Introduction

REDD76

01CH_Curenton_Cultural.pdf

Home >Education homework help >Introduction

Juice Images/SuperStock

Learning Objectives

By the time you reach the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe current demographic trends that are causing an increase in cultural diversity in the United States.

2. Define the aspects of cultural identity that are important to early childhood teaching, such as race/ ethnicity, language, and socioeconomic status.

3. Explain why poverty is an aspect of cultural diversity.

4. Compare and contrast access to preschool education in the United States and in Europe.

5. Explain the ways that culture is transmitted through language and the unique strengths of dual language learners (DLLs).

6. Identify types of cultural mismatches for children and early childhood programs.

7. Describe ways to encourage cultural diversity in early childhood education.

Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education 1

Comstock/Thinkstock

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Introduction

Imagine yourself walking into a 21st-century early childhood classroom in the United States. A group of chatty youngsters happily greets you at the door. Some are tall and lean, others are short and stocky. You squat down so that you are eye to eye with them. The first girl who hugs

you is wearing thick glasses and hearing aids. The children are ethnically diverse—Latino, Black, Somali, Hmong. Most of them shout, “Good morning!” but a few chime in with “¡Buenos dias!” You greet each of them in their native language as they run into your arms for hugs. You notice a boy lingering on the outskirts of the group. He is attentive, but quiet, and he’s not making direct eye contact with you or the other children. He appears to have something to say, but he can’t seem to find the words.

Clearly, the children in the classroom represent different cultural backgrounds and have different levels of English-language skills. This imaginary classroom depicts the wide range of cultural diver-

sity found in today’s early child- hood education programs. How can you, as a teacher, best incor- porate your children’s cultural experiences and their diverse language skills into the classroom learning environment?

This chapter will lay the founda- tion for early childhood teach- ers as they prepare to educate today’s diverse student popula- tion. First, we will describe the recent rise in cultural diversity across the United States, espe- cially among the preschool and school age population. Next, we define the key concepts of culture and cultural diversity, and discuss

why they are important. Third, we describe the value of language in various cultures, its important role in teacher-child interactions, and how it affects teachers’ relationships with culturally diverse children. Lastly, we discuss some ways in which early childhood educators can help prepare this upcoming generation of culturally diverse children to succeed in school.

1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Before we discuss the rising cultural diversity within the United States, we must understand the key concepts of culture and cultural identity. Culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, expectations, rules, or patterns of behavior, goals, and practices that characterize a

group, such as a family, a community, an institution, or an organization. It includes the characteris- tic features of everyday existence (how people live their lives) shared by people in a place or time. Culture is evident in how humans do things, and it explains why we want (or feel the need) to do these things. Cultural heritage and traditions shape children’s communication practices, interests in instructional activities, and classroom behavior.

Comstock/Getty Images/Thinkstock

Being a culturally competent early education instructor will allow you to help your diverse students succeed in school.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

We each have a cultural identity that can be defined by various demographic, geographic, reli- gious, or social indicators, and people can belong to several different cultural groups. For example, a child may be culturally defined as an Israeli boy from an upper-income Jewish family living in New York City, or an early childhood teacher might culturally identify with Southern African Ameri- cans from the Pentecostal Christian denomination. People’s cultural identities not only shape how they think, feel, and behave, but sometimes these identities also shape how others view them. For example, some people may have negative opinions about people with a cultural identity of a non- English-speaking immigrant working in a lower socioeconomic status job, such as a migrant farm worker. These negative opinions form the basis for prejudice and discrimination; we will talk more about prejudice and discrimina- tion in Chapter 2.

Because culture is an integral part of human nature, cultural identity is an important aspect of chil- dren’s and families’ lives, and since the United States is becoming increasingly diverse, it behooves educators to learn to appreciate cultural diversity. An informed understanding of the differences (and similarities) between cul- tures, though, requires an under- standing of what a culture is and the acknowledgement that all human beings are a product of their culture (Cole, 1992/1998). When teachers recognize how important their own culture is to themselves, they will be better able to appreciate the diverse cultural backgrounds of their stu- dents, and they will ultimately be better teachers to their students.

Factors Contributing to Cultural Diversity According to data from the Children’s Defense Fund (2023), in 2021 there were approximately 74 million children living in the United States, and more than half of them (50.64%) had Hispanic, Black, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, or multiracial backgrounds. The factors behind the recent growth in U.S. cultural diversity include the increases in immigration rates from non-European countries, in the number of children from non-White race and ethnic groups, in students who are dual language learners, and in the number of children living in poverty.

Immigration The number of children in immigrant families has more than doubled since 1990 (Migration Pol- icy Institute, 2021). In 2019, the top five countries of origin for immigrants were Mexico, India, China, the Philippines, and El Salvador (American Immigration Council, 2023). In 2021, 44% of immigrants described themselves as Hispanic or Latino (Ward & Batalova, 2023). As shown in Fig- ure 1.1, the number of Hispanic children living in the United States more than tripled from 1980 to

Siri Stafford/Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Increased immigration, particularly among Hispanic groups, is one factor contributing to the increased diversity of the United States.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

2021 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2023, Table 1). According to the Migration Policy Institute (2021), 25.9% of children have at least one immigrant parent. Almost all of these children (87.9%) were born in the United States and have at least one parent who was born outside the United States, which makes them second-generation immigrants, meaning they were born within the United States and are citizens. On the other hand, first-generation immigrants are people who were born in another country who migrate to the States, either as adults or as children.

Figure 1.1: Number of Hispanic Children in U.S. in 1980 and 2021

As shown in this graph, the number of Hispanic children in the United States has more than tripled since 1980.

Sources: Data from The State of America’s Children Handbook: 2012, by Children’s Defense Fund, 2012, Washington, DC, and The State of America’s Children® 2023, by Children’s Defense Fund, 2023 (https://www.childrensdefense.org/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-2023-child-population/).

This rise in immigration means that there is a greater chance that more children in early child- hood programs either have at least one parent not born in the U.S. or they themselves were not born in the U.S. In Chapter 4, we talk in detail about immigrant families and how to build on these families’ strengths and challenges when their children are enrolled in early education programs.

Because recent trends in immigration are diversifying our population quickly, we need to look next at the ways this diversity is defined, such as in terms of race and ethnicity.

Race and Ethnicity Parents are often asked to identify their child’s race and ethnic category on various forms, such as the one shown in Figure 1.2. While checking a box on a form does not provide a complete picture of a child’s or family member’s cultural identity, people are typically affiliated with the racial and ethnic groups that they choose on such forms. In other words, people choose to indicate these aspects of their cultural identity because such categories have psychological and social meaning for them. Otherwise, they would opt to not identify with such categories.

Number of Hispanic Children (in millions)

20211980

18.9

5.3

https://www.childrensdefense.org/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-2023-child-population/

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Figure 1.2: Questions on Hispanic Origin and Race From the 2020 Census

What does the information requested on this census questionnaire tell us about the U.S. government’s definitions of race and ethnicity?

Source: Decennial Census of Population and Housing Questionnaires & Instructions, by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021h (https://www.census.gov/programs -surveys/decennial-census/technical-documentation/questionnaires.2020_Census.html).

NOTE: Please answer BOTH Question 8 about Hispanic origin and Question 9 about race. For this census, Hispanic origins are not races.

8. Is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?

9. What is Person 1’s race? Mark one or more boxes AND print origins.

No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin

Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin — Print, for example, Salavadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc.

White — Print, for example, German, Irish, English, Italian, Lebanese, Egyptian, etc.

Black or African Am. — Print, for example, African American, Jamaican, Haitian, Nigerian, Ethiopian, Somali, etc.

American Indian or Alaska Native — Print name of enrolled or prinicpal tribe(s), for example, Navajo Nation, Blackfeet Tribe, Mayan, Aztec, Native Village of Barrow Inuplat Traditional Government, Nome Eskimo Community, etc.

Chinese

Filipino

Asian Indian

Other Asian — Print for example, Pakistani, Cambodian, Hmong, etc.

Native Hawaiian

Samoan

Chamorro

Other Pacific Islander — Print, for example, Tongan, Fijian, Marshallese, etc.

Vietnamese

Korean

Japanese

Some other race — Print race or origin.

https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/technical-documentation/questionnaires.2020_Census.html

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

As anyone who has filled out such a form might know, there is always a limited number of options for race and ethnicity. The United States Census Bureau, for example, which is responsible for col- lecting and reporting demographic data about the nation’s population, has defined the most prev- alent race and ethnic categories. Figure 1.2 shows the options presented for Hispanic origin and race during the 2020 census. First, people are asked to indicate their ethnicity; ethnicity is defined as having a shared nationality, language, religion, or sociopolitical history (e.g. a group’s exposure to conquest, slavery, or segregation). In other words, ethnicity is a broad cultural identifier that could describe multiple groups. Yet, the only choices for ethnic categories on the U.S. census are Hispanic versus Non-Hispanic; people of Hispanic origin can be from any racial background, and Hispanic origin refers to a heritage, nationality, or ancestral lineage.

The census also asks respondents to indicate their race; race is defined as a shared ancestral heritage that distinguishes groups of people based on physical characteristics that were once mis- takenly believed to be genetic or biological. On the census form, the specified racial categories include White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Chinese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Native Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro, Other Asian, Other Pacific Islander, or Some Other Race. When U.S. Census Bureau analysts combine these ethnic and race categories for cross-tabulation, they result in the following:

• Hispanic or Latino • White alone non-Hispanic • Black or African American alone non-Hispanic • American Indian and Alaska Native alone non-Hispanic • Asian alone non-Hispanic • Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone non-Hispanic • Some Other Race alone non-Hispanic • Multiracial non-Hispanic (Jensen et al., 2021)

Despite the fact that the census describes its categories of people as “racial” groups, it is impor- tant to understand that these categories of people also represent “ethnic” groups.

The definitions of race in the United States have frequently and dramatically changed since the first census in 1790, based on public policies or population trends at different time periods, such as the legalization of slavery, the granting of citizenship rights, or the influx of new immigrants (Brown, 2020). Such changes in the way society defines race were never—and still are not—based on biol- ogy. The Spotlight on Research feature, “Scientists Were Wrong About Race,” explains how for centuries, scientists drew inaccurate conclusions about the nature of race. Categorizing people according to racial groups has no basis in biological science, because all people are the same at the genetic level. Race is more accurately defined as a social construct that was created, and has been manipulated, over time in order to shape public will and deny certain groups of people rights.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Spotlight on Research: “Scientists Were Wrong About Race” The modern concept of race was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the time, scientists categorized humans into three main racial groups: Caucasoid (White), Negroid (Black), and Mongoloid (Asian). During that time, scientists did not understand genetic or evolutionary biology; they wrongly believed that groups of human beings who had different physical characteristics had different genes and descended from different evolutionary ancestors.

Thanks to advances in technology that have allowed us to examine the human genetic code, we now know that all people are genetically similar, no matter how different their physical appearance (Caesar & Williams, 2002). In fact, if you compare the DNA of people from each of the “racial” groups, you will find that they share over 99% of their genes (Jorde & Wooding, 2004). In addition, because of break- throughs in evolutionary science, we now know that all human beings are descendants of the same female ancestor from central Africa (Wilson & Cann, 1992).

If you want to learn more about how all humans share a common ancestor and are similar genetically, go to the PBS website, “Race: The Power of an Illusion.”

Now that you have been introduced to the social and political history of race, you can more clearly see how race and even ethnicity are social constructs; the definitions of these words are based on the political battles and immigration trends at a given time. You can also understand why people may choose to define themselves using multiple terms across the various aspects of their cultural identities.

In this book, whenever possible, we will describe groups according to their ethnicity because, compared to race, ethnicity speaks more to one’s cultural identity. Because ethnicity includes shared nationality, language, religion, and sociopolitical history, people can be described more specifically and across multiple aspects of their identity. Therefore, we might use specific terms such as Panamanian or Jamaican to describe children and families, rather than simply Latino or Black, respectively.

There are times, however, when there is a need to describe larger pan-ethnic groups that combine subgroups sharing a similar ancestral heritage, language, religion, or sociopolitical history, regard- less of their nationality. In these cases, we will use terms such as White (e.g., people of European, North African, or Middle Eastern descent, regardless of country of origin), Black (e.g., people of African descent, regardless of country of origin), Asian (e.g., people of East Asian, South Asian, and Polynesian descent), and Native American (e.g., people whose ancestors originated in precolonial United States).

Dual Language Learners Given the diversity of immigrants of different nationalities, it should not be surprising that 21.7% of the United States population speaks a language other than English at home (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.). The children within this population are referred to as dual language learners (DLLs)—children who are acquiring two or more languages at the same time. The term DLL can encompass other terms frequently used to describe students, such as Limited English Proficient (LEP), bilingual, and English language learner (ELL).

http://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00-Home.htm

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

When working with DLLs, teachers have to remember that not all DLL families share the same experiences, national customs, or even dialect. There are variations in the home languages that families speak, the ages when children were first exposed to English, their fluencies in English and their other languages, and the degrees of the families’ linguistic isolation (Espinosa, 2010).

In addition, there is wide variety across racial and ethnic groups in the percentage of the popu- lation that speaks a language other than English at home. Figure 1.3 shows that the majority of Asian and Hispanic people speak another language at home besides English, as do many American Indians and Pacific Islanders. Whites and Blacks are the least likely to speak another language besides English at home.

Figure 1.3: Percentage of the Population Speaking Another Language at Home

What does this graph show you about the cultural makeup of the United States?

Source: Data for Hispanic or Latino from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Hispanic or Latino) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021d (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B160 05I?q=B16005i&y=2021). Data for White alone, not Hispanic or Latino from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (White Alone, Not Hispanic or Latino) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021f (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005H?q=B16005h&y=2021). Data for Black or African American alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Black or African American Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021c (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005B?q=B16005b&y=2021). Data for American Indian and Alaska Native alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (American Indian or Alaska Native Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021a (https://data.census.gov/table/ACS DT1Y2021.B16005C?q=B16005c&y=2021). Data for Asian alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Asian Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021b (https://data.census.gov /table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005D?q=B16005d&y=2021). Data for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021e (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005E?q=B16005e&y=2021).

These differences across the racial and ethnic groups can illustrate why Spanish is the second most widely spoken language in the United States, and Chinese is the third (Dietrich & Hernandez,

P er

ce n

Hispanic or Latino

Black or African

American alone

White alone

American Indian and

Alaska Native alone

68.2

41.9

9.5 5.4

Asian alone

72.0

Native Hawaiian and Other

Pacific Islander

40.0

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005I?q=B16005i&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005H?q=B16005h&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005B?q=B16005b&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005C?q=B16005c&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005D?q=B16005d&y=2021

https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005E?q=B16005e&y=2021

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

2022b). The most commonly spoken Native American language is Navajo, followed by Yupik, Dakota, Apache, Keres, Cherokee, and Choctaw (Siebens & Julian, 2011). Some Native Hawaiians also speak Hawaiian, the official language of the state of Hawaii, along with English.

The U.S. census information about languages spoken at home only captures a fraction of the nation’s language diversity because it does not include those families and children who speak a creole language. Creole languages (also referred to as pidgin languages or dialects) are formed by blending aspects of two or more languages; this blending most often arises when two or more groups of people are forced into contact with each other through colonization and conquest. For example, Haitian Creole is primarily based on 18th-century French and various African languages, as well as some English, Arabic, Portuguese, and Spanish. Creoles tend to be different in phonol- ogy, semantics, and syntax (e.g., verb tense and word order) from their parent languages. Creoles that U.S. teachers are most likely to encounter are Hawaiian Pidgin (Rivera et al. 2002), Haitian Creole (see Terrell & Jackson, 2002), and Jamaican Patois (Best, Tyler, Gooding, Orlando, & Quann, 2009; Washington, 2012); in addition, African American children might speak African American English Vernacular (AAEV) (Bailey, Baugh, Mufwene, & Rickford, 2013; Craig, Zhang, Hensel, & Quinn, 2009).

Worldwide, people often mistakenly judge creoles, dialects, or pidgins as the languages of the uneducated and the poor, and children who come to school speaking such languages are often told to “speak properly” rather than being given systematic, intentional language instruction that might help them transition more easily from creole to the standard language. However, culturally diverse children, especially Black children (Bland-Stewart, Elie, & Townsend, 2013), can benefit from modified instruction to accommodate their creole dialect differences that is similar to modi- fied instruction for children who speak another language (Boutte & Johnson, 2013). For example, teachers might read stories in which the characters use dialect, and then have a conversation about how people speak differently depending on the situation they are in and the person to whom they are talking.

Poverty Status While somewhat controversial, economic status is another factor by which our society is becom- ing more diverse. In 2021, one in seven children were poor, with children under age 5 more likely to live in poverty than older children (Children’s Defense Fund, 2023). Early childhood teachers are likely to have some children in their classrooms who are living in poverty. They need to be aware of the specific financial needs of these children and their parents, such as the need for affordable housing in a safe neighborhood, and they need to understand how to work with the parents in a nonjudgmental and supportive way.

The U.S. Poverty Threshold

What exactly is meant by poverty status, and how does living at or below the poverty threshold affect the early education care children receive? To answer the first part of the question, the U.S. poverty guidelines are defined by the federal government and adjusted yearly. Table 1.1 shows the poverty guidelines for 2023 based on family size. As you can see, the poverty threshold for a mother and her child is $19,720 per year (amounting to a wage of about $9.86 per hour), which means that in order to qualify for public policy programs geared toward families, a mother would have to be making no more than $19,720 per year. These eligibility requirements are exact, mean- ing families making only a few more dollars can be excluded from early education services.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Table 1.1: Poverty Guidelines for 2023

Family Size 48 Contiguous States and District of Columbia

1 $14,580

2 $19,720

3 $24,860

4 $30,000

The poverty guidelines are higher for Hawaii and Alaska.

Source: Data from HHS Poverty Guidelines for 2023, by U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2023 (https://aspe.hhs.gov/ topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines).

Research has shown that children living in urban and some rural areas are more likely to live in communities with concentrated poverty—poverty rates greater than 30%—than are children in the suburbs (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2019). The communities that have high concen- trations of children living in poverty also have a high concentration of immigrant children and U.S.-born minority children. This overlap indicates a strong connection between poverty, race and ethnicity, and immigrant status (Kids Count, 2012). Figure 1.4 shows the percentage of children living in high-poverty communities by race/ethnicity.

Figure 1.4: Percentage of Children Living in High-Poverty Communities

How might living in poverty affect children’s learning? What additional factors might come into play for children also living in a high-poverty community?

Source: Data from Children Living in High-Poverty Areas by Race and Ethnicity in United States (Population Reference Bureau analysis of data from the U.S. Census Bureau, 2006–2010 to 2017–2021 American Community Survey 5-year data), The Annie E. Casey Foundation, January 2023 (https://datacenter.aecf .org/data/tables/7753-children-living-in-high-poverty-areas-by-race-and-ethnicity?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/1/any/false/2454/10,11,9,12,1,185,13/14943,14942).

Total

Two or More Races

Non-Hispanic White

Black or African

American

Hispanic or Latino

American Indian

Asian and Pacific Islander

P er

ce n

Children Living In High-poverty Communities

https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines

https://datacenter.aecf.org/data/tables/7753-children-living-in-high-poverty-areas-by-race-and-ethnicity?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/1/any/false/2454/10,11,9,12,1,185,13/14943,14942

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Children Living in Poverty Need Early Education

Living in poverty can disrupt children’s growth and learning. Aber, Morris, and Raver (2012) explain that poverty is linked to health, academic, and social-emotional problems for children. Children who live in poverty often live in inferior housing conditions—for example, homes that have inad- equate heating and cooling or that are near environmental pollutants like toxic waste dumps, congested highways, or airports—which can cause health problems like asthma and untreated allergies. In turn, these health problems cause them to miss more school. Families living in com- munities with concentrated poverty are also more likely to have difficulty paying for food, housing, and health care.

Children who live in concentrated poverty are more likely to attend lower-quality schools, have fewer resources, and less experienced teachers (Kieffer, 2008; Burdick-Will, Ludwig, Rauden- bush, Sampson, Sanbonmatsu, & Sharkey, 2010). These school-level differences contribute to the achievement gap. Lastly, concentrated poverty is associated with high levels of chronic stress that lead to behavioral and emotional problems (Turner & Kaye, 2006).

Teachers must consider all these factors in combination when teaching children and working with their families. One early childhood program that has worked for decades to offset the problems that children and families in poverty face is Head Start.

Head Start: An Early Education Program Designed to Serve Children in Poverty

In his State of the Union speech in January of 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson launched the War on Poverty. One of its components was a comprehen- sive child development program that would help communities meet the emotional, social, health, nutritional, and psychological needs of disadvan- taged preschool children. Head Start began in 1965 as an eight-week summer program. Since then, it has provided services to more than 30 million chil- dren, from birth to age 5, and their families (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).

Head Start was most recently reauthorized in 2007 with several provisions to strengthen its quality, including alignment of Head Start school readiness goals with state early learning standards; higher qualifications for the Head Start teaching workforce; State Advisory Councils on Early Care and Educa- tion in every state; increased program monitoring, including a review of child outcomes and annual financial audits; and a shift from indefinite project periods to five-year grant cycles, within which pro- grams are required to demonstrate that they are of high quality to avoid a competitive grant opportu- nity being made available within the community.

Sam Myers/Associated Press

Head Start was one of the first federal early childhood education programs created to assist in the education of disadvantaged children.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Global Access to Early Childhood Education

Head Start has a history of embracing ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity in the communities in which it operates. A key tenet of the program is to be culturally responsive to the communities and families served through local governance, such as family policy councils. To formalize its com- mitment to diversity, Head Start developed the Multicultural Principles for Head Start Programs in 1992 and incorporated it into their Program Performance Standards in 1996. The four elements of Head Start’s overall philosophy in multilingual and multicultural programming are

1. building trusting relationships, 2. being sensitive to cultural preferences of families, 3. building bridges between cultures for both children and adults, and 4. acknowledging that staff and parents are in a true partnership.

Head Start has helped shepherd new programs by bringing attention to the importance of early education for children, especially children living in poverty. Head Start and similar programs have helped set the standard for quality while accommodating the cultural and linguistic diversity of children and families.

1.2 Global Access to Early Childhood Education

Globalization is the merging of worldviews and consumer products due to modern advances in transportation and telecommunications (like cell phones, the internet, and wireless technologies). One consequence of globalization is the sharing of values

around the globe. One such value that seems to be spreading rapidly is the belief in the impor- tance of early childhood education (ECE). There is consensus worldwide that early childhood educa- tion represents a promising strategy to mitigate the long-range effects of poverty and parents’ lim- ited education.

The mission of the international Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is to promote policies that will improve the economic and social well-being of people around the world by sharing information and policy suggestions with its 34 member countries. In its Education at a Glance 2022 report (OECD, 2022), the OECD described an 8% increase in early childhood education enroll- ment from 2005 to 2020. Among OECD countries, 83% of children ages 3–5 are now enrolled in early childhood education programs; an additional 4% are enrolled in primary education institutions.

International results of early childhood education appear quite hopeful, indeed. Data from 2015 and 2018 from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) indicated that 15-year-olds who attended early childhood education outperformed

Fuse/Thinkstock

Numerous statistics show that early childhood education improves children’s school performance.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

their peers who did not attend, even after considering differences in students’ socioeconomic backgrounds (Del Boca et al., 2022). Early childhood education has an even stronger effect on the performance of 15-year-olds who attended preschool for longer periods of time, were in class- rooms with smaller pupil-to-teacher ratios, and lived in countries that invest more in per-pupil funding (OECD, 2017).

Because the OECD provides comparative information with other countries, we in the United States can get a sense of how we are competing globally when it comes to early childhood education. Unfortunately, in comparison with 46 other countries, the United States ranks near the bottom— at 42—in enrollment rates for 3- to 5-year-olds in early childhood or primary education (OECD, 2023, Chart PF3.2.E). Only 66% of children in the United States attend preschool, whereas the OECD combined country average is 87.1%. In fact, in some countries, such as France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Norway, and Iceland, the enrollment rate exceeds 95%.

Clearly, efforts must be made within the United States to improve young children’s access to early childhood education programs if we want to stay competitive with other countries in long-term education goals. Increasing access to early childhood education for children in the U.S. has impli- cations for the ECE workforce and the value placed on early childhood, with potential implications for wages and benefits for ECE teachers.

1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Humans pass down their culture from generation to generation using artifacts (objects or tools) such as books, musical instruments, houses, and weapons. However, artifacts can also be intangible tools, such as spoken and written language, laws, religion, and

rites of passage. The family is an important vehicle of cultural transmission. Culture is evident in outwardly observable things like the foods we eat, the holidays we celebrate, the way we dress, and the art we create. It is also apparent in the way we tell stories and express our feelings, in our beliefs about how to care for children and how families should operate, and even in our spiritual beliefs about God, nature, and life after death.

The Cultural-Context Framework Cole (1992/1998) has proposed a cultural-context framework for interpreting child development that can be applied specifically to language and cognitive development. Cole’s framework takes into consideration children’s individual differences (e.g., their biological features, personality, and natural-born curiosity level) and their environmental experiences (e.g., participation in educa- tional programs and the quality of such programs), which are the two factors research scholars commonly consider when investigating children’s educational outcomes. Cole also considers chil- dren’s cultural experiences (e.g., their family and community traditions).

Cole’s framework is unique in that he believes educational outcomes are the result of children’s individual differences and the quality of their educational experience being funneled through their cultural experiences, a process researchers refer to as mediation. Figure 1.5 compares the manner in which education outcomes are typically viewed and how they are viewed within the

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

cultural-context framework. In the cultural-context framework, not only are children’s individual differences and their education environments interacting, as they do in the typical model, but these two factors are also processed through children’s cultural experiences. What this means is that children’s cultural experiences are central to any interpretation of children’s education out- comes. For example, when a child is asked to retell a story that a teacher has read in class, he will likely retell it using the vocabulary, grammar, and narrative style of storytelling that is typical of his culture (Curenton, 2006).

Figure 1.5: Typical View of Education Outcomes versus the Cultural-Context Framework View of Education Outcomes

The cultural-context framework takes the children’s culture into account as a major contributing factor to how they learn.

Source: Based on Cole, M. (1991). Culture in development. In M. Lamb & M. Bornstein (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced text. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Reprinted in Cultural worlds of early childhood. M. Woodhead, D. Faulkner, & K. Littleton (Eds.) (1998). New York: Routledge. pp. 11–33.

Children’s Individual

Differences

Quality of Their Education

Environment

Education Outcomes

Children’s Individual

Differences

Children’s Cultural

Experiences

Quality of Their Education

Environment

Education Outcomes

Typical View of How Education Outcomes Are Achieved

View of How Education Outcomes Are Achieved Considering the Cultural-Context Framework

+ =

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

The cultural-context position is very similar to Rogoff’s (1993) sociocultural theory on cognitive development, which states that individuals learn to solve problems within the context of cultural activities facilitated by more experienced and knowledgeable peers and adults. The sociocul- tural perspective acknowledges that children bring certain personal strengths and challenges to teaching interactions, such as voluntary attention, memory, and cognitive capacities, and these strengths and challenges provide the foundation for the education interaction because they can be influential in sustaining the interaction.

For example, teachers are more likely to spend more time talking to and teaching a child who is engaged in the lesson, who has the language skills to answer questions, and who asks additional questions. In fact, language, both conversations and literature, is the primary way teachers share cultural traditions and ideas with their students. The most important and efficient way in which humans have transmitted cultural traditions from generation to generation is through language. Therefore, we will spend time explaining how language is used as a cultural tool.

Language as a Cultural Tool Language and culture are interconnected. Language is a cultural tool that children must mas- ter in order to function in society, and language is different from other cultural tools because it

has the ability to create and tran- scend reality (Bruner, 1993). Oral language is the socially shared, culturally constructed, and rule- governed system of spoken com- munication that consists of recep- tive language skills (i.e., the ability to understand what has been said, or listening skills) and expressive language skills (i.e., the ability to use speech to convey meaning, or speaking skills). Written language is typically expressed through text that can be read or written; the abilities to decode, transcribe, and comprehend written text are literacy skills.

Oral language is the bridge to writ- ten language. According to one

researcher, the most powerful preschool classroom predictor of children’s later literacy skills is teacher instruction strategies that support extended conversation (Dickinson, 2006). A large-scale study using a socioeconomically and ethnically diverse sample suggested children’s oral language skills at 3 years of age form the basis for their emergent literacy skills at 4 1/2 years of age and for their actual reading ability at first grade (National Institute of Child Health and Human Develop- ment [NICHD], 2005). Subsequent studies have provided additional evidence of the relationship between early oral language skills and literacy in elementary school (Ecalle et al., 2023; Hulme et al., 2015; van Viersen et al., 2018). Strong oral language in the preschool years is a significant contributor to children’s emergent literacy, later reading, and academic outcomes.

Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Thinkstock

How does your use of language affect your day-to-day communication? How might you take children’s unique or varying language skills into account as you interact with them?

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Conversely, weak oral language skills elevate children’s risks for later reading difficulties (Catts et al., 2002). Therefore, oral language skills, along with the well-researched code-based emer- gent literacy skills (e.g., letter recognition and phonological awareness), can be seen as a critical developmental domain associated with preschoolers’ emergent literacy (NICHD, 2005; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). See Figure 1.6 for specific oral language skills that overlap with literacy skills.

Figure 1.6: Relationship between Oral Language and Literacy Skills

Understanding the relationship between language and literacy is critical for an early childhood education teacher who has students who speak multiple languages.

Source: Curenton, S. M. (2013, October). Instructional Conversations in Early Childhood Classrooms: Policy Suggestions for Standards and Professional Development. Paper presented at Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Language and Literacy Development for DLLs From birth, children learn language through interactions with their family and community mem- bers. Through these interactions, they learn not only linguistic code (e.g., Spanish or English or Chinese) but also the pragmatic rules of communication (i.e., how to adjust their language based on the speaker’s knowledge and how to ask questions). When working with culturally diverse stu- dents who are DLLs, additional aspects of language and literacy need to be considered (Table 1.2). For DLLs, it is critical that parents and other adults, including teachers, continue to provide rich interactions in children’s home language because it builds a strong foundation that will advance children’s ability to learn the second language.

Auditory Memory

Interactive Listening

Peer Conversations

Oral Presentations

Alphabet Knowledge

Print Awareness

Phonemic Awareness

Vocabulary

Grammar

Listening Comprehension

Inferential Reasoning

Oral Language Literacy

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Table 1.2: Classroom Strategies: Language and Literacy for DLL Children

Building DLL Children’s Language Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Provide explicit, systematic instruction in vocabulary

Children require multiple exposures to words in order to develop a rich understanding of their meanings and different ways to use them.

• Present vocabulary words in a thematic way, using themes such as soap or clothing

• Read-alouds that include explanations of targeted vocabulary

• Dramatic play organized around carefully chosen themes

Ensure that DLLs have ample opportunities to talk with both adults and peers and provide ongoing feedback and encouragement

DLLs need lots of opportunities to engage in social interactions with other children, but they also need support from adults as they develop the language skills they need to negotiate those interactions.

• Pair DLL children with children who have strong English language skills, and don’t group together children who speak the same home language

• Provide opportunities for self-directed activities so that DLLs can choose activities that match both their interests and their language abilities

• Encourage children to talk by providing prompts when they need help expressing themselves (e.g., “Ask Tia, ‘May I please play with the bike now?’”)

• Use open-ended questions and find ways to extend conversation with DLLs (e.g., “Why do you like playing with this toy?”)

Expose DLLs to rich language input

Exposure to rich language, such as through book reading or through teacher talk, enhances children’s oral language development.

• Provide ongoing dialogue on activities taking place in the classroom (e.g., discuss every step when transitioning from one activity to another)

• Select books that have rich language and connect to children’s home language and lives

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Building DLL Children’s Language Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Structure the classroom space and routine to provide scaffolding for DLLs’ language learning

Routine and structure of the classroom will help DLLs know what they are to do and how they are allowed to behave. It will also expose them to a consistent language about specific things so they can connect words to activities.

• Arrange the classroom to support each type of instructional activity (e.g., middle of the room is for whole group activities, corners of the room are for self-directed activities)

Encourage continued development in the home language

Children who have strong language skills in their home language are likely to develop strong language skills in their new language.

• Encourage parents to talk and read to their children in their home language as a way of strengthening children’s home language skills

• Incorporate children’s home language in the classroom through books, songs, and videos as much as possible

Building DLL Children’s Literacy Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Design instruction that focuses on all of the foundational literacy skills

Some of the key foundation skills that children need to know to be prepared for kindergarten include alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness (e.g., recognizing rhyming words, recognizing beginnings of words, matching sounds to letters), and print awareness (e.g., recognizing parts of books, knowing direction of words is from left to right). It is critical for children to understand the relationship between spoken language and oral language.

• Interactive storybook reading

• “Pretend” reading and writing

• Games and other activities to help children identify the letters of the alphabet

• Interactive experiences with language and print through poems, nursery rhymes, and songs

Table 1.2: Classroom Strategies: Language and Literacy for DLL Children (continued)

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Building DLL Children’s Literacy Skills

Strategy Rationale Examples

Recognize that many literacy skills can transfer across languages

A child with strong literacy skills in their home language will find it easier to develop these same skills in English.

• Parents and teachers proficient in the child’s home language can use the home language to teach rhymes and songs, play word games, share storybooks, and tell stories

• Teachers can send books home with the child in the child’s home language to encourage families to continue use of the home language

Accelerate English literacy development by helping DLLs make the connection between what they know in their first language and what they need to know in English

Similarities between English and the child’s home language can be used as a foundation for instruction because they are sounds and words children are familiar with. Children usually have the most difficulty when they encounter sounds that are present in English but do not occur in their home language, such as the vowels a, e, i, and u and the consonants j, r, v, and z, which are not common in Spanish.

• Start with sounds and words that are similar in English and the home language

• For words more difficult for children whose first language is not English, find ways to connect them to their home language

Source: Adapted from Ford, K. (2010). 8 strategies for preschool ELLs’ language and literacy development. © WETA. www.ldonline.com

Pragmatic Language Skills: Code Switching, Language Mixing, and Answering Questions Pragmatic skills allow speakers to change their speech based on the situation or the conversa- tion partner. It is typical for all speakers to adapt their speech to the specific social situations in which they find themselves. For example, we speak differently to children than we do to our bosses, and differently at parties than at city council meetings. However, when a speaker switches to another language or dialect, then that person is using the pragmatic skill of code-switching. Code-switching is the act of adapting the language or dialect that one uses in order to reflect the situation or language traditions of the conversation partners. Code-switching is used by children who speak more than one language or dialect, and it shows they are socially and linguistically adaptive. Understanding code-switching and other pragmatic skills is especially important when teaching DLLs.

Table 1.2: Classroom Strategies: Language and Literacy for DLL Children (continued)

www.ldonline.com

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

Language mixing is another pragmatic skill common among DLL children. Language mixing means inserting single items from one language into the other. Espinosa (2010, p. 71) shares an example of language mixing when a Spanish-speaking child complains, “He is pegging me.” In this example, the child does not know the English verb to hit, so he substitutes the Spanish verb of pegar, which means to hit, and then he conjugates it using English grammatical rules (by adding the –ing to the verb).

When a young child is language mixing, there are several ways in which a teacher can scaffold the child’s developing language skills. First, if the teacher is bilingual herself and understands what the child is attempting to say, she can model the language for him in both English and Spanish by saying, “He’s hitting you? In English, we say ‘He is hitting me’ and in Spanish we say ‘Me está pegando.’ You tell him, ‘Please don’t hit me.’”

If the teacher is monolingual, it will take more effort for her to figure out what the child is trying to say. She will have to rely on cues from the environment and what she sees going on between the children, and then she can ask, “Is he hitting you?” and in this way provide the English word that the child does not know. Then the monolingual teacher should still continue to add, “You tell him, ‘Please don’t hit me.’” It is important for her to model this phrase because it teaches the child language skills that can help him solve social problems.

As you can see from this example, DLLs receive more complex language interactions when they are interacting with bilingual teachers because these teachers are able to code-switch along with the child and because they are explicitly able to talk about vocabulary and grammar cus- toms in both languages. Whether monolingual or bilingual, all teachers must seize the oppor- tunity to attempt to decipher what the child means and to give him the English language skills to express himself.

Code-switching and language- mixing do not mean that chil- dren do not know the difference between the two languages. On the contrary, they are indications that children are becoming more sophisticated in their language understanding or language iden- tity. For example, code-switching shows that children understand that they must adapt their speech to meet the needs of the listener, which is both a language and a social-perspective-taking mile- stone. Eventually, many bilin- gual children will learn how to use language mixing intention- ally for dramatic emphasis when

Monkey Business/Thinkstock

As an instructor of students with diverse cultural backgrounds, it is important to understand your students’ cultural differences and become literate in how best to interact with them.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 How Culture Influences Language and Learning

speaking or writing. For example, Sandra Cisneros, the well-known Latina author who wrote the House on Mango Street, uses language mixing to emphasize her characters’ cultural and language heritage.

A third important pragmatic skill is recognizing social expectations about answering questions. This skill is important for DLL children, as well as other cultural minorities. For example, some ethnic minority children are socialized to be quiet when communicating with adults (Hwa-Froelich & Vigil, 2004); therefore, these children may not seem very talkative around adults. Children from Asian cultures may be unaccustomed to interacting with adults on a one-on-one basis because they directly communicate more often with other children than with adults (Cheng, 2002).

As another example, some Native American children may have particular problems with the abrupt question-answer format and timed responses of standardized testing (Robinson-Zanartu, 1996). Similarly, some African American children may have difficulty with the question-answer format because in their cultural tradition adults do not ask children questions to things that they already know the answer to, or what Heath (1983) referred to as test questions, such as “What word rhymes with tree?”

Building a Strong Foundation in the Home Language Children who are provided with the opportunity to develop foundational skills in preschool such as language, problem solving, and social skills are likely to enter kindergarten ready to learn and follow direction (Ballantyne, Sanderman, & McLaughlin, 2008; NICHD, 2002; Ramey & Ramey, 2004). In order for DLL children to develop these foundational skills, the home language is a critical vehicle. The home language is the first language that children hear and learn, and, as a result, it is how they make meaning of the world and develop their knowledge. It is, thus, para- mount that teachers and families of DLLs respect and support children’s continued use of their home language, especially as they learn a new language and develop their skills.

Research shows that children learn best in their second language through instruction in their home language (Cummins, 1991; Paez & Rinaldi, 2006; Proctor, August, Carlo, & Snow, 2006). According to a Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) (2010) Position Paper on Language and Literacy Development for Young English Language Learners, lan- guage and literacy knowledge in one language serves as the founda- tion for the new language, and the use of the home language in the

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

As a teacher, you must be aware that students’ home language plays a very important part in their educational and personal development.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

classroom. Moreover, use of the native language builds a connection between the home and school. Therefore, teachers should encourage families to talk and read with children in their home language. If parents do not have the literacy skills in their home language because of limited formal education, they should be encouraged to strengthen their skills through courses and support from agencies that support home language.

DLLs often need specific and explicit instruction in English vocabulary and need opportunities to hear and use the language throughout the day. Teachers of young DLLs need to seek ways to build children’s vocabulary in the first and second language. This means that while parents continue to build children’s vocabulary and language in the home language, teachers should seek opportuni- ties to build children’s language and vocabulary in the second language.

At home, DLL children should be exposed to rich language interactions through various meth- ods, including talking, reading, and singing. At school, teachers can seek ways to use children’s home language during classroom activities, such as through books and songs, but also seek ways to build children’s second language by providing opportunities for DLL children to interact with adults and peers through reading, writing, and speaking. Table 1.2 provides suggestions of activi- ties to develop DLL children’s language and literacy skills.

1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

The main goal of early childhood programs, according to the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), is to support children’s development and learning. Other goals include fostering children’s school readiness, which is based on a mastery of

age-appropriate skills across a combination of several developmental domains, such as academic, social-emotional, and health.

By the time children enter preschool, they have a wealth of knowledge about, and are profi- cient in, their home language traditions and cultures. For children from ethnic minority and lan- guage minority backgrounds, however, their family traditions and experiences are often different from the traditions accepted in the typical classroom within the United States. Early education teachers face special challenges when promoting school readiness among diverse student popu- lations because some traditional K–12 school systems ignore or denigrate the cultural heritage and diverse skills that ethnic and language minority children bring into the classroom. So early childhood educators must contend with the challenge of preparing these children for the tradi- tional K–12 school environment. Teachers must master the balancing act of actively encouraging cultural diversity within the classroom while at the same time helping students become familiar with—and comfortable—interacting in the culture of the school system.

Going Beyond Middle-Class, European-American Cultural Traditions Anglo-American Protestant traditions shape how the U.S. education system operates and how teachers are taught to teach (Spring, 2010). Such traditions emphasize individualism and indepen- dence, and scientific inquiry that takes the form of a linear and logical approach to problem-solving

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Design an Activity: Challenging Cultural Metaphors You may be familiar with the metaphor of the United States as a “melting pot,” in which ethnic groups are supposed to assimilate and blend together, thereby losing their distinct “flavor” and becoming part of the larger society. The melting pot idea can be traced back to 1782, when J. Hector de Crevecoeur, a French settler in New York, envisioned the United States not only as the land of opportunity but as a society where individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men (Parrillo, 1997). However, in recent decades, the melting pot metaphor has been recognized as ignoring non-European immigrants, who have always had a harder time mixing in.

Multicultural education replaced the “melting pot” metaphor with the “salad bowl” metaphor, in which ethnic groups represent “flavors” that are tossed into the salad. In this metaphor, every group main- tains their distinct flavor. The tossed salad allows ethnic groups to maintain their cultural identities.

You can use this metaphor in your classroom for a cooking activity. Inform the children’s families that the class is going to make a salad and that you would like each family to suggest one ingredient that represents the family’s cultural traditions or history. Ask the family to provide a picture of the ingredi- ent and to explain why this ingredient represents their family. During the cooking activity, explain to the children how everyone in the class is different, yet they are all part of the same classroom group, and when everyone works together and shares, the whole class gets to have fun and eat things that are yummy.

as the highest level of reasoning. However, many ethnic minority cultures instead value collectivism, interdependence, and a holistic form of reasoning that relies on shared knowledge and contextualized experiences. The distinctions between these two cultural traditions result not only in differences in how children might prefer to learn (e.g., working in groups versus independently) but also in how chil- dren express their knowledge (i.e., how they com- municate what they know).

In 2015, 80% of elementary and secondary school teachers were White (National Center on Educa- tional Statistics, 2019). The lack of diversity in the group of educators leading our schools causes dis- sonance in the classroom. The values and beliefs of middle-class European Americans continue to be promoted in classrooms throughout the United States (Spring, 2011), despite the growing diversity of the school-aged population. To address this dis- cord in the classroom, multicultural education must be implemented. Multicultural education will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3; for now, the Design an Activity feature, “Challenging Cultural Meta- phors,” provides a preview of how the philosophy behind multicultural education differs from tradi- tional education.

Purestock/Thinkstock

To instruct diverse students, an instructor must see that the standard Anglo- American Protestant education traditions no longer successfully achieve education outcomes.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Whenever teachers expose children to the rules, expectations, and rituals of the classroom, enculturation is taking place. Enculturation is the act of shaping a child’s thinking and behav- ior to conform to their native culture—in this case, the broader U.S. education system, which is based upon European American culture (Spring, 2010; York, 2006). This is especially true for early childhood education because the European American view of development is so entrenched in child development and child rearing practices. For example, this view assumes that autonomy and individuality should be fostered in children, whereas in other cultures, collectivism and family- centeredness are fostered. Additional examples of European American cultural characteristics and beliefs that dominate early childhood education practices are presented in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Characteristics of European-American Culture and How They Operate in Early Childhood Programs

Cultural Characteristic Description Classroom Example

Communication Greetings are brief, informal, and casual. People say, “Hi!” and call each other by first names. Communication is polite yet candid and explicit. Individuals communicate at arm’s length from one another and look each other in the eye.

Drop-off time in the center is brief. Essential communication about how the child ate or slept the night before is written on a daily activity sheet instead of communicated through a dialog between the teacher and parent.

Time Clock-conscious time perspective. Time is seen as a valuable commodity (e.g., “Time is money.”). People are usually punctual and being late is considered rude. Events are scheduled and planned.

Children’s daily activities are scheduled down to 15 minute increments. Most centers have policies that fine parents who are late for pick-up.

Future-oriented Emphasis on future rather than present, and tendency to minimize the past. Feel it is a person’s responsibility to plan for their future, such as with life insurance policies, retirement plans, or wills.

Teachers are concerned with “kindergarten readiness.”

Youth-oriented Children’s development is central, and events and family plans revolve around children’s needs. Elderly are seen as a burden or liability, and families often use nursing homes to care for the elderly.

Schools focus on family events that highlight the needs of the child.

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Cultural Characteristic Description Classroom Example

Nuclear family Family is defined by a husband, wife, and children. Contracts and legal agreements define family relationships, such as marriage licenses and formal adoptions. Family viewed as mobile. Infrequent, not daily, interaction with extended family.

Schools’ family events often only invite mothers and fathers, without recognizing the role of extended family.

Eating habits Focus on eating as a necessity, not as a pleasure or social experience. Individuals may eat alone while doing other activities such as driving, working, or watching television. When families eat together, food is often served “family style”: All family members sit down together to eat and food is placed in serving bowls and platters that are passed around as people serve themselves.

School provides family-style dining at breakfast and lunch.

Work People should work first, then play. Work is usually task-oriented and assigned to individuals. Individuals talk of working on relationships and working on parenting skills. Prefer rewards based on individual achievement rather than group achievement.

Teachers create assignments that ask children to work on individual art projects, and classrooms display individual work.

Thinking style Logical sequential thinking. Knowledge is fixed and static. Values rational and objective thinking that can be proven scientifically or mathematically. Subjective or intuitive knowledge is not highly respected.

Asking children to learn to problem-solve in a manner that includes steps.

Learning style People learn through exploration, problem solving, and interaction with objects. Values creative problem-solving, seeking creative solutions, continuous improvement, and progress.

Teachers allow children to engage in free choice and explore the materials in the classroom.

(continued)

Table 1.3 Characteristics of European-American Culture and How They Operate in Early Childhood Programs (continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Cultural Characteristic Description Classroom Example

Individualism People are unique individuals, distinct from their family or culture. Individuals control their lives through the decisions they make. Values personal freedom, personal choice, and autonomy.

Teachers offer children “choices” about what they want to do and take “votes.”

Egalitarianism There is stated value of treating women and men the same. Children are given equal status with adults. Challenging authority is acceptable behavior.

Having “family meetings” in which everyone has a chance to share their opinions and “vote” on decisions.

Self-responsibility/ self-sufficiency

People are responsible for their own behavior and managing their own lives. Individuals should provide for their own basic needs and not rely on others. Needing help from others is viewed as being a burden or being weak.

Saving for retirement and not expecting your children to provide for you during old age.

Materialism High value placed on things such as clothing, furniture, toys, and other consumer goods. Owning goods contributes to an individuals’ sense of self and status in the community.

Teachers and parents value a plethora of toys, books, and furniture in what would be considered a “high-quality” classroom.

Source: Adapted from Roots and Wings: Affirming Culture in Early Childhood Programs, Second Edition, by Stacey York. © 2003 by Stacey York. Reprinted with permission of Redleaf Press, St. Paul, MN; http://www.redleafpress.org

Because young children and their families are regularly exposed to the enculturation process through their routine daily experiences with their early childhood program, they cannot help but begin to adopt the beliefs, values, and traditions of the program. Acculturation is the process of adopting the cultural traditions of the dominant group. To acculturate is to take on the culture and norms of a society that is not your own or that is not native to you. This is sometimes done when you move to a new state or country. Acculturation can have a negative connotation when it is forced.

If both the school and the family are exposing the child to the traditions, norms, and expectations of the dominant culture, there may be limited distress for the child. However, if the family is try- ing to maintain its cultural identity, the acculturation process may cause distress and discomfort for the children, as well as weaken the home-school relationship. Table 1.4 provides examples of types of distress caused by differences in the family’s and the early childhood program’s cultural traditions. Understanding these potential mismatches between the culture of the program and the child’s culture can help teachers facilitate children’s connection to the classroom environment.

Table 1.3 Characteristics of European-American Culture and How They Operate in Early Childhood Programs (continued)

http://www.redleafpress.org

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families

Description of Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural Model

Commonly Associated with Early Education Program?

Potential Distress when the Two Models are in Conflict

Family System

Nuclear family that is highly mobile

The idealized family unit consists of a husband, wife, and child. Families are formed by contracts/legal agreements, such as legalized marriage and adoptions. Child has little contact with extended family; friends take the place of extended family. Child taught that the individual comes before the family; one is not expected to sacrifice personal desire for the family.

Yes Parents who are not married may feel embarrassed, and lesbian or gay families may feel ignored.

Children are taught to make decisions based on what they want rather than the needs of the larger group, which can cause friction at home.

Extended family that lives within close proximity and shares everyday, basic resources (e.g., food, housing)

The idealized family consists of a network of adults who take responsibility for rearing the child. Families are formed by the need to share resources, and non-blood relatives, custodial guardianships, and non-marital romantic relationships warrant the same respect and privileges as legalized connections. Family activities are planned jointly with lots of input from others. Child is used to a high level of activity within the home, with people dropping by. Child may regularly eat or sleep in more than one household. Infant is usually in the company of others and is held most of the time, or passed from one person to the next.

No Teachers may not recognize the emotional importance that extended family, like cousins and aunts, play in child’s life.

Teachers may not understand that extended kin share in the decisions regarding the child.

Children may not feel free to share stories, drawings or photographs that include members of their extended family.

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural Model

Commonly Associated with Early Education Program?

Potential Distress when the Two Models are in Conflict

Family Decision Making

Democratic decision making style

Child is allowed/encouraged to negotiate, compromise; everyone’s needs/wants are given equal status; family members share in decision making.

Yes Conflict may result at home if parents feel child is not being obedient or is “talking back.”

Autocratic decision-making style

Child is expected to obey, follow commands, and respect adult authority; one family member has the power and authority to make decisions for the whole family.

No Child may not be good at expressing desires.

Child may seem very compliant and obedient, but may have hard time making choices without directions from adults.

Work/Employment

Career-oriented Parents have jobs they find meaningful and rewarding. Parents want child to have opportunities to be creative and develop own interests; child relates to learning through play. Parent brings work home and has few other interests or hobbies; child care is seen as primarily a key source for supporting parental employment.

Yes Teachers and program directors may overlook the skills a parent has developed via their hobbies and recreational activities, only focusing on the skills gained via their occupation.

Leisure-oriented Parents have jobs that “pay the bills” but find enjoyment in other activities/hobbies; attitude can be described as “work now, play later.” May expect child to sit through long lessons but then be rewarded with lots of unstructured play time where they “let off steam”; personal fulfillment comes from recreation, hobbies, volunteer activities; child care is seen primarily as a source of socialization for children.

No Parents view play as a leisure activity, not a way to learn.

(continued)

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

(continued)

Description of Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural Model

Commonly Associated with Early Education Program?

Potential Distress when the Two Models are in Conflict

Role of Child Care and Early Education

Child care is for the child to enjoy herself, and time there is viewed as informal and an extension of home life

The child may come in worn, casual play clothes; the child and parent call teachers by their first names. Children are expected to get messy during the course of the day and they are encouraged to engage in activities independently even though these activities might result in a mess, such as serving themselves, feeding themselves, painting, playing the sandbox or dirt.

Yes Teachers may not understand why parents get upset when children get dirty.

Child care is viewed as a place for children to learn, and time there is viewed as having formal education purpose that is separate from the home environment

Child comes to school in dress clothes and is expected to stay clean, is told to obey the teacher, and may not call teachers by their first names.

No Teachers may think the family is too “formal” if they insist the child refers to the teacher by “Miss” or “Mister.”

Sleeping Patterns

Sleep training Infants need to be trained to sleep alone and on schedule.

Yes Parents may feel ashamed if they engage in co-sleeping.

Co-sleeping Child may sleep with mother or other family members; children are assumed to naturally outgrow the need and desire to co-sleep.

No Children may have difficulty adjusting to nap time.

Teachers may judge the parents as “spoiling” the child by letting him/her co-sleep.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural Model

Commonly Associated with Early Education Program?

Potential Distress when the Two Models are in Conflict

View of Family Hardships

Parents experience privilege and many opportunities, and live in a safe, comfortable environment

Child is given what she wants and is taught to expect that her needs will be met and that world is a safe place.

Yes Parents may view the teacher as setting the child up for disappointment by focusing on meeting the child’s desires and wishes.

Parents may view the teacher as being naïve to the struggles and the dangers they face.

Parents experience discrimination, lack of opportunities, violence, and police hostility

Child is prepared to survive in a hostile environment, taught to tolerate unfairness, and conditioned not to expect too much.

No Teachers may view the parents as harsh and unloving.

Relationship of Child to Others

Independence Infant only held for feeding, comforting, and moving from place to place; child sleeps alone for long periods of time. Child has own space and toys at home; child enjoys playing alone for extended periods of time and making his own “projects.”

Yes Parent may view teacher as cold and not loving because of the lack of physical touch.

Parents may worry that school is not teaching children how to cooperate within large groups.

Interdependence Child is raised to understand that being a member of the family involves relying on others to get his or her needs met; child is not pushed to reach developmental milestones or learn self- help skills early; child is fed even though he is capable of feeding himself or carried when she is capable of walking.

No Children may be dependent on the teacher to do things that the teacher thinks they should do for themselves.

Child may want to spend what the teacher perceives as “too much” time cuddling.

Teacher may view the child as immature.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural Model

Commonly Associated with Early Education Program?

Potential Distress when the Two Models are in Conflict

Time Orientation

Future orientation

Emphasis on future rather than present; tend to minimize the past. Feel it is a person’s responsibility to plan for their future; teacher engages in weekly lesson planning and there are scheduled activities.

Yes Parents may view the teacher as inflexible and preoccupied with sticking to a rigid schedule

Present-time orientation

Child’s lifestyle is very process-oriented with little emphasis on routines, such as eating or sleeping by a strict time. Feel as if the future is undetermined and not to be worried about; activities are decided on spur of the moment.

No Teacher may feel like parents do not appreciate the time and effort.

Teacher may view the family as unorganized.

Teacher may view the child’s home life as chaotic.

Public Expressions

Self-expression Child taught to express personality through verbal communication; child is praised for speaking and listening well. Expressing feelings is permitted. Child is allowed to cry, scream, and have temper tantrums; physical and verbal affection is often expressed among family members.

Yes Parents may view the teachers as too lenient by allowing children to display such strong emotions.

Modesty Child taught to keep a low profile in public and discouraged from drawing attention to herself; not acceptable for a child to ask for what he/she wants. There may be few public displays of physical or verbal affection. Feelings are expected to be hidden, especially negative feelings, in public.

No Teacher may view the child as emotionally immature or unexpressive.

Children may have a hard time articulating their feelings and opinions.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

(continued)

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Description of Cultural Model

Explanation of Cultural Model

Commonly Associated with Early Education Program?

Potential Distress when the Two Models are in Conflict

Child Discipline

Positive discipline

Child is given freedom to explore consequences; adults discipline without shouting voices and pre-warn child of possible consequences as a result of misbehavior; goal is to motivate child toward good behavior by praising them for being compliant and obedient.

Yes Parents may feel that children are able to “get away with” misbehavior at school.

Punishment/ shaming

Child learns to respect authority without question and to immediately do what he is told. Child is disciplined by spanking, scolding, threats, shaming, or humiliation.

No Parents may feel judged for their discipline style.

Teachers may view the parents as too harsh, and maybe even abusive.

To understand the challenges that families might face during the acculturation process, early childhood educators should reflect on their own cultural viewpoint. Review Table 1.4 and think about where you fall on these cultural model continuums; then consider how your culture affects your expectations and assumptions as a teacher. Teachers must realize that their own cultural her- itage, even if it is from a culturally diverse identity group, affects how they view children’s abilities and skills and, subsequently, how they interact with children. Often children who do not follow a teacher’s expectations or ideas about child development are viewed as deficient or a deviant (Bernhard, 1995), and when they surpass the expectations, they are viewed as gifted.

Current research examines how early education experiences and adult-child interactions can have implications for how well children do during their transition from pre-K to kindergarten. Read the Spotlight on Research feature, “How Teachers’ Perceptions of African-American Boys Are Associ- ated With Their Transition to Kindergarten,” to learn more about this study.

Table 1.4: Understanding Acculturation Through Examples of Cultural Model Dichotomies and the Potential Distress for Children and Families (continued)

http://www.redleafpress.org

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Spotlight on Research: How Teachers’ Perceptions of African-American Boys Are Associated With Their Transition to Kindergarten

A study conducted by Iruka, Gardner-Neblett, Matthews, & Winn (2013) investigated how African American preschool boys transitioned from preschool to kindergarten. The data for this study was drawn from a large national database that follows children from birth to age 8, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). Using family variables (socioeconomic status and parenting style) and early education variables (attendance in a center-based program), they predicted four types of transition patterns the boys experienced. They found that the boys were very different, but overall they could be classified into one of four groups.

• Stable Average Students: This description fits about 51% of the preschool boys in the sample. These boys received average scores for language, reading, and math both at pre-K and kindergar- ten, and their scores for social competence were also average across these two time points.

• Early Achievers Who Become Aggressive: The next largest group in the sample (20%) can be described as becoming disengaged from learning. During pre-K and kindergarten these young boys were high achievers in language, reading, and math. They were also rated by teachers to have very strong social skills, such as strong interpersonal skills and low anxiety. However, at kindergarten something changed; whereas the pre-K teachers rated this group of boys as low on aggression, the kindergarten teachers rated them as high. Similarly, their pre-K teachers rated these boys as having a healthy approach to learning, but the kindergarten teachers rated their approach to learning as poor. These boys were more likely to live in higher income families with mothers who were more educated.

• Highly Emotional Underachievers: Nineteen percent of the boys can be described as consistent underachievers because they were low both in terms of academics and social-emotional skills at both pre-K and kindergarten. During pre-K, the teachers of these boys rated them as being more aggressive and anxious than other students, and as having poorer interpersonal skills. However, in kindergarten the boys’ aggression declined, even though teachers still rated them as having lower interpersonal skills and higher anxiety.

• The Worried High Achievers: These young boys comprised only 11% of the sample, and they can be described as very high achievers in math and reading during pre-K. During kindergarten their achievement declined somewhat, but they still remained above their peers. In terms of social- emotional skills, the boys were very mild-mannered as indicated by their low scores for aggres- sion, but both their pre-K and kindergarten teachers rated them as above average on anxiety. These boys tended to come from higher income families with mothers who were more educated and more likely to engage in frequent literacy and learning activities at home.

This research shows a wide variety among children’s achievement and social-emotional development, even when children share the same cultural identity. It also demonstrates how features of the home environment can interact with school performance. Overall, the study shows that the majority of Afri- can American boys transition to kindergarten without any problem and that their academic perfor- mance and social-emotional development remains stable. Nevertheless, there are smaller pockets of boys who experience drastic changes over the course of this one-year transition.

Unfortunately, results from this study do not tell us whether these changes could be the result of life stressors the children may have faced over the course of the year, such as divorce, death in the family, birth of a new sibling, or a household move. While such life stressors happen all the time, they impact children greatly. Thus, they may provide some explanation for why certain groups of boys changed in terms of their achievement and social emotional skills.

CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Encouraging Cultural Diversity in the School Environment

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Is Culturally Competent NAEYC’s original guidelines for developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood programs paid limited attention to culture (1997). In contrast, the current NAEYC position statement (2020) emphasizes the need for early childhood educators to understand “the social and cultural contexts in which each child lives—including family and community values, expectations, and linguistic conventions” (p. 34). Educators understanding the social and cultural contexts of the children in their class will help “ensure that learning experiences in the program or school are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family” (NAEYC, 2020, p. 34).

In the following sections, we describe two programs and how they have attempted to combine developmentally appropriate practice with cultural competence. Both of these programs were instrumental in shaping the United States’ approaches to what is high quality, developmentally appropriate instruction.

Two Approaches to Culturally Relevant Early Childhood Education: Montessori and Reggio Emilia The Montessori and Reggio Emilia teaching approaches have been noted for promoting culturally relevant instruction for diverse children because of their focus on individualization and incorporat- ing the experiences of children—including their cultures and families.

The Montessori classroom is set up to allow chil- dren to work in groups or independently. Materials are kept in reachable spaces so children can make choices about what they want to engage in, such as in art and reading sections. Activities are designed to be completed in specific sequences and the materi- als are self-correcting so that children can work inde- pendently. The Montessori approach is individual- ized so that children lead their own learning, which encourages children’s love of and engagement with learning. Montessori classrooms may have children of different ages (within an approximately 3-year range), with older children helping younger children master skills.

Montessori preschool teachers work with children on the floor or at tables, where they can observe the children’s learning and offer assistance when they see that a child needs it; they also record chil- dren’s progress and introduce lessons according to the children’s needs. The key role of the teacher is to create a stimulating and enriching environment that encourages children’s independent learning and ensures children’s development.

The Reggio Emilia approach is similar to Montessori’s in that children are regarded as leaders of their learning, and the role of teachers and adults is to guide children’s exploration and critical thinking.

Hemera/Thinkstock

The materials used in Montessori classrooms are unique and designed to promote independent learning.

CHAPTER 1Chapter Summary

The infusion of the Montessori and Reggio Emilia approaches into our early education programs shows the strong influence of international culture. These two Italian approaches started because communities were seeking ways to improve the lives of children and families by ensuring that the early education programs were safe and nurturing for children and friendly for families. This meant that schools had to think about the things that made children and their families feel safe and loved, which required incorporating the cultures of families, including family histories and pictures, into all aspects of the program. These two approaches emphasize the need for teachers to be culturally competent and ensure that the classroom environment and instructional practices reflect the cultures and lives of children and their families.

Chapter Summary

1.1: Cultural identity is defined by various demographic, geographic, religious, and social indicators, and people typically belong to several different cultural groups. Factors that contribute to cultural diversity in the United States among children between birth and 8 years of age include immigration, race and ethnicity, home language, and socioeconomic status. Because of the high rate of immigration in the United States, many children in early childhood programs were either not born in the United States or have at least one parent who was born in another country.

Although social agencies and educational institutions often ask people to name their race and ethnicity, these categories are socially determined and have no scientific basis. Many first- and second-generation immigrants have a home language other than Eng- lish, so preschool classrooms are likely to have some children who are dual language learners (DLLs). In addition, more children live in poverty than any other age group, so preschool classrooms are likely to have some children living in poverty. The Head Start program was designed to serve these children and to embrace their cultural diversity.

1.2: Research shows that adolescents who attended preschool outperform peers who did not, regardless of socioeconomic background. Many of the 34 member nations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) provide preschool opportunities to more of their young children than the United States does.

1.3: According to Cole’s cultural-context framework, children’s cultural experiences, as well as their individual differences and the quality of their educational experiences, determine their education outcomes. Rogoff’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development also points to the importance of cultural context for learning. Children who are dual language learners need to learn in both their home language and their second language. Doing so enhances their language and literacy skills in both languages. DLLs and children who speak a creole or dialect also need to learn the pragmatic language skills of code switch- ing, language mixing, and answering questions according to social expectations.

1.4: To promote cultural diversity, teachers in early childhood programs need to be culturally competent; they need to recognize and respect the differences between the culture of middle-class European Americans and the many other cultures in which the students in their classrooms are immersed at home. Teachers need to consciously balance fostering school readiness with encouraging children to express cultural diversity, and they need to be sensitive to the potential for acculturation to cause distress for some children. Because of their focus on individualized learning and instructional practices that reflect the children’s culture, Montessori and Reggio Emilia are two approaches to early childhood education that are appropriate for culturally diverse classrooms in the United States.

CHAPTER 1Key Terms

Discussion Questions

1. Describe why language is so important for culture. 2. Describe the specific language needs of DLL children. 3. What is Cole’s cultural-context model?