners to learn on their own.

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Section 1.4 Teaching as a Craft

Also potentially highly stressful are increasing demands for teacher accountability. These demands are sometimes reflected in the public’s insistent call for hard evidence that teach- ers, and schools, are effective. The call for school and teacher accountability was mandated in the 2002 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act. The main purpose of this act was to ensure that all students achieve certain standards in mathematics and reading, that all be taught by highly qualified teachers, and that all become proficient in English. In addition, one of the act’s important goals was that all students graduate from high school. This act was later replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (discussed in Chapter 10), which softened some of the assessment requirements mandated by NCLB.

Related to NCLB and ESSA is the Race to the Top (R2T) initiative announced in 2009, a feder- ally funded program in which states compete to obtain funds (Race to the Top Fund, 2016). The program is designed to bring about significant reforms in public education. Funding is tied to measurable improvements in teacher and school effectiveness, learner performance, and statewide educational reforms including the adoption of common achievement standards and the provision of a variety of educational options. As President Obama put it, “Race to the Top grants will go to states that use data effectively to reward effective teachers, to support teachers who are struggling, and when necessary, to replace teachers who aren’t up to the job” (White House, 2009). The possibility of replacing teachers can surely be another possible source of stress for some.

Add, to these sources of stress, the challenge of changes in legislation requiring that children with special and sometimes very complex needs be the responsibility of teachers in ordinary classrooms (a policy labeled mainstreaming or inclusive education, discussed in Chapter 4).

So teaching is difficult, stressful, demanding, not overly remunerative. . . . Why do it? There must be some rewards.

The Rewards of Teaching “As far as the money is concerned, no, I wouldn’t teach. I wouldn’t choose it again,” says Karen, a teacher, when she is asked: “If you could choose all over again, would you choose to be a teacher?” (Cohn & Kottkamp, 1993). But my friend Nora, who has now been teaching for almost 30 years, retorts, “I think the pay’s just fine. It’s one of those few things where the men don’t get paid a cent more than us.”

There are obviously other rewards of teaching, not the least of which are the intrinsic rewards—feelings of satisfaction, of accomplishment, of being and doing something worth- while, of making a difference. Then, there are extrinsic rewards—such as the prestige and respect accorded the profession and sometimes the political and social influence associated with teaching. Also, there are various ancillary rewards—rewards that are byproducts of the teaching profession but aren’t related directly to teaching itself. For example, many view the typical school schedule, with its long summer vacation, as an important reward. Simi- larly, many people want a five-day work week, with each day being six or seven hours long, and the security that has traditionally been associated with a tenured (permanent) teach- ing contract—in terms of continued employment, stable income, and an eventual pension. Note, however, that for many teachers work frequently spills into the evening and sometimes through weekends and summers as well. Dedicated teachers often work far more hours than might be expected.

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Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

Career Stability and Change Many teacher candidates never finish their teacher preparation (Reid & Reid, 2016). Others fail to become certified even after completing their studies. And a relatively large number of beginning teachers either do not obtain starting positions or abandon their careers after a few years. The National Educational Association reports that around 50 percent of teach- ers currently teaching will leave the profession within the next five years (Research Spot- light on Recruiting and Retaining Highly Qualified Teachers, 2015). Of course, some of these will be retiring; others will leave for personal reasons such as childbearing and rearing. And some will eventually return to teaching. In fact, although some beginning teachers abandon or switch their careers, the majority make lifelong careers out of teaching. Many—perhaps most—love what they do.

Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

Key Points • Teaching skills are not hereditary; educational psychology can contribute signifi-

cantly to their development. InTASC summarizes characteristics of competent teach- ers; the Praxis® tests assess them. Beliefs, which may be described as teacher- and content-centered or more student- and learning-centered, underlie many of our teaching decisions.

• Educational psychology is the study of human behavior in educational settings. Its principal research methods are quantitative (science based; emphasizing precision, consistency, objectivity, and replicability; and using experiments as a principal tool) and qualitative (emphasizing in-depth understanding; often using single case stud- ies; and making extensive use of interviews, observation, journals, and diaries). The principal function of theories, which often include laws, principles, and beliefs, is to summarize and explain related observations, to guide research, and to make predic- tions and practical applications.

• The acquisition model views learning as the progressive accumulation of informa- tion and supports direct instruction. The participation model emphasizes student involvement and leads to a constructivist approach to teaching.

• A simple three-phase teaching model describes activities that occur before teach- ing (setting goals, determining student readiness, selecting instructional strategies, and planning for assessment), implementing instructional activities, and assessing outcomes.

• The most effective teachers are reflective teachers. Advocates of reflective teaching encourage the use of action research—for example, narratives, blogs, and case stud- ies—as aids in reflecting about, evaluating, and improving teaching.

• Expert teachers are characterized by greater content and craft knowledge, highly efficient use of routines that allow them to solve or avert many classroom problems almost automatically, and a higher degree of insight, often associated with being highly reflective.

• Teaching is not as lucrative as playing professional baseball or arranging to have wealthy parents. Teaching positions are sometimes scarce, and the demands and stresses of teaching may drive beginning teachers out of the profession. But many stay and love it.

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Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

Posttest

1. Ms. Hernandez puts primary responsibility for learning on the learners. Ms. Hernan- dez fits the a. teacher-centered orientation. b. content-centered orientation. c. assessment- and testing-centered orientation. d. student- and learning-centered orientation.

2. Mr. Jenkins copies half of the chapter exams on yellow paper and half on pink paper, then randomly distributes them to students. He predicts that those with the yellow paper will have higher exam scores than those with pink paper. In this experiment, what is the independent variable? a. Randomly distributed to students b. Yellow or pink paper c. Exam scores d. His prediction about the outcome

3. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding educational psychology? a. Uses only qualitative research b. Studies human behavior c. Involves classroom management d. Measures student learning

4. Formal theories differ from naïve theories in that formal theories a. use technical language to express complex ideas. b. have multiple parts and components. c. have been scientifically tested and supported. d. are longer and more descriptive of behavior.

5. Which of the following would be the best example of action research? a. Mr. Sycowitz randomly assigns his students to small group or individual learning

situations and systematically measures differences for future publications. b. Ms. Bubbles collects published articles and puts together an extensive written

literature review related to best practices in teaching reading. c. Mr. Rossi tries computerized instruction on multiplication of fractions in his

classroom to see how quickly and easily his students learn with computers. d. Principal Miss Vickroy does observations of the third-grade classes at her school

to determine which teachers should continue to teach.

Answers: 1(d), 2(b), 3(a), 4(c), 5(c)

Critical Thinking Exercises • Why might it be important for teachers to study educational psychology? • What are some of the characteristics of effective teachers described by InTASC? • Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research. In what types of situations

would quantitative research be more useful and effective than qualitative research? • How would you define laws, principles, beliefs, and theories to someone who is

unfamiliar with these terms?

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Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

• What are the differences between direct instruction and constructivist approaches to teaching?

• Outline the basic elements of a useful teaching model. How will you incorporate these elements into your teaching style?

• Do you have examples of effective teachers? What characteristics did these teachers have that made them effective?

Web Resources For more information on InTASC, visit:

http://www.ccsso.org/resources/programs/interstate_teacher_assessment _consortium_(intasc).html

For more information on tests, such as Praxis® tests, visit:

https://www.ets.org/

For more information on the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), visit:

http://www.ed.gov/essa

For more information on Race to the Top, visit:

http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/index.html

Answers to Pretest

1. False. InTASC standards are used to determine teacher competency. 2. False. Laws and principles are different and cannot be used interchangeably.

Laws are definitive and leave no room for doubt, while principles are marked by uncertainty.

3. False. These instructional strategies are associated with constructivist instruction. Constructivist instruction emphasizes student participation rather than teacher- directed learning.

4. True. The stress from teaching can result in teacher burnout, which can manifest as stress-related behavioral symptoms, such as cynicism and absenteeism.

5. False. Intrinsic rewards of teaching include feeling a sense of accomplishment and doing something that makes a difference.

Answers to Posttest

1. Focusing on the learner’s responsibility for learning describes a student- and learning-centered orientation.

2. In an experiment, the independent variable is the factor that is controlled or changed. In this scenario, the color of the paper is the independent variable.

3. The field of educational psychology uses both quantitative and qualitative research to gain information on human behavior in an educational setting.

4. Formal theories are scientifically proven, while naïve theories are personal beliefs. 5. Action research is nonexperimental and allows teachers to find practical solutions to

address issues and improve their teaching.

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http://www.ccsso.org/resources/programs/interstate_teacher_assessment_consortium_(intasc).html

https://www.ets.org/

http://www.ed.gov/essa

http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/index.html

Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

Key Terms acquisition model A model of teaching marked by the belief that learning is largely a process of learners acquiring teacher- organized and -presented information and skills. See also participation model.

action research A highly subjective approach to educational research typically involving single cases or episodes. A com- mon tool in reflective teaching. See also reflective teaching.

belief The acceptance of an idea as accurate or truthful. Beliefs are often highly personal and resistant to change. See also laws, model, principles, theory.

case studies Investigations that generally involve one single participant or event or no more than a small number of individual cases.

craft knowledge Knowledge of the specif- ics of teaching including general information about teaching along with specific infor- mation about teaching particular subjects and lessons to students with identifiable characteristics.

dependent variable The variable (mea- surement, outcome, behavior) that reflects the effects of manipulations of the inde- pendent variable(s) in an experiment. The “then” part of the if-then equation implicit in an experimental hypothesis. See also inde- pendent variable, hypothesis.

direct instruction A phrase used to describe teacher-directed approaches to teaching—in contrast with more student- centered approaches such as reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning (often included among constructivist approaches).

educational psychology A science con- cerned primarily with the study of human behavior in educational settings.

experiment A deliberately controlled arrangement of circumstances under which a phenomenon is observed.

expert teachers Teachers who, by virtue of experience, training, and other intan- gible skills, share characteristics that make them better, more effective teachers than nonexperts.

fact Something that observation, experi- ence, or authority leads us to believe is true or real.

focus groups Name given to small groups of individuals who serve as participants in qualitative studies often designed to gauge reactions to products, services, events, and so on.

halo effect A cognitive bias where past per- formance or other factors lead to an expecta- tion of high or low performance and some- times to a bias in evaluating performance.

hypothesis A prediction, generally based on observation, intuition, or theory, that can be tested and verified experimentally.

independent variable The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to determine whether doing so causes changes in the dependent variable: the “if” part of the if- then equation implicit in an experiment. See also dependent variable, hypothesis.

in-depth interview A face-to-face, question-and-answer, qualitative research method that allows researchers to examine issues from the participant’s point of view.

InTASC (Interstate New Teacher Assess- ment and Support Consortium) A group that has developed a list of 10 standards widely used as a basis for developing tests used to assess and help beginning teachers. See also Praxis®.

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Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

journals and diaries Personal records in which individuals are instructed to record such things as their behaviors, their atti- tudes, their wishes and desires, or whatever is relevant to the questions the researcher is investigating.

laws Statements that are accurate beyond reasonable doubt. See also belief, model, principles, theory.

model A representation, usually abstract, of some phenomenon or system. Alternatively, a pattern for behavior that can be copied by someone. See also belief, laws, principles, theory.

naïve theory An expression used to describe psychological theories based on intuition and folk belief rather than on sci- ence. Also termed implicit theory.

narratives Accounts or stories. Narratives are often used by teachers to help them reflect on their teaching. See also reflective teaching.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) A U.S. act designed to ensure that all students and teachers achieve specified standards, that all students become proficient in English, and that all graduate from high school. Later replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA).

observation The act of noting or collect- ing information using scientific methods and sometimes scientific instruments or tools. As a noun, describes the information or knowledge gathered through scientific investigation.

participation model A model of teach- ing characterized by the view that active learner participation is the basis of learning. Teachers who subscribe to the participation metaphor are greatly concerned with the processes of learning. See also acquisition model.

Praxis® A series of tests of beginning teacher competence developed by a non- profit group in the United States, the Educa- tional Testing Service. The Praxis® tests are widely used before, during, and after teacher training. See also InTASC.

principles Statements relating to unifor- mity or predictability. Principles are far more open to doubt than laws but are more reliable than beliefs. See also belief, laws, model, theory.

psychology The science that examines human behavior (and that of other animals as well).

qualitative research Research that focuses on the unquantifiable (unmeasurable) sub- jective and personal aspects of human expe- rience. Some methods of qualitative research are in-depth interviews, observation, and personal journals and diaries.

quantitative research Research that deals with variables that can be quantified (mea- sured) and that is based on the methods of science and emphasizes the objective, repli- cable, and generalizable nature of research results.

Race to the Top (R2T) A 4.35-billion-dollar U. S. program designed to foster state- wide reforms in K-12 education, in which states compete for funding on the basis of measurable success in their efforts to improve teacher effectiveness and student performance.

reflective teaching A process where teach- ers systematically and actively think about (reflect on) their teaching activities; often makes use of personal narratives in an effort to clarify and improve teaching and learning. See also action research.

science An approach and an attitude toward knowledge that emphasize objectiv- ity, precision, and replicability.

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Chapter 1 Summary and Resources

teacher burnout A general label for a condition marked by a teacher’s profound negative reaction to teaching. One possible effect of high stress.

teaching A global term for any of a wide variety of activities intended to instruct, to educate, to train, or, by some other means, to cause someone to acquire or improve skills, knowledge, and understanding.

theory A body of information pertaining to a specific topic, a method of acquiring and dealing with information, or a set of explana- tions for related phenomena. See also belief, laws, model, principles.

ሁ Bears are rather large, bobtailed mammals. They walk on the soles of their feet; eat flesh, roots, and other vegetable matter; and have five toes on each foot (Cameron, 1956).

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