Discussion Question 300 Words

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Art History

Sixth Edition

Chapter 5

Art of Ancient Greece

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

5.a Identify the visual hallmarks of Greek Geometric, Orientalizing, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic period art for formal, technical, and expressive qualities.

5.b Interpret the meaning of works of Greek Geometric, Orientalizing, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic period art based on their themes, subjects, and symbols.

5.c Relate artists and works of the distinct periods of Greek Geometric, Orientalizing, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic period art to their cultural, economic, and political contexts.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

5.d Apply the vocabulary and concepts used to discuss ancient Greek art, artists, and art history.

5.e Interpret ancient Greek art using appropriate art historical methods, such as observation, comparison, and inductive reasoning.

5.f Select visual and textual evidence in various media to support an argument or an interpretation of ancient Greek art.

Exekias (potter and painter) AJAX AND ACHILLES PLAYING A GAME c. 540-530 BCE. Black-figure painting on a ceramic amphora, height of amphora 24" (61 cm). Musei Vaticani, Rome. Photo © Musei Vaticani/IKONA [Fig. 05-01]

The Emergence of Greek Civilization

Colonies in the mountainous regions of Italy, Sicily, and Asia Minor were tied together by common language, heritage, religion, and art.

Greek artists sought to improve existing artistic trends and fashions, causing rapid shifts in style as compared to stable trends in Egypt.

ANCIENT GREECE The cultural heartland of ancient Greece consisted of the Greek mainland, the islands of the Aegean, and the west coast of Asia Minor, but colonies on the Italic peninsula and the island of Sicily extended Greek cultural influence farther west into the Mediterranean. [Map 05-01]

Historical Background

Independent city-states formed after Mycenaean rule, each with its own city as political, economic, religious, and cultural center.

Athens, Corinth, and Sparta emerged as some of the most prominent cities.

Athens established a representative government in which citizens could participate in assemblies.

Religious Beliefs and Sacred Places

Greeks believed in gods who were immortal, but possessed human forms, emotions, and flaws.

Sanctuaries were thought to be sacred to one or more gods.

Each building was treated as a monument.

They might include treasuries, statues, housing, or a natural element.

Greek Art c. 900–c. 600 BCE

Athens was a major center of ceramic production.

Through trade, Greeks began to borrow exotic foreign motifs and create abstract designs.

The Geometric Period (1 of 2)

Between 900 and 700 BCE, ceramic vessels bore linear motifs.

Large funerary vessels were used as grave markers.

The Funerary Krater depicts the mourning human figures in geometric shapes such as triangles and in full-frontal or full-profile views.

Attributed to the Hirschfeld Workshop FUNERARY KRATER From the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens. c. 750-735 BCE. Ceramic, height 42-5/8" (108 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1914. (14.130.14) © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence [Fig. 05-02]

The Geometric Period (2 of 2)

Greek artists produced figurines of wood, ivory, clay, and cast bronze.

Man and Centaur is nearly contemporary to the Funerary Krater.

The theme of warring men and centaurs was prominent in Greek art.

Elemental shapes form solid and negative space, making this sculpture interesting from multiple viewpoints.

MAN AND CENTAUR Perhaps from Olympia. c. 750 BCE. Bronze, height 4-5/16" (11.1 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917. (17.190.2072). © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence [Fig. 05-03]

The Orientalizing Period

By the seventh century, pottery painters preferred large motifs and moved away from linear decoration.

The Corinthian olpe shows animals with rosette flower forms in an example of the black-figure technique.

OLPE (PITCHER) From Corinth. c. 650-625 BCE. Ceramic with black-figure decoration, height 12-7/8" (32.8 cm). J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Los Angeles, California. [Fig. 05-04]

The Archaic Period, c. 600–480 BCE

Despite meaning "antiquated," the Archaic period was a time of achievement and innovation in Greece.

It was during this period that Sappho and Aesop created their literary works.

The Sanctuary at Delphi (1 of 2)

Delphi was renowned as an oracle where the god Apollo was believed to communicate with humans.

The Pythian Games, similar to the Olympic Games, were held at Delphi.

The sanctuary of Apollo was largely developed during the Archaic period to include a main temple, performance and athletic area, and monuments.

AERIAL VIEW OF THE SANCTUARY OF APOLLO, DELPHI Greece, 6th–3rd century BCE. © DeAgostini/Superstock. [Fig. 05-05]

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE SANCTUARY OF APOLLO, DELPHI © Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 05-06]

The Sanctuary at Delphi (2 of 2)

Treasury of the Siphnians

This treasury was built in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi between 530–525 BCE.

Instead of columns, it features caryatids, or carved forms of women on pedestals that support an Ionic entablature.

The frieze and pediments originally contained relief sculpture.

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE SANCTUARY OF APOLLO, DELPHI © Dorling Kindersley [Fig. 05-07]

BATTLE BETWEEN THE GODS AND THE GIANTS Fragments of the north frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians, Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi. c. 530-525 BCE. Marble, height 26" (66 cm). Archaeological Museum, Delphi. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens. [Fig. 05-08]

Temples (1 of 5)

Builders experimented with temple plans and elevation designs.

An example of the Doric order remains at the former colony of Poseidonia.

Peristyles surround the main cella, or room.

An unusual two-aisle, two-door design suggests two presiding deities.

PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF HERA I, POSEIDONIA (ROMAN PAESTUM) Southern Italy. c. 550-540 BCE. [Fig. 05-09a]

PLAN OF the TEMPLE OF HERA I, POSEIDONIA (ROMAN PAESTUM) Southern Italy. c. 550-540 BCE. [Fig. 05-09a]

EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF HERA I, POSEIDONIA (ROMAN PAESTUM) Southern Italy. c. 550-540 BCE. © Fotografica Foglia, Naples. [Fig. 05-09b]

Temples (2 of 5)

The temple of Aphaia on Aegina

The plan features six columns on the facade and twelve on the sides, with a cella that could be entered from both short sides.

Columns have a slight swelling in the middle known as entasis.

It was set in relation to an outside altar as cult ceremonies occurred there.

TEMPLE OF APHAIA, AEGINA View from the east. c. 500 or c. 475 BCE. Column height about 17' (5.18 m). © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens. [Fig. 05-10]

TEMPLE OF APHAIA, AEGINA View from the east. c. 500 or c. 475 BCE. Column height about 17' (5.18 m). [Fig. 05-10]

Elements of Architecture The Greek Orders

Basic components of a column include a shaft (formed by drums) and a capital.

Doric

Fluted shafts on a stylobate

Ionic

Filleted shafts and a top volute

Corinthian

Stylized acanthus and astragal

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE: The Greek Orders

Temples (3 of 5)

The temple of Aphaia on Aegina

No sculpture remains from the metopes and the pediments are exhibited in Munich.

They were originally painted brightly.

The challenge of triangular pediments was explored through compositions such as in the Dying Warrior sculpture, where a figure reclines.

PLAN OF COMPLEX OF THE TEMPLE OF APHAIA, AEGINA c. 500 or c. 475 BCE. [Fig. 05-12]

WEST PEDIMENT OF THE TEMPLE OF APHAIA, AEGINA c. 500-490 or 470s BCE. Width about 49' (15 m). Surviving fragments as assembled in the Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich (early restorations removed). Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich. [Fig. 05-13]

DYING WARRIOR From the right corner of the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. c. 500-490 or 470s BCE. Marble, length 5'6" (1.68 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich/Studio Koppermann. [Fig. 05-14]

Temples (4 of 5)

The temple of Aphaia on Aegina

On the east pediment, a warrior twists his body in a downward motion toward his shield.

This figure has softer flesh and greater definition than the figure on the west pediment.

DYING WARRIOR From the left corner of the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. c. 490-480 or 470s BCE. Marble, length 6' (1.83 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich/Studio Koppermann. [Fig. 05-15]

Temples (5 of 5)

Color in Greek Sculpture

German scholar Vinzenz Brinkmann analyzes sculptures using ultraviolet and x-ray fluorescence, microscopy, and pigment analysis; he and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann then reconstruct them to look like the originals.

The patterns on the reconstruction of the archer are the most striking and make the figure more lifelike.

Vinzenz Brinkmann and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann RECONSTRUCTION OF ARCHER From the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. 2004 CE. Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich/Studio Koppermann. [Fig. 05-16]

ARCHER ("PARIS") From the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. c. 500-490 or 470s BCE. Marble. Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich/Studio Koppermann. [Fig. 05-17]

ARCHER ("PARIS") From the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina. c. 500-490 or 470s BCE. Marble. Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich. [Fig. 05-17]

Free-Standing Sculpture (1 of 4)

Large and made of wood, terra cotta, limestone, or white marble were materials of choice.

They would have been brightly painted.

Kore (pl. korai), a clothed young woman, and kouros (pl. kouroi), an often nude young man, were frequent subjects.

Free-Standing Sculpture (2 of 4)

Metropolitan Kouros

This statue features a rigidly upright figure in a stance reminiscent of Egyptian figures.

The closed-lip Archaic smile is a common feature among kouroi from this time.

Anatomy is linear, rigid, and symmetrical.

METROPOLITAN KOUROS From Attica, Greece. c. 600-590 BCE. Marble, height 6'4-5/8" (1.95 m). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Fletcher Fund, 1932. (32.11.1). © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 05-18]

Free-Standing Sculpture (3 of 4)

Berlin Kore

This funerary statue stands in an immobile position.

Drapery falls in thick parallel folds.

Anavysos Kouros

This statue features enhanced musculature and served as a grave monument to a war hero.

BERLIN KORE From the cemetery at Keratea, near Athens. c. 570-560 BCE. Marble with remnants of red paint, height 6'3" (1.9 m). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Antikensammlung, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin. © 2016.Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin [Fig. 05-19]

ANAVYSOS KOUROS From the cemetery at Anavysos, near Athens. c. 530 BCE. Marble with remnants of paint, height 6'4" (1.93 m). National Archaeological Museum, Athens. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens. [Fig. 05-20]

ANAVYSOS KOUROS From the cemetery at Anavysos, near Athens. c. 530 BCE. Marble with remnants of paint, height 6'4" (1.93 m). National Archaeological Museum, Athens. [Fig. 05-20]

Free-Standing Sculpture (4 of 4)

"Peplos" Kore

Although named for a young girl's garment, this figure is not actually wearing a peplos.

Sculpting of the flesh conveys a sense of bone structure underneath.

This sculpture was originally painted with a frieze of animals, possibly marking her as a goddess.

“PEPLOS” KORE From the Akropolis, Athens. c. 530 BCE. Marble, height 4' (1.21 m). Akropolis Museum, Athens. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens/Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece. [Fig. 05-21]

Painted Pots (1 of 5)

Ceramics usually showcased scenes of human interaction.

Black-figure vessels

This was the dominant style of painting around the sixth century BCE.

Multiple bands in the Geometric style gave way to a single narrative scene over time.

SOME STANDARD SHAPES OF GREEK VESSELS [Fig. 05-22]

Painted Pots (2 of 5)

The Amasis Painter

A band of decoration above and below a central figural composition distinguishes this painter's style.

The Dionysos amphora shows a joyful interaction between humans and a god with strong shapes and patterns.

Technique Black-Figure and Red-Figure

Black-figure technique

Slip was used to silhouette shapes of figures against unpainted clay.

Details were incised using a sharp tool.

Red-figure technique

Painters covered the pot with slip but reserved space for figures.

Instead of engraving details, painters drew using liquid slip.

Lysippides Painter HERAKLES DRIVING A BULL TO SACRIFICE c. 525-520 BCE. Black-figure decoration on an amphora. Ceramic, height of amphora 20 15/16" (53.2 cm). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (99.538). Photograph © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. [Fig. 05-23]

Andokides Painter HERAKLES DRIVING A BULL TO SACRIFICE c. 525-520 BCE. Red-figure decoration on an amphora. Ceramic, height of amphora 20 15/16" (53.2 cm). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (99.538). Photograph © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. [Fig. 05-24]

Amasis Painter DIONYSOS WITH MAENADS c. 540 BCE. Black-figure decoration on an amphora. Ceramic, height of amphora 13" (33.3 cm). Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France. Bibliothèque nationale de France [Fig. 05-25]

Painted Pots (3 of 5)

Exekias

Athenian black-figure painter Exekias signed many vessels as both potter and painter.

He portrayed Trojan War heroes Ajax and Achilles in the scene at the beginning of the chapter.

Story was critical to engaging with paintings on ceramics.

Painted Pots (4 of 5)

Red-figure vessels

These were created in an opposite manner to black-figure vessels.

This technique offered greater freedom and flexibility of detail.

Human figures became livelier and had a more developed sense of bodily form in this technique.

Painted Pots (5 of 5)

Euphronios

The death of Sarpedon is rendered on a calyx krater and would have been used as a punchbowl during a symposium.

In this scene, there is a balanced composition of verticals and horizontals that flatter the shape of the vessel.

Elaborate details and the impression of real space convey a sense of pathos in the viewer.

Euphronios (painter) and Euxitheos (potter) The Death of Sarpedon c. 515 BCE. Red-figure decoration on a calyx krater. Ceramic, height of krater 18" (45.7 cm). Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence - courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali. [Fig. 05-26]

The Early Classical Period, c. 480–450 BCE

Three concepts surround Greek Classical art: humanism, rationalism, and idealism.

The phases of Greek Classical art are separated by formal qualities.

The Early Classical period begins after a decisive victory of the Greeks over the Persians.

Marble Sculpture

Greek sculptors moved more toward lifelike poses of their subjects, an example being Kritios Boy.

This pose shows the beginnings of contrapposto, seen in the engaged left leg and relaxed right leg.

Alternate tension and relaxation

A slight turn of the head invites the viewer to move around the figure.

KRITIOS BOY From the Akropolis, Athens. c. 475 BCE. Marble, height 3'10" (1.17 m). Akropolis Museum, Athens. The damaged figure, excavated from the debris on the Athenian Akropolis, was thought by its finders to be by the Greek sculptor Kritios, whose work they knew only from Roman copies. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens. [Fig. 05-27]

Bronze Sculpture (1 of 3)

A new hollow-casting, lost-wax process technique allowed for more complex action poses in bronze.

The painted Athenian kylix on the next slide shows a late Archaic foundry in which large bronze statues were being produced—evidence that such capability existed as early as the first decades of the fifth century BCE.

Foundry Painter A BRONZE FOUNDRY 490-480 BCE. Red-figure decoration on a kylix from Vulci, Italy. Ceramic, diameter of kylix 12" (31 cm). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. Photo: Ingrid Geske [Fig. 05-28]

Foundry Painter A BRONZE FOUNDRY 490-480 BCE. Red-figure decoration on a kylix from Vulci, Italy. Ceramic, diameter of kylix 12" (31 cm). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung. The Foundry Painter has masterfully organized this workshop scene within the flaring space that extends upward from the foot of the vessel and along its curving underside to the lip, thereby using a circle as the ground-line for his composition. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. Photo: Ingrid Geske [Fig. 05-28]

Bronze Sculpture (2 of 3)

The Charioteer

Most ancient bronzes were melted down for the sake of recycling material but this work survives.

This youth's face is idealized yet lifelike with its onyx eyes.

Realistic features of the figure's feet may have been cast from molds from the feet of a living person.

CHARIOTEER From the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi. c. 470 BCE. Bronze, copper (lips and lashes), silver (hand), onyx (eyes), height 5'11" (1.8 m). Archaeological Museum, Delphi. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens/Archeological Museum, Delphi. [Fig. 05-29]

CHARIOTEER From the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi. c. 470 BCE. Bronze, copper (lips and lashes), silver (hand), onyx (eyes), height 5'11" (1.8 m). Archaeological Museum, Delphi.

The setting of a work of art affects the impression it makes. Today, the Charioteer is exhibited on a low base in the peaceful surroundings of a museum, isolated from other works and spotlighted for close examination. Its effect would have been very different in its original outdoor location, standing in a horse-drawn chariot atop a tall monument. Viewers in ancient times, tired from the steep climb to the sanctuary and jostled by crowds of fellow pilgrims, could have absorbed only its overall effect, not the fine details of the face, robe, and body visible to today’s viewers. [Fig. 05-29]

Bronze Sculpture (3 of 3)

The Riace Warriors

The warrior bronze reflects idealized smoothness in harmony with realistic details, such as the "perfected" anatomy proportion with swelling veins in the back of the hands.

Eyeballs of bone and other inlays of metalwork add to the lifelike quality of the figure.

WARRIOR Found in the sea off Riace, Italy. c. 460-450 BCE. Bronze with bone and glass eyes, silver teeth, and copper lips and nipples, height 6'9" (2.05 m). National Archeological Museum, Reggio Calabria, Italy. © akg-images/Nimatallah. [Fig. 05-30]

Ceramic Painting (1 of 2)

Douris was a prolific Early Classical artist with over 40 surviving pots.

The Frolicking Satyrs psykter was designed to make the satyrs seem to be walking in circles.

Psykters were wine coolers made to float in a krater, reserved for symposia.

Douris FROLICKING SATYRS c. 480 BCE. Red-figure decoration on a psykter. Ceramic, height 11-5/16" (28.7 cm). British Museum, London. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. [Fig. 05-31]

Ceramic Painting (2 of 2)

Douris also painted lyrical compositions, such as in the tondo on the next slide.

The scene was only visible when the viewer lifted the cup to drink from it and there were several meanings for the educated reveler to understand.

Douris A YOUTH POURING WINE INTO THE KYLIX OF A COMPANION c. 480 BCE. Red-figure decoration on a kylix. Ceramic, height 12-3/4" (32.4 cm). The Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei. Courtesy Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali e del Turismo - Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli. [Fig. 05-32]

Wall Painting

Well-preserved Early Classical wall paintings such as those in the Tomb of the Diver document the style of the time.

These paintings were done in the buon fresco style.

Scenes on the walls feature themes of transition between this world and the next.

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE TOMB OF THE DIVER, POSEIDONIA (ROMAN PAESTUM) c. 480 BCE. Illustration: Peter Bull. [Fig. 05-33]

A SYMPOSIUM SCENE From the Tomb of the Diver, Poseidonia (Roman Paestum). c. 480 BCE. Fresco on travertine slab, height 31" (78 cm). Paestum Museum. © akg-images/Andrea Baguzzi. [Fig. 05-34]

A DIVER From the Tomb of the Diver, Poseidonia (Roman Paestum). c. 480 BCE. Fresco on travertine slab, height 3'4" (1.02 m). Paestum Museum. © akg-images/Erich Lessing. [Fig. 05-35]

The High Classical Period, c. 450–400 BCE

Some historians refer to this period as the "Golden Age," although any qualifier reflects the value judgments of the art historians discussing it.

It was also a time of turmoil and destruction.

Perikles dominated Athenian politics and was a great patron of the arts, thus supporting this movement.

The Akropolis (1 of 2)

Meaning "city on top of a hill," this city center was dedicated to Athena.

Perikles began the rebuilding of the Akropolis after Persian troops destroyed it in 480 BCE.

Pheidias supervised this project, which required staggering amounts of labor and cost.

THE AKROPOLIS, ATHENS Reconstruction drawing as it appeared c. 447-432 BCE. [Fig. 05-36]

The Akropolis (2 of 2)

Work continued through the fifth century BCE.

Notable architecture includes the temple of Athena Nike, the Erechtheion, and the Parthenon.

The bronze figure of Athena had a spear tip and helmet that reflected up to ten miles away at the port of Piraeus.

Kallikrates and Iktinos THE PARTHENON Akropolis, Athens. 447-432 BCE. Pentelic marble. Photograph: view from the northwest. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens. [Fig. 05-37a]

The Parthenon (1 of 6)

About 22,000 tons of fine marble were used throughout the design.

The ratio of 4:9 that expresses the relationship of breadth to length and space between columns is one key to the overall harmony and balance.

Sculpture conveys unity through political and ideological themes.

PLAN OF THE PARTHENON Akropolis, Athens. 447-432 BCE. [Fig. 05-37b]

The Parthenon (2 of 6)

The pediments

Most sculpture in the round has been damaged or lost.

Statues from the east pediment are the best preserved and portray the birth of Athena.

Central figures are missing.

Three interlocked female figures are likely Hestia, Dione, and Aphrodite.

PHOTOGRAPHIC MOCK-UP OF THE EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON (USING PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE EXTANT MARBLE SCULPTURE) c. 447-432 BCE. The gap in the center represents the space that would have been occupied by the missing sculpture. The pediment is over 90 feet (27.45 m) long; the central space of about 40 feet (12.2 m) is missing. British Museum, London. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. [Fig. 05-38]

The Parthenon (3 of 6)

The Doric frieze

This frieze depicts legendary battles of a centaur against a Lapith, a god against a Titan, a Greek against a Trojan, and a Greek against an Amazon in 92 metope reliefs.

Forms are reduced to essential characteristics with forms that are contradictory, yet carefully choreographed.

LAPITH FIGHTING A CENTAUR Metope relief from the Doric frieze on the south side of the Parthenon. c. 447-432 BCE. Marble, height 56" (1.42 m). British Museum, London. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. [Fig. 05-39]

The Parthenon (4 of 6)

Processional frieze

This 525-foot-long frieze ran along the cella interior.

The underlying message was thought to be that the Athenians are a healthy, vigorous people, yet a new interpretation of the frieze is that this is a scene from mythological history.

HORSEMEN Detail of the Procession, from the Ionic frieze on the north side of the Parthenon. c. 447-432 BCE. Marble, height 41 3/4" (106 cm). British Museum, London. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. [Fig. 05-40]

YOUNG WOMEN AND MEN Detail of the Procession, from the Ionic frieze on the east side of the Parthenon. c. 447-432 BCE. Marble, height 3'6" (1.08 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Bridgeman Images. [Fig. 05-41]

The Parthenon (5 of 6)

Processional frieze

As with the metope reliefs, viewers can easily accept disproportional elements of this composition.

Sculptors took into account a low viewpoint of the spectator and carved the top part of the frieze in higher relief.

Originally, the entirety of the frieze was painted.

The Parthenon (6 of 6)

Statue of Athena Parthenos

The original vanished, but descriptions and copies give us a sense of the 40-foot-tall statue.

Athena was decorated in gold and ivory, wearing armor and holding both a shield and a winged Nike in her hands.

RE-CREATION OF PHEIDIAS’S HUGE GOLD AND IVORY FIGURE OF ATHENA Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. With permission of the Royal Ontario Museum © ROM. [Fig. 05-42]

RE-CREATION OF PHEIDIAS’S HUGE GOLD AND IVORY FIGURE OF ATHENA Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. With permission of the Royal Ontario Museum © ROM.[Fig. 05-42]

"The Canon" of Polykleitos

The canon included a system of ratios between a basic unit and the length of various body parts.

There were also guidelines for commensurability.

Cross-balancing is known as contrapposto.

The Spear Bearer was created to demonstrate perfect proportion.

Polykleitos SPEAR BEARER (DORYPHOROS) Roman copy after the original bronze of c. 450-440 BCE. Marble, height 6'11" (2.12 m); tree trunk and brace strut are Roman additions. National Archaeological Museum, Naples. © akg-images/De Agostini Picture Lib./Nimatallah. [Fig. 05-43]

The Propylaia and the Erechtheion (1 of 3)

The Propylaia originally had no sculptural decoration, but its north wing that served as a dining hall became the earliest known museum.

The asymmetrical plan of the Erechtheion reflects multiple functions as well as the terrain on which it was built.

THE MONUMENTAL ENTRANCE TO THE AKROPOLIS, ATHENS The Propylaia (Mnesikles) with the Temple of Athena Nike (Kallikrates) on the bastion at the right. c. 437-423 BCE. Studio Kontos Photostock. [Fig. 05-44]

The Propylaia and the Erechtheion (2 of 3)

The site of the Erechtheion was, in mythology, where Poseidon and Athena held a contest for patronage of Athens.

The north and east porches of the Erechtheion contain exemplary Ionic orders.

The Porch of the Maidens on the south side features six caryatids supporting an Ionic entablature.

ERECHTHEION Akropolis, Athens. 430s-406 BCE. View from the east. Porch of the Maidens at left; the north porch can be seen through the columns of the east wall. © S.Borisov/Shutterstock [Fig. 05-45]

PORCH OF THE MAIDENS (SOUTH PORCH), ERECHTHEION Akropolis, Athens. Porch c. 420-410 BCE. © Boris17/Shutterstock. [Fig. 05-46]

The Propylaia and the Erechtheion (3 of 3)

The Temple of Athena Nike

Probably built by Kallikrates, this temple was built in the Ionic style about 425 BCE.

A surviving statue, Nike (Victory) Adjusting Her Sandal, shows delicate and light textile draped over the figure's unstable pose.

NIKE (VICTORY) ADJUSTING HER SANDAL Fragment of relief decoration from the parapet (now destroyed), Temple of Athena Nike, Akropolis, Athens. Last quarter of the 5th century (perhaps 410-405) BCE. Marble, height 3'6" (1.06 m). Akropolis Museum, Athens. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens/Akropolis Museum, Athens [Fig. 05-47]

101

The Athenian Agora

All aspects of life revolved around the marketplace, the agora.

Governmental buildings

The stoa

A large fountain house

The bouleuterion, or council room

Tholos, another meeting place

Private houses on the outskirts

RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING OF THE AGORA (MARKETPLACE), ATHENS c. 400 BCE. [Fig. 05-48]

103

City Plans

A mathematical concept of urban development based on the orthogonal (grid) plan was implemented as early as the eighth century BCE.

Hippodamos of Miletos envisioned a plot consisting of a square 600 feet on each side and divided into quarters.

This is still in use in American and European cities and suburbs.

Art and Its Contexts Woman at a Fountain House

The Priam Painter recorded the event of women's daily trip to the fountain house, significant because most women in ancient Greece were confined to their homes.

The building in which they are depicted is designed like a stoa and is supported by Doric columns.

Priam Painter WOMEN AT A FOUNTAIN HOUSE 520-510 BCE. Black-figure decoration on a hydria. Ceramic, height of hydria 20 7/8" (53 cm). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. William Francis Warden Fund. (61.195). Photograph © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. [Fig. 05-49]

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Stele Sculpture

Stelai (s. stele) were used as gravestones and featured low-relief carvings of the person to be remembered.

One on the next slide shows a girl in a peplos carved with extraordinary detail.

A later stele commemorates a couple, presumably in a joint grave, with an air of softness and delicacy in flesh and fabric.

GRAVE STELE OF A LITTLE GIRL c. 450-440 BCE. Marble, height 31-1/2" (80 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 05-50]

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Painting

The Painted Stoa on the Athenian Agora was decorated by the most famous artists of the time, including Polygnotos of Thasos.

White-ground ceramic painting may echo lost contemporary wall and panel painting.

Lekythoi such as the one below were used to pour libations.

Style of the Achilles Painter WOMAN AND MAID c. 450-440 BCE. White-ground lekythos. Ceramic, with additional painting in tempera, height 15-1/8" (38.4 cm). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Francis Bartlett Donation of 1912. (13.201). Photograph © 2017 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston . [Fig. 05-52]

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The Late Classical Period, c. 400–323 BCE

Athens was defeated by Sparta in 404 BCE, then regained independence without returning to dominance in the realm of political and military status.

Alexander the Great succeeded Philip II and led Greece in a war of revenge against the Persians.

Despite changing political conditions, Greek artists experimented widely.

HELLENISTIC GREECE Alexander the Great created a Greek empire that extended from the Greek mainland and Egypt across Asia Minor and as far east as India. [Map 05-02]

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Sculpture (1 of 4)

Previously, sculptors accepted and abided by standards for ideal proportions.

A new canon associated with Lysippos emerged for male figures, which would be eight or more "heads" tall rather than six-and-a-half or seven-head height.

Sculpture (2 of 4)

Praxiteles

In 1875, a statue of Hermes carrying Dionysos was discovered, but it was likely a copy and not an original.

Hermes possesses a smaller head and more S-curving pose than the Spear Bearer of Polykleitos.

Contrasting textures juxtaposed with flesh add striking depth.

Praxiteles or his followers HERMES AND THE INFANT DIONYSOS Probably a Hellenistic or Roman copy after a Late Classical 4th-century BCE original. Marble, with remnants of red paint on the lips and hair, height 7'1" (2.15 m). Archaeological Museum, Olympia. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens/Archaeological Museum, Olympia . [Fig. 05-53]

Discovered in the rubble of the ruined Temple of Hera at Olympia in 1875, this statue is now widely accepted as an outstanding Roman or Hellenistic copy. Support for this conclusion comes from certain elements typical of Roman sculpture: Hermes’s sandals, which recent studies suggest are not accurate for a fourth-century BCE date; the supporting element of crumpled fabric covering a tree stump; and the use of a reinforcing strut, or brace, between Hermes’s hip and the tree stump. [Fig. 05-53]

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Sculpture (3 of 4)

Praxiteles

His Aphrodite statue was the first by a well-known Greek sculptor to depict full female nudity.

Her seductive pose and gesture of modesty were yet unseen in sculpture.

Hellenistic and Roman copies of this particular statue likely numbered in the hundreds.

Praxiteles APHRODITE OF KNIDOS Composite of two similar Roman copies after the original marble of c. 350 BCE. Marble, height 6'8" (2.04 m). Musei Vaticani, Museo Pio Clementino, Gabinetto delle Maschere, Rome. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 05-54]

Praxiteles APHRODITE OF KNIDOS Composite of two similar Roman copies after the original marble of c. 350 BCE. Marble, height 6'8" (2.04 m). Vatican Museums, Museo Pio Clementino, Gabinetto delle Maschere, Rome.

The head of this figure is from one Roman copy, the body from another. Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century CE restorers added the nose, the neck, the right forearm and hand, most of the left arm, and the feet and parts of the legs. This kind of restoration would rarely be undertaken today, but it was frequently done and considered quite acceptable in the past, when archaeologists were trying to put together a body of work documenting the appearance of lost Greek statues. [Fig. 05-54]

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Sculpture (4 of 4)

Lysippos

Many copies, though no originals, survive of his work.

The Man Scraping Himself (Apoxyomenos) depicted an athlete not engaging in sport, but rather using a strigil.

The figure has a pronounced curve and an arm that projects into the viewer's space.

Lysippos MAN SCRAPING HIMSELF (APOXYOMENOS) Roman copy after the original bronze of c. 350-325 BCE. Marble, height 6'9" (2.06 m). Musei Vaticani, Museo Pio Clementino, Gabinetto dell’Apoxyomenos, Rome. © akg-images/Nimatallah. [Fig 05-55]

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Metalwork

Goldsmiths followed similar stylistic trends and standards and specialized in creating earrings with tiny sculptures.

These could be worn or placed on the ears of marble statues.

Pictured are a representation of Ganymede caught in an eagle's grasp, measuring only slightly more than 2 inches tall.

EARRINGS c. 330–300 BCE. Hollow-cast gold, height 2-3/8" (6 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1937. (37.11.9-10). © 2016, Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 05-56]

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Painting (1 of 2)

Alexander the Great Confronts Darius III at the Battle of Issos is a Roman first-century mosaic replicating a Greek painting of about 310 BCE.

This copy documents a growing taste for dramatic narrative in Greek paintings.

Painters in the fourth century BCE were interested in creating believable illusions of the real world.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT CONFRONTS DARIUS III AT THE BATTLE OF ISSOS Floor mosaic, Pompeii, Italy. 1st-century BCE Roman copy of a Greek wall painting of c. 310 BCE, perhaps by Philoxenos of Eretria or Helen of Egypt. Entire panel 8'10" × 17' (2.7 × 5.2 m). Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples. © Fotografica Foglia, Naples. [Fig. 05-57]

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Painting (2 of 2)

Opulent floral borders known as Pausian designs frame a mosaic floor from a palace at Pella (Macedonia).

The scene of the Stag Hunt by Gnosis shows modeled figures that are all the more impressive because they are comprised of natural pebbles, not uniformly cut marble.

Gnosis STAG HUNT Detail of mosaic floor decoration from Pella, Macedonia (in present-day Greece). c. 300 BCE. Pebbles, central panel 10'7-1/2" × 10'5" (3.24 × 3.17 m). Signed at top: “Gnosis made it.” Archaeological Museum, Pella. Studio Kontos Photostock. [Fig. 05-58]

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The Hellenistic Period, 323–31/30 BCE

Following Alexander's unexpected death, three generals carved out kingdoms in the breaking empire.

Alexander's artistic legacy was a generation of artists who focused on the individual rather than an idealized canon.

Works turned from the heroic to the everyday and appealed to the senses.

Architecture (1 of 2)

Corinthian capitals, unlike in Doric and Ionic orders, had acanthus leaves and coiled flowers around a basket-shaped core.

The Temple of Olympian Zeus at the foot of the Akropolis followed long-established conventions but was much larger than Greek temples that were constructed before it.

TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS, ATHENS View from the southeast with the Akropolis in the distance. Building and rebuilding phases: foundation c. 520-510 BCE, using the Doric order; temple designed by Cossutius begun 175 BCE; left unfinished 164 BCE; completed 132 CE using Cossutius' design. Height of columns 55'5" (16.89 m). © Amanaimages Inc./123RF. [Fig. 05-59]

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Architecture (2 of 2)

Greek theaters

No theater survives in its original form, however, the theater at Epidauros is a characteristic early example.

A semicircle of tiered seats was built into the hillside and faced the orchestra, the circular performance area, and proscenium platform stage.

This design provided uninterrupted sight lines and excellent acoustics.

OVERALL VIEW (A) AND RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING (B) OF THE THEATER, EPIDAUROS Peloponnese, Greece. 4th century BCE and later. © Craig & Marie Mauzy, Athens. [Fig. 05-60a]

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OVERALL VIEW (A) AND RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING (B) OF THE THEATER, EPIDAUROS Peloponnese, Greece. Fourth century BCE and later. © Dorling Kindersley. [Fig. 05-60b]

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Sculpture in Pergamon (1 of 2)

Hellenistic sculptors produced an enormous variety of work in two broad, conflicting trends.

Pergamon

This city became a hub of a new experimental sculptural style.

The bronze figures of a Gaul only survives in marble copy but shows an attempt to appeal to viewers' emotions.

Art and Its Contexts The Celts

Funerary goods of the Celtic peoples survive despite their being driven into the northwest by the Romans.

Torcs were worn by noblemen and consisted of abstract design.

The pattern is an integral part of the object, not applied decoration.

The golden torc on the next slide is similar to the neck ring worn by the dying trumpeter.

TORC Found at Soucy, France. Celtic Gaul, 3rd-1st century BCE. Gold, height 5” (12.7 cm), length 5-5/8" (14.5 cm). Musée Nationale du Moyen-Âge, Paris. Photo © RMN/ Jean-Gilles Berizzi. [Fig. 05-61]

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Epigonos (?) DYING GALLIC TRUMPETER Roman copy (found in Julius Caesar's garden in Rome) after the original bronze of c. 220 BCE. Marble, height 36-1/2" (93 cm). Museo Capitolino, Rome. © Vincenzo Pirozzi, Rome [email protected]. [Fig. 05-62]

Epigonos (?) DYING GALLIC TRUMPETER Roman copy (found in Julius Caesar's garden in Rome) after the original bronze of c. 220 BCE. Marble, height 36-1/2" (93 cm). Museo Capitolino, Rome.

Pliny the Elder described a work like the Dying Gallic Trumpeter, attributing it to an artist named Epigonos. Recent research indicates that Epigonos probably knew the early fifth-century BCE sculpture of the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina, which included the Dying Warriors (SEE FIGS.5–14, 5–15), and could have had it in mind when he created his own works.

[Fig. 05-62]

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Sculpture in Pergamon (2 of 2)

The sculptured frieze around the base of a Great Altar depicts a battle between gods and giants in the Hellenistic style.

Figures fill the space along the base of the altar but also protrude into the viewer's space.

Classical preference for smooth surfaces was replaced by dramatic forms and deeply undercut high relief.

RECONSTRUCTED WEST FRONT OF THE ALTAR FROM PERGAMON (IN PRESENT-DAY TURKEY) c. 175-150 BCE. Marble, height of frieze 7'7" (2.3 m). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. [Fig. 05-63]

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ATHENA ATTACKING THE GIANTS Detail of the frieze from the east front of the altar from Pergamon. c. 175-150 BCE. Marble, frieze height 7'7" (2.3 m). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence/bpk, Bildagentur für Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin. [Fig. 05-64]

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Sculpture

The Laocoön

This work by sculptors Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros is thought to be a Hellenistic original from the first century BCE, but may be a copy.

The complex composition relates a story from the Trojan War.

It was meant to be viewed frontally despite being sculpted in the round.

Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros of Rhodes LAOCOÖN AND HIS SONS Original of 1st century BCE, or a Roman copy, adaptation, or original of the 1st century CE. Marble, height 8' (2.44 m). Musei Vaticani, Museo Pio Clementino, Cortile Ottagono, Rome. © 2016. Photo Scala, Florence. [Fig. 05-65]

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Three Statues of Women (1 of 3)

The Nike of Samothrace

Originally, this statue was carved for a hillside niche, explaining the forward thrust of Nike's body balanced by enormous wings behind her.

Contrasting textures of feathers, fabric, and skin typify the finest Hellenistic art.

NIKE (VICTORY) OF SAMOTHRACE Sanctuary of the Great Gods, Samothrace. c. 180 BCE (?). Marble, height 8'1" (2.45 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN-Grand Palais/Gérard Blot/Christian Jean. The wind-whipped costume and raised wings of this Nike indicate that she has just alighted on the prow of the stone ship that formed the original base of the statue. The work probably commemorated an important naval victory, perhaps the Rhodian triumph over the Seleucid king Antiochus III in 190 BCE. The Nike (lacking its head and arms) and a fragment of its stone ship base were discovered in the ruins of the Sanctuary of the Great Gods by a French explorer in 1863 (additional fragments were discovered later). Soon after, the sculpture entered the collection of the Louvre Museum in Paris. [Fig. 05-66]

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Three Statues of Women (2 of 3)

Old woman

Hellenistic sculpture saw a rise in representation of ordinary and unusual people as subjects.

This figure has traditionally been seen as an aged woman on her way to the agora, but can be interpreted as a follower of Dionysos on her way to a religious festival.

OLD WOMAN Roman 1st century CE copy of a Greek work of the 2nd century BCE. Marble, height 49-1/2" (1.25 m). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1909. (09.39). © 2016 Image copyright The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. [Fig. 05-67]

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Three Statues of Women (3 of 3)

Aphrodite of Melos

Some Hellenistic sculptors looked to the style of Praxiteles and Lysippos for inspiration.

The Aphrodite has proportions recalling High Classical sculpture, but a twisting body and three-dimensional drapery are features updated by Hellenistic stylization.

Alexandros from Antioch-on-the-Orontes APHRODITE OF MELOS (ALSO CALLED VENUS DE MILO) c. 150-100 BCE. Marble, height 6'8" (2.04 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN/Hervé Lewandowski. [Fig. 05-68]

Alexandros from Antioch-on-the-Orontes APHRODITE OF MELOS (ALSO CALLED VENUS DE MILO) c. 150-100 BCE. Marble, height 6'8" (2.04 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo © RMN/Hervé Lewandowski.

The original appearance of this famous statue’s missing arms has been much debated. When it was dug up in a field on the Cycladean island of Milos in 1820, some broken pieces (now lost) found with it indicated that the figure was holding out an apple in its right hand. Many judged these fragments to be part of a later restoration, not part of the original statue. Another theory is that Aphrodite was admiring herself in the highly polished shield of the war god Ares, an image that was popular in the second century BCE. This theoretical “restoration” would explain the pronounced S-curve of the pose and the otherwise unnatural forward projection of the knee. [Fig. 05-68]

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Think About It (1 of 2)

Discuss the development of a characteristically Greek approach to the representation of the male nude by comparing the Anavysos Kouros (FIG. 5–20), the Kritios Boy (FIG. 5–27), the Spear Bearer (FIG. 5–43), and Hermes and the Infant Dionysos (FIG. 5–53). What changes and what remains constant?

Choose a work from this chapter that illustrates a scene from a Greek myth or a scene from daily life in ancient Greece. Discuss the nature of the story or event, the particular aspect chosen for illustration by the artist, and the potential meaning of the episode in relation to its cultural context.

Think About It (2 of 2)

What ideals are embodied in the term "High Classicism," and what are the value judgments that underlie this art-historical category? Select one sculpture and one building discussed in the chapter, and explain why these works are regarded as High Classical.

Distinguish the attributes of the Doric and Ionic orders, focusing your discussion on a specific building representing each.