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1The Importance of Studying Child Development

“We serve children best when we try to find out what their own inner needs are and what their own unique endowments are and

to help them capitalize on that.” Fred Rogers

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Define child development. ሁ Understand the value of studying child development. ሁ List the five major developmental domains. ሁ Describe the interdependence of domain development. ሁ Differentiate between developmental and chronological ages. ሁ Explain the five key debated issues in child development. ሁ Discuss the steps needed for a child to be referred for early intervention.

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Section 1.1 What Is Child Development and Why Study It?

Chapter Outline Chapter Overview

1.1 What Is Child Development and Why Study It?

1.2 Developmental Stages and Ages

1.3 Issues in Child Development

1.4 Assessing a Child’s Development

1.5 Core Concepts of Development

1.6 Developmental Influences and Critical Periods

Summary and Resources

Chapter Overview Knowing what is typical for child development provides caregivers and teachers with the basis for understanding many aspects of working and interacting with children and their families. This knowledge improves a practitioner’s ability to assess a child’s current skills by formulating an appropriate impression of the child’s true developmental status. In doing so, the practitioner acquires the ability to positively influence the child’s developmental prog- ress. Not only do the researcher, practitioner, and parent need to learn how to use this infor- mation to support the child’s developmental growth, but they also need to understand how child development affects later behavior and impacts both their responses to the child and the child’s responses to them.

This introductory chapter gives an overview of developmental domains, definitions for terms frequently used in the study of child development, and the conceptual groundwork needed for successfully working with young children. Other chapter components include a review of major issues debated in this field with real-world examples, such as nature versus nurture and behavior stability and instability; a look at how observations of children can guide care- givers’ understanding of development; and steps to take if a child’s developmental progress is not typical. This chapter offers the basis for understanding subsequent chapters in this book. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the principal biological, hereditary, environmental, and experiential influences on how children develop, while Chapter 3 examines theories that provide the fundamental basis for this field of study. Chapters 4 through 8 focus on chrono- logical development through childhood, including the prenatal and neonatal stages, infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood.

1.1 What Is Child Development and Why Study It? Child development is the dynamic process of acquiring increasingly more complex motor, cognition, communication, social-emotional, and self-help skills from the stage of conception through adolescence. It is the result of interactions between biology, experiences, and the environment. Therefore, child development includes basic milestones that are somewhat pre- dictable but are influenced by intrinsic (originating from the inside) and extrinsic (originating from the outside) sources, which cause progress to be extremely individualized and differ- ent for each child. Development in children continues to change as competencies become

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Section 1.1 What Is Child Development and Why Study It?

more sophisticated and refined (Davies, 2011). According to this maturational perspective, these skills typically develop in a series of stages that follow a sequence of developmental competencies. These competencies are predictable on a continuum of major expectations, just as math teachers would expect their students to learn how to add before learning to mul- tiply, and to master multiplication before learning how to handle larger equations.

In 2011, 32.7 million children participated in some kind of regular child-care arrangement (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). These arrangements included care for children from birth to age 5 years, as well as programs covering out-of-school time. The adults providing this care have an impact on many aspects of the children in their care. For example, they can influence the children’s attitudes and behavior as well as their future social skills and academic perfor- mance. Knowledge of child development also guides caregivers in providing children with the experiences, support, and direction necessary for their optimal development. It is essential that caregivers understand typical human development because that understanding assists them in predicting how a child will learn and progress through specific areas of child develop- ment, or developmental domains.

There are many ways to group children’s developmental domains, but child development researchers typically consider five major spheres of development: motor development, cogni- tion, communication, social-emotional, and self-help. These five domains are used in this book. The following definitions are commonly used in the field of child development:

1. Motor development refers to the use, coordination, and growth of a child’s muscles. In the field of child development, the domain of motor development is divided into gross motor skills and fine motor skills. a. Gross motor skills involve the use and coordination of large muscle groups

in the arms, legs, and torso. These skills include general body movement and shifting, reaction speed, balance, and strength. Good gross motor development enables a child to move in many different ways and to control body movements. Gross motor skills include rolling over, walking, running, hopping, throwing, rid- ing a bike, and other such activities.

b. Fine motor skills are defined as coordination of small muscle movements, usually in the fingers and hands. These skills are needed for grasping and manipulating objects, for example, holding a crayon, buttoning a shirt, writing, and stacking blocks.

2. Cognition includes skills related to thinking, learning, understanding, processing information, reasoning, problem solving, imagination, and memory development.

3. Communication is the ability to exchange ideas with others. Communication includes the ability to understand others (receptive) and to express oneself through verbaliza- tions, writing, or body movements such as gestures and sign language (expressive).

4. Social-emotional development refers to the ability to regulate emotions, raise self-awareness, self-regulate behavior, build relationships, have positive interactions, show empathy for others, and eventually resolve conflicts.

5. Self-help skills are adaptive skills of daily living such as eating, bathing, dressing, and toileting (Aiger, 2011). Such abilities generally require some level of motor development, for example, as needed for activities like buttoning a shirt or holding a toothbrush.

Progress in one of these developmental domains is not isolated or independent from progress within another domain. Rather, these domains are interdependent and relate to each other.

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Section 1.1 What Is Child Development and Why Study It?

That means progress in one domain may help the child to advance in another domain. For example, a child’s understanding of the world (cognitive domain) is furthered by the child’s ability to move around and explore (motor development). It also means that one domain may be the outlet for another domain. For example, if a child is struggling in the communication domain, it may be difficult for a practitioner to assess the cognitive domain for that child because the child may find it challenging to convey to others what is known and understood. The same is true when a child attempts to engage socially with another child but finds it dif- ficult to communicate that intent.

Within each domain is a set of major expectations called developmental milestones. Devel- opmental milestones are skills that most children have achieved by a common age. These milestones provide a framework for monitoring a child’s development over time (Gerber, Wilks, & Erdie-Lalena, 2010). Chapter 3 discusses the theories and research on which these developmental milestones have been established.

A child’s developmental age for a par- ticular domain is the age at which children commonly achieve a developmental mile- stone in that domain. For example, many children first walk at approximately 1 year of age. Therefore, if a child first walks at 9 months, that child is said to have a develop- mental age of 1 year but only for the motor domain because walking is a part of the motor domain. The child may be at a devel- opmental age of 9 months in the communi- cation domain, and can even be at a younger developmental age in the cognitive domain. Children can be at different developmental ages across the various domains at any one time point.

The skills necessary for achieving a mile- stone are called prerequisite skills. Pre- requisite skills are skills that lead to another more advanced skill. For example, to achieve the milestone of walking independently, a child generally demonstrates and then practices a set of prerequisite skills that include rolling over, sitting, crawling, stand- ing, cruising, and finally, taking steps while

holding on to a person or a stable object. Another example of prerequisite skills, from the language domain, is the sounds infants make as they coo, babble, or blow “raspberries.” Next they might vocalize consonants and short syllables such as “da.” This progresses to vowels and short words like “up,” then phrases like “want up,” and finally the milestone of speaking in sentences: “I want up.”

A child’s progress in attaining developmental milestones may be unpredictable and staggered, developing in spurts and stops, and sometimes even regressing for short periods. Variations from typical developmental age must be viewed with extreme care. For example, Olivia took

▶ A child’s developmental age is characterized by the common age of achievement for particular developmental milestones. Walking is a developmental milestone often achieved around 1 year of age, with variations in timing that are unique to each child.

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Section 1.2 Developmental Stages and Ages

her first steps at 8 months but wasn’t using whole words until 18 months. However, she was forming full sentences by 24 months. Her later verbal development was likely normal; there- fore, the early delay was of no lasting consequence.

The way in which a child progresses through these milestones can be affected by intrinsic influences like genetics or by extrinsic influences like those in the environment. A key ques- tion is whether one type of influence has more impact on development than the other. This is precisely the issue at the heart of the nature versus nurture debate, which is discussed later in this chapter and in more detail in Chapter 2. As an example of an environmental influence, consider the social-cultural context of different nationalities. In some cultures, babies are car- ried and protected from too much stimulation, whereas in other cultures, children are tossed and spun around (Venetsanou & Kambas, 2010). These practices certainly can have an effect on the timing of children’s large muscle development. For example, in a comparison of motor development in Brazilian and British children, researchers found that Brazilians have more physically active play and outperform British children in gross motor activities like running, whereas children in England are encouraged to perform quiet work oriented toward school performance and do better with fine motor activities (Victora, Victora, & Barros, 1990).

1.2 Developmental Stages and Ages In addition to domains and milestones, developmental scientists generally refer to a child’s development in six developmental stages. These stages are prenatal, infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Most cultures in developed countries rec- ognize these same stages of development. This book covers the first four developmental stages, through age 8 years.

These stages generally match chronological ages in the following way:

1. The prenatal stage is from conception until birth. Also, some disciplines refer to a neonatal stage next, which is the first 4 weeks of life.

2. Infancy is the first year after birth; the earliest period of early childhood. 3. Toddlerhood is ages 1–3 years; the period of early childhood after infancy. 4. Early childhood generally applies to children ages 3–8 years. Some researchers

refer to children ages 2–5 years as preschoolers; in addition, some literature presents the early child- hood stage as all the years from birth to age 8. This book contains a separate chapter on early child- hood development for ages 4–5 years.

5. Middle childhood covers the period from ages 9 to 12 years.

6. Adolescence is the time period of transition between childhood and adulthood that includes key devel- opmental changes such as puberty. It is typically considered to cover ages 13–18 years.

▶ The prenatal stage is the initial stage of development, occurring from conception until birth.

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Section 1.3 Issues in Child Development

1.3 Issues in Child Development Chapter 3 examines in detail the theories that underpin child development thought, advances, organization, and implementation. Embedded in these theories are basic issues or ideas that are debated by experts, scholars, and researchers in the field regarding their applicability, importance, and influence on child development. Each issue is described briefly here. As you read the descriptions, consider your own views on these issues of frequent debate:

• Nature versus nurture • Continuity versus discontinuity • Similarity versus uniqueness • Behavior stability versus instability • Active behavior versus passive behavior (Slee, Campbell, & Spears, 2012)

Nature Versus Nurture Nature versus nurture is another way of phrasing the debate over whether our heredity or the environment contribute more heavily to who we become. This debate is a major issue in many social science disciplines and is concerned with the influence that biology, genetics, and overall heredity have, along with or in contrast to environmental influences. This debate encompasses the following questions: Which traits dominate future capabilities and behav- iors, the intrinsic traits that children are born with or the extrinsic traits that are the result of experiences? Are some of these intrinsic characteristics changeable, or are they fixed? Does our environment have a strong enough influence that it can change some of the impact of nature’s influences? Can we change our life course trajectory through nurturing, relation- ships, learning, and experiencing? Perhaps rather than seeing this as strictly an either-or situ- ation, the real question is how much does each influence contribute to an individual and what happens when these influences combine?

Some theorists who favor the nature argument explain that an entertainer’s tendency toward outgoing, bold behavior is predetermined at birth and is obvious when one or both of the parents had careers in the performing arts. Others offer an explanation that puts much more weight on the individual’s environment during crucial developmental years. A child whose parents fostered confidence and encouraged creativity may be more likely to enjoy entertain- ing as an adult. Today, many development professionals agree that a complex relationship exists between nature and nurture that may lead to a variety of outcomes later in life.

Continuity Versus Discontinuity Next is the debate of continuity versus discontinuity of development. Supporters of continu- ity describe development as incremental, gradual changes in a skill until it is mastered. This view emphasizes the quantitative improvement of skills. This would suggest “continuous” growth, much like a plant would grow in a fluid and consistent manner until it reaches its mature size. Those advocating discontinuity of development point to larger steps in developing skills, such as going from crawling to walking. This opinion focuses on the qualitative advances and refinements of skills through patterns referred to in this chapter as developmental stages.

Steve and Justin, fathers with 2-year-old sons, are discussing their sons’ develop- ment. Steve is sure he saw an abrupt change in his son whenever he acquired a new

Digital Vision/Thinkstock

▶ A debate exists in child development regarding the similarity or uniqueness of personality. The view that experiences have an impact on development would point to the uniqueness of personality.

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Section 1.3 Issues in Child Development

skill. Steve describes the day his son said his first word, took his first independent step, and first fed himself berries. Justin views all of the same events as happening gradually for his son. He describes how his son worked on feeding himself cereal pieces for weeks by slowly learning to grasp the small pieces with his palm and fingers, next by using all of his fingertips with the assistance of his palm, until he finally pinched with only two fingertips, pointer and thumb, and brought them to his mouth. Justin says it was even later that his son had mastered the skill enough to do this independently and with enough speed to get through an entire meal. Docu- mentation of both boys’ progress would show them at the same developmental age. However, Justin’s description of his son would support the continuous development theory, but what Steve is describing reflects discontinuous development.

Similarity Versus Uniqueness Similarity versus uniqueness in child development is based partly on Carl Jung’s writings on personality, in which he described the interactions between similarity and uniqueness in people as psychological types (Jung, 1969). Similarity refers to the notion that most people are basically the same even though they seem different on the surface. By contrast, unique- ness refers to the belief that each person has distinctive traits, beliefs, and thoughts, and that developmentalists should encourage individuality. The view that experiences and inherent traits have an impact on development would support the uniqueness argument because expe-

riences affect individuals differently and may combine uniquely with inherited traits.

Religion is an interesting place to look for evidence of similarity versus uniqueness. The ancient and universal idea of religion itself shows that people across cultures have always shared common beliefs and a common desire to understand the world around them. This commonality supports the idea of developmental similarity, even in our modern world. However, if we look at the values and beliefs of individuals within any one religion we would find many dif- ferent interpretations and varying degrees of faith. Uniqueness may be at play when members of the same family, especially sib- lings with similar rearing, have different religious beliefs later in life.

Behavior Stability Versus Instability The arguments of behavior stability versus instability focus on whether individual per- sonality characteristics stay as part of the person over time or change with development and drive changes in behaviors. Sigmund Freud (1923/1961) stated that an individual’s personal- ity is formed in early childhood and that future development of personality is determined by

Steve and Justin, fathers with 2-year-old sons, are discussing their sons’ develop- ment. Steve is sure he saw an abrupt change in his son whenever he acquired a new

Digital Vision/Thinkstock

▶ A debate exists in child development regarding the similarity or uniqueness of personality. The view that experiences have an impact on development would point to the uniqueness of personality.

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Section 1.3 Issues in Child Development

these early experiences. In contrast to this rigid model, Erik Erikson (1963) wrote that people are always changing and developing throughout their lives. This debate can be combined with the argument over continuity and discontinuity of behavior to produce a strong defense of development as a continually dynamic process.

For example, Patti, now 19 years old, has always been polite, reserved, and shy. The mem- bers of Patti’s family, including her parents and siblings, tend to be boisterous, outspoken, and social. Despite Patti’s environment and her siblings’ good-natured teasing, Patti remains quiet and well-mannered, even as a young adult. Patti’s unchanging characteristics may pro- vide evidence for behavior stability.

Active Behavior Versus Passive Behavior The final debate, over active behavior versus passive behavior, relates to whether chil- dren initiate behavior (activity) or are reactive to whatever happens because they believe it to be out of their control. A child with active behavior is one who acts on changes to get what was expected and may appear resistant to others’ expectations. A child with passive behavior is more likely to be flexible and adapts rapidly to unexpected circumstances with- out obvious stress.

Teagan and Kaya are twins with two very different personalities. Every day after dinner, Teagan and Kaya are allowed to have one cookie. Today, their mother told them they could not have a cookie because they did not put away their toys as she asked them to do. Teagan, a child with passive behavior, quietly leaves the dining room to get her coloring book even though she really wants a cookie. Kaya has always displayed more active behavior. She wants a cookie, too, so she asks her father for a cookie instead. Both siblings have found their own way to cope with the unexpected loss of a cookie.

As is evident in the number of deliberations and terms that occur in the field of child devel- opment, this area of study is complex. However, the field has basic perspectives that, though inherently complicated, fit together logically, especially in practice. These principles are part of the position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, n.d.). They are described as “theoretical perspectives that inform decisions about early childhood practice” (see Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 NAEYC’s principles of child development and learning

All areas of development and learning are important.

Learning and development follow sequences.

Development and learning proceed at varying rates.

Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.

Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.

Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic or representational capacities.

Children develop best when they have secure relationships.

(continued)

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Section 1.4 Assessing a Child’s Development

Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.

Children learn in a variety of ways.

Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language, cognition, and social competence.

Development and learning advance when children are challenged.

Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.

Source: National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early child- hood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions /position%20statement%20Web.pdf.

1.4 Assessing a Child’s Development Although milestones are reported to develop at certain ages, they may not necessarily be matched to the individual child’s actual age. In the field of child development, the actual age is referred to as the chronological age. A child’s chronological age is simply the amount of time in months (for infants) or years since birth.

Children are said to have typical development when they attain the predicted milestones anticipated for their chronological age. For typical development a child could demonstrate mild variations in either a positive or a negative direction, sometimes presenting simple irregularities like walking without ever crawling. However, extreme deviations from the typi- cal expectant age of a developing skill should signal further examination. Early identification of issues is more likely when a child is assessed as soon as concerns arise. Early identification is known to lessen future delays when referrals to appropriate early intervention programs are made in a timely manner.

Renita was nervous that her son, Michael, was not where he should be develop- mentally. She noticed at the park that many other children Michael’s age were already walking and using several words. During the next visit to the pediatri- cian, Renita shared her concerns with Michael’s doctor. After examining Michael and looking at his height, weight, and head circumference charts in comparison to the average child, Dr. Johnson reminded Renita of the impact of Michael’s pre- mature birth. Dr. Johnson shared that, although Michael may have a chronologi- cal age of 18 months, developmentally he may exhibit skills of a slightly younger child (D’Agostino, 2010). Dr. Johnson explained further that Michael would have an adjusted age of 16 months to reflect that he was born 2 months premature. Renita, while still concerned, was relieved to learn that children develop within a range of time and that a child’s birth circumstances, such as how close the child’s birth date is to the due date, influence when milestones might emerge.

Such referrals are generally initiated by a screening process to determine whether a full assessment is warranted. Referrals for screening and assessments must be approved by a parent in writing. The screening process is an unobtrusive brief evaluation of a child’s

Table 1.1 NAEYC’s principles of child development and learning (continued)

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http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/position%20statement%20Web.pdf

Section 1.4 Assessing a Child’s Development

developmental skills. It generally takes place with the parent in attendance, and depending on the child’s age, the process may include a parent interview. The screening helps to determine whether the child should have a complete evaluation in some or all developmental domains.

Many screening instruments are available, and each differs in reliability and validity of results as well as in the amount of training needed to administer them, the ease of use, and the interpretation of results. Reliability refers to how consistent and stable the results are over time and across testers. For example, if two different teachers screen the same child with the same test at around the same date, the results should be similar. That would mean the test and the testers have reliability. Validity refers to whether the instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. For instance, if the instrument is used to screen for communication problems but really looks at how well the child eats independently, then the instrument does not have validity in communication.

If the screening results indicate significant delays or highly irregular patterns of develop- ment, then the steps for a full evaluation are basically the same as those for screening. Parent approval must be obtained for the referral for evaluation. The evaluation is typically done by an early intervention specialist, a team of specialists, or a psychologist. Testing results should be paired with the clinical judgment of professionals who know the child and the parents. Again, with parental permission, the child can be enrolled in special services, usually called early intervention or early childhood special education.

Child assessments are important whether or not a special need is suspected. According to the NAEYC (McAfee, Leong, & Bodrova, 2004), assessment is the process of finding out what a child can do in relation to that child’s optimal development by gathering information from several sources and then organizing and interpreting the information. Assessment provides the practitioner with invaluable information on how to play and interact with the child or on how to instruct the child. These assessments can be formal (using standardized testing mea- sures) or informal (making frequent observations and documenting those observations).

Developmental psychologists refer to good systematic observation as naturalistic observation. Naturalistic observation involves watching and listening to the child in the course of everyday activities, events, and contexts, and documenting the child’s behaviors (McKench- nie, 2008). Observations provide important information about what a child might think and feel; what triggers behaviors, or stimu- lates creativity, in a certain child; why a child may seem quiet or shy; who and what a child prefers to play with and why; when a child is sick or sad; and more. Observations by the practitioner also help build better relation- ships between the caregiver and the child and between the caregiver and the parent because observing a child in a structured way gives the caregiver a much improved understanding of the child’s idiosyncrasies and preferences. Consequently, observation gives clearer insight into each child’s indi- vidual characteristics and helps in future discussions of the child’s needs.

▶ Child observation is an important practice that can give caregivers and teachers valuable insight into children’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

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Section 1.5 Core Concepts of Development

To conduct observations effectively, a caregiver or teacher must be deliberate and record faithfully what is seen and heard. This often happens by observing the child without interact- ing but should also happen when the observer is an active part of the group, with the under- standing that participation in the activity will change some dynamics. Observations in both cases will provide understanding of the child’s learning style, behaviors, personality, and skill level. The observer also should monitor the child over time and over a variety of activities and times of the day. It is important to note how a child interacts in groups as well as individually with parents, other family members, other adults, and peers. It is also helpful to note the time of day, the length of the activity, which peers were present, and what occurred immediately preceding the observed activity.

Documenting what is seen and heard helps an observer to avoid retrospectively misunder- standing an interaction or forgetting important details. Observation notes and portfolio sam- ples can be kept in files for future reference. Portfolio samples may contain samples of the child’s work, such as drawings; photos of the child’s science or art projects; anecdotal notes; photographs of the child at play; a dictated story; and similar items.

1.5 Core Concepts of Development After reviewing an extensive body of research, the Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development of the National Academy of Sciences published what might be called the most influential report ever on the nature of early human development. This report, From Neurons to Neighborhoods (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000), identified 10 core concepts of development (see Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Core concepts of development

Human development is shaped by a dynamic and continuous interaction between biology and experience.

Culture influences every aspect of human development and is reflected in childrearing beliefs and practices designed to promote healthy adaptation.

The growth of self-regulation is a cornerstone of early childhood development that cuts across all domains of behavior.

Children are active participants in their own development, reflecting the intrinsic human drive to explore and master one’s environment.

Purestock/Thinkstock

▶ Early childhood is an essential period of development because early experiences provide a foundation for future learning and growth.

(continued)

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Section 1.6 Developmental Influences and Critical Periods

Human relationships, and the effects of relationships on relationships, are the building blocks of healthy development.

The broad range of individual differences among young children often makes it difficult to distinguish nor- mal variations and maturational delays from transient disorders and persistent impairments.

The development of children unfolds along individual pathways whose trajectories are characterized by continuities and discontinuities, as well as by a series of significant transitions.

Human development is shaped by the ongoing interplay among sources of vulnerability and sources of resilience.

The timing of early experiences can matter, but, more often than not, the developing child remains vulner- able to risks and open to protective influences throughout the early years of life and into adulthood.

The course of development can be altered in early childhood by effective interventions that change the bal- ance between risk and protection, thereby shifting the odds in favor of more adaptive outcomes.

Source: From National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Reprinted with permission from the National Academies Press, Copyright © 2000, National Academy of Sciences.

These core concepts attempt to grasp the typical and atypical developmental paths of early childhood. They cover the prenatal period to kindergarten and address how early experi- ences affect all components of development from neurological development to cultural and societal influences. This work is based on four predominant themes:

• All children are born wired for feelings and ready to learn. • Early environments matter and nurturing relationships are essential. • Society is changing and the needs of young children are not being addressed. • Interactions among early childhood science, policy, and practice are problematic and

demand dramatic rethinking.

According to the core concepts, development progresses faster from the time of conception until birth than during any following stage of life (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). These concepts support and supplement NAEYC’s perspectives. Compare NAEYC’s perspectives (Table 1.1) with the National Academy of Sciences’s core concepts (Table 1.2) to find similarities and differences.

1.6 Developmental Influences and Critical Periods The seminal report From Neurons to Neighborhoods (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000) establishes the existence of many intrinsic and extrinsic influences on the developing child. These influ- ences include all genetics, notably, the genetics of personality called temperament; effects of stress on brain development and other neurological structures; gender roles; culture; reli- gion; family; community; economics, especially poverty; and institutions such as schools and government. These contexts and influences (including different types of temperament) and more are discussed in detail in Chapter 2. The following vignette provides a glimpse into the strong impact that influences such as temperament can have on children’s development:

Kevin was thrilled when he learned that his wife, Sheila, was pregnant again. The couple had recently celebrated the second birthday of their daughter, Arabella. Kevin and Sheila reveled in how easy the first years of life had been for Arabella.

Table 1.2: Core concepts of development (continued)

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Section 1.6 Developmental Influences and Critical Periods

Arabella had an uneventful birth with equal ease in sleeping, eating, and inter- action patterns. Everyone marveled at this wonderful toddler, with her pleasant disposition and outgoing personality traits or temperament. When Kevin and Sheila brought their son, Eli, home from the hospital they were optimistic that they would again enjoy relative ease in the first years. Quickly, the couple began to notice differences between their prior experiences with Arabella and what was emerging with Eli. Eli was fussy during feedings and difficult to get to sleep, and he would cry frequently unless he was held and rocked. The couple couldn’t help but wonder if something was wrong or whether they were simply witness- ing differences between having a boy versus a girl. Kevin and Sheila learned that, although several influences such as gender, birth order, and nutrition account for variations in children, temperament is another contributing factor. Temper- ament refers to the personality traits that are believed to be innate from birth and remain constant through life. Kevin and Sheila began to see Arabella as their “easy” or “flexible” baby while Eli was their “feisty” child. They also learned that neither of the temperaments was necessarily good or bad but that how they talked to and interacted with each child needed to be different.

Understanding the basics of child development alerts adults to times when children’s devel- opment can be maximized. Maria Montessori introduced these times, called sensitive periods, in her book The Secret of Childhood (1936). This term is used to indicate that a cer- tain experience or learning event has an especially strong impact on the developing brain during a limited time, or the sensitive period. However, newer findings have dispelled the old notion that the first 3 years of a child’s development were so sensitive to learning and reach- ing certain milestones that a child older than age 3 could not achieve the same milestones if they had not done so already. Today, learning is looked upon as lifelong and development is seen to continue throughout the lifespan.

Even so, a significant positive or negative event can have a permanent effect on performance or behavior during a certain time of development. If the timing of the event creates a long- lasting change, the time during which it occurred is called a critical period (Knudsen, 2004). Critical periods are rare for babies and children of any age, but they occur more frequently in the prenatal period. For example, by the end of the first trimester, certain hormones must be present to determine the development of the fetus as male or female (Wilson, George, & Griffin, 1981). Critical periods are more common in animals. Consider psychologist Konrad Lorenz’s (1937) theory of imprinting, or social bonding in infant animals. He described the process when ducks and geese form an attachment to the first thing they see moving after they are born. If they do not see anything moving and imprinting does not occur, the critical period is over and they may wander alone without any attachment.

Related to the concepts of sensitive and critical periods is the idea that babies are resilient in many ways. Even though there is plasticity of the brain and the neurological infrastructures, the timing of weighty experiences is crucial. Plasticity of the brain refers to the human brain’s capacity to change. See Figure 1.1 for a depiction of windows of plasticity in brain develop- ment. Sensory abilities are at a critical developmental “window” prenatally and at birth, mov- ing into the toddler and preschool years, when primarily motor and language skills advance, followed by complex cognitive competencies. This depiction is not meant to imply that these are discrete windows of progress, but rather that the brain is changing continuously, as can be seen by the overlapping curves.

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Birth

P la s ti c it y

Development

Sensory Motor/ Language

Higher Cognition

Summary and Resources

Clearly the brain is not static and capacities are not fixed at birth. The brain’s ability to com- pensate for difficulties demonstrates its astonishing plasticity (Hostinar & Gunnar, 2013). The sensitive and critical periods of time are good examples of how biology and experiences inter- relate. Chapter 2 describes in more depth the influences of experiences on brain development.

Summary and Resources In the scope of behavioral and developmental science, the study of child development is rela- tively new. This field of education is extremely important in current times because of society’s shift to extensive out-of-home care for young children. Child development is defined to be a dynamic process of acquiring increasingly advanced skills in five domains: motor, cognition, communication, social-emotional, and self-help. Achievement of these skills can be monitored through developmental milestones and their prerequisite skills, although children demon- strate variations in the rate and quality of skill acquisition. If a caregiver or teacher has any reason for concern regarding a child’s developmental progress, the parents should be notified and their permission sought to initiate screening. The screening process is a preliminary step that may or may not indicate the need for further developmental evaluation of the child.

Progress in one developmental domain is interdependent with progress in other domains, and that interdependence affects the rate and quality of developmental advancement. Devel- opment is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but experts in the field debate the extent, timing, and quality of this influence. Generally, these debates cover five concepts: nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, similarity versus uniqueness, behav- ior stability versus instability, and active behavior versus passive behavior (Slee, Campbell, & Spears, 2012).

A child’s development is complex, unique, continuous, and resilient. The concepts of sensitive and critical periods for acquisition of skills and behaviors are countered with a description of children’s brains’ plasticity, which is the brain’s ability to be modified after birth. The current neurological evidence for plasticity of the brain dispels prior belief that capacities for devel- opment are fixed at birth.

Figure 1.1: Windows of plasticity in brain development ሁ Critical periods of brain development occur at different developmental stages. These stages

overlap and continually change.

Source: From Hensch, T. K. (2005). Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(11), 877-888. Copyright © 2005 Nature Publishing Group. Reprinted by permission.

Birth

P la s ti c it y

Development

Sensory Motor/ Language

Higher Cognition

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Summary and Resources

Chapters 2 and 3 detail the newest information on influences in child development and the developmental theories at the foundation of this field of study. Beginning with Chapter 4, the remainder of the book then presents extensive information for each of the developmental stages from conception through early childhood.

Key Terms and Concepts

active behavior versus passive behav- ior The debate over whether behavior is based on initiating behavior (active) or being reactive (passive) to whatever happens.

adolescence The time period of transi- tion between childhood and adulthood that includes key developmental changes such as puberty. It is typically considered to cover ages 13–18 years.

behavior stability versus instability The discussion among developmental scien- tists that focuses on whether individual personality characteristics stay fairly fixed over time or change with development and environment.

child assessment The process of finding out what a child can do in relation to that child’s optimal development by gathering information from several forms of evidence and then organizing and interpreting the information.

child development The dynamic process of acquiring increasingly more complex motor, cognition, communication, social-emotional, and self-help skills from the stage of concep- tion through adolescence. It is the result of interactions between biology, experiences, and the environment.

chronological age A child’s age measured by time in months (for infants) or years since birth.

cognition Skills related to thinking or conscious mental activity; includes learning, understanding, processing information, rea- soning, problem solving, imagination, and memory development.

communication The ability to exchange ideas with others including the ability to understand others (receptive) and to express oneself through verbalizations, writ- ing, or body movements such as gestures and sign language (expressive).

continuity versus discontinuity A debate among developmental scientists about whether development represents incre- mental, gradual changes in a skill until it is mastered or a series of larger steps such as going from crawling to walking.

critical period A specific period of time during which an experience has a perma- nent effect on performance or behavior.

developmental age A child’s age based on the skill set that the child demonstrates, in relation to the age when those skills are typically exhibited.

developmental domains Specific spheres of growth in which children develop. They encompass motor (both fine motor and gross motor), cognition, communication, social-emotional, and self-help skills.

developmental milestones Skills or spe- cific achievements that most children have achieved by a common age.

early childhood Generally applies to the development and teaching of children ages 1–5 years; can also represent all the years from birth to age 8.

early intervention Special services for children who present with significant developmental delays or disabilities and are younger than school entry age as defined by the particular state in which they live.

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Summary and Resources

fine motor skills The coordination of small muscle movements, usually in the fingers and hands.

gross motor skills The use and coordina- tion of large muscle groups in the arms, legs, and torso.

imprinting Lorenz’s theory of social bond- ing in infant animals that describes phase- sensitive learning.

infancy The first year after birth; the earli- est period of early childhood.

maturational perspective The view that development in children continues to change as competencies become more sophisticated and refined; skills typically develop accord- ing to a progressive schedule and change by increasing in difficulty.

middle childhood The period of child- hood development usually referred to as the school years, spanning ages 9–12 years.

motor development Covers a wide range of important physical skills that include the use, coordination, and growth of a child’s muscles.

naturalistic observation Watching and lis- tening to the child in the course of everyday activities, events, and contexts and docu- menting the child’s behaviors.

nature versus nurture A debate among developmentalists regarding the influence that biology, genetics, and overall heredity have, along with or in contrast to environ- mental influences.

plasticity The human brain’s capacity to reorganize neural pathways and to change.

prenatal stage The period of development from a single-celled zygote to a full-term baby, spanning conception until birth.

prerequisite skills Necessary skills that lead to another more advanced skill.

reliability A measure of the consistency and stability of assessment results over time and across testers.

screening process An unobtrusive brief evaluation of a child’s developmental skills in comparison to what would be expected for the child’s age.

self-help skills The adaptive skills of daily living, such as eating, bathing, dressing, and toileting.

sensitive period A limited period of time during which a certain experience or learn- ing event has an especially strong impact on development.

similarity versus uniqueness A develop- mental debate regarding the views that most people are basically the same even though they seem different on the surface or that they are unique, referring to the belief that each person has distinctive traits, beliefs, and thoughts, and that developmentalists should encourage individuality.

social-emotional development The ability to regulate emotions, raise self-awareness, self-regulate behavior, build relationships, have positive interactions, show empathy for others, and eventually resolve conflicts.

toddlerhood Ages 1–3 years; the period of early childhood after infancy that encom- passes a time of great cognitive, emotional, and social development.

typical development Attaining the pre- dicted developmental age for a milestone, possibly demonstrating mild variations in either a positive or a negative direction, and sometimes presenting simple irregularities.

validity Term used to define whether an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.

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Summary and Resources

Discussion Questions

1. Mrs. Dexter has two daughters. Her older daughter took her first independent steps at 9 months old. Now her younger daughter is 15 months old and still has not walked, not even cruising while holding on to furniture. Mrs. Dexter is quite concerned. Does she have reason to be concerned?

2. Of all of the developmental domains, which one is the most interrelated to the oth- ers? Provide a rationale for your statement.

3. Think back to your early childhood experiences. Select an event that has influenced you until this day. Describe why it was so powerful.

4. What is your personal view of child development? Consider the debates of nature versus nurture and continuity versus discontinuity.

Web Resources

Zero to Three

www.zerotothree.org This website provides parents and professionals with information on childhood development from birth to age 3 years.

American Academy of Pediatrics

www.aap.org This website presents information for parents on children’s health, safety, injury prevention, and development issues.

Child Development Institute

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com This website offers child development information, tips for parents, and recommendations for articles on parenting.

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www.zerotothree.org

www.aap.org

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com

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