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Human Communication The Basic Course 14th edition

Chapter 3 Perception of Self and Others

Learning Objectives

3.1 Define self-concept, self-awareness, and self-esteem and identify the strategies for increasing self-awareness and self-esteem.

3.2 Define self-disclosure and identify its rewards and dangers and the guidelines for giving, receiving, and resisting self-disclosures.

3.3 Define perception and identify its five stages.

3.4 Define impression formation and its major processes, and identify the guidelines for increasing your own accuracy in impression formation.

3.5 Explain the goals of impression management and the strategies for managing the impressions you communicate to others.

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem 1 of 6

L.O. 3.1 Define self-concept, self-awareness, and self-esteem and identify the strategies for increasing self-awareness and self-esteem.

Self-concept

Others’ images of you

Looking-glass self: the image of yourself that others reveal to you through communication

Comparisons with others

Search engine reports

Network spread

Online influence, Twitter activities, and blog presence

References to written works

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem 2 of 6

Self-Concept continued

Cultural teachings

Gender roles

Self-interpretations and self-evaluations

FIGURE 3.1: The Sources of Self-Concept

This diagram depicts the four sources of self-concept, the four contributors to how you see yourself. As you read about self-concept, consider the influence of each factor throughout your life. Which factor influenced you most as a preteen? Which influences you most now? Which will influence you most 25 or 30 years from now?

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem 3 of 6

Self-awareness

The Johari window: divides the self into four areas:

The open self

The blind self

The unknown self

The hidden self

FIGURE 3.2: The Johari Window

Adapted from Joseph Luft, Group Process: An Introduction to Group

This diagram is a commonly used tool for examining what we know and don’t know about ourselves. It can also help explain the nature of self-disclosure, covered later in this chapter. The window gets its name from its originators, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham. Adapted from Joseph Luft, Group Process: An Introduction to Group Dynamics (3rd ed.). Copyright © 1984. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE 3.3: Johari Windows of Different Structures

Notice that as one self grows, one or more of the other selves shrink. Assume that these models depict the self-awareness and self-disclosure of two different people. How would you describe the type of communication (especially self-disclosure) that might characterize each of these two people? Adapted from Joseph Luft, Group Process: An Introduction to Group Dynamics (3rd ed.). Copyright © 1984. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Reprinted by permission.

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem 4 of 6

Self-awareness continued

Growing in Self-Awareness

Listen to others.

Increase your open self.

Seek information about yourself.

Dialogue with yourself.

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem 5 of 6

Self-esteem

Cognitive self-esteem

How close you are to achieving your real self

Affective self-esteem

How pleased you are with yourself

Behavioral self-esteem

How your self-esteem affects the way you behave

Self-Esteem and Facebook

The difference between those with high and those with low self-esteem is even shown in how they post on social media (Nie & Sundar, 2013). Those with high self-esteem post information about their family, work, and education. Those with low self-esteem do this less and spend their social media time monitoring their wall and deleting any posts or photos that may reflect on them negatively. How do you see the relationship between self-esteem and posting to social media?

Peshkova/Shutterstock

FIGURE 3.4. Climbing to Higher Self-Esteem

This is a simplified view of the elements of human communication and their relationship to one another. Messages (including feedforward and feedback) are sent simultaneously through a variety of channels from one source–receiver to another. The communication process takes place in a context (physical, cultural, social-psychological, and temporal) and is subjected to interference by noise (physical, psychological, and semantic). The interaction of messages with each source–receiver leads to some effect.

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem 6 of 6

Self-esteem continued

Attack self-destructive beliefs.

Beware the imposter phenomenon.

Seek out nourishing people.

Work on projects that will result in success.

Remind yourself of your successes.

Secure affirmation.

Self-Disclosure 1 of 6

L.O. 3.2 Define self-disclosure and identify its rewards and dangers and the guidelines for giving, receiving, and resisting self-disclosures.

Self-disclosure: a type of communication in which you reveal information about yourself that you normally keep hidden

Channels of Self-Disclosure

The medium or channel through which you communicate will greatly influence your disclosures. Some people disclose more in face-to-face situations, while others disclose more in, say, e-mail or snail mail or perhaps by phone. Many people seem to disclose a great deal—some would say that they overshare—on social media (Grant, 2013). Social media seem to have created a culture where sharing (and oversharing) are normal and in some cases expected. The permanency and the public nature of these messages do not seem to provide a deterrent to such disclosures. How would you describe your social media sharing/disclosing?

William Perugini/Shutterstock

Self-Disclosure 2 of 6

Factors influencing self-disclosure

Who you are

Your culture

Your gender

Your listeners

Your topic and channel

How Willing to Self-Disclose Are You?

Self-Disclosure 3 of 6

The Rewards and Dangers of Self-Disclosure

Self-Disclosure Rewards

Self-knowledge

Improved coping abilities

Communication enhancement

More meaningful relationships

Preventing inaccurate perceptions

Self-Disclosure Dangers

Personal risks

Relationship risks

Professional risks

Self-Disclosure 4 of 6

Guidelines for Self-Disclosure

Guidelines for your own self-disclosure

Consider the motivation for the self-disclosure.

Consider the appropriateness of the self-disclosure.

Consider the disclosures of the other person.

Consider the possible burdens self-disclosure might entail.

Self-Disclosure 5 of 6

Guidelines for Self-Disclosure continued

Guidelines for facilitating and responding to self-disclosures

Practice the skills of effective and active listening.

Support and reinforce the discloser.

Be willing to reciprocate.

Keep the disclosures confidential.

Don’t use the disclosures against the person.

Table 3.1 Self-Disclosure in the Workplace

Cautions for Workplace Disclosure	Strategies
Assume that your disclosure will be repeated.	Although it may not be, assuming it will be will give you a useful “what if” perspective.
Realize that your disclosure may be used against you.	This seems especially true if you’re in a highly competitive organization—from the relatively innocent office joking to the more serious issues of promotion and bonuses.
Disclosure very often leads to a loss of power.	Assess whether you’re willing to give up some of the power you have when people are not quite sure about you.
Disclosure of a disability is your decision.	Whether or not you disclose a disability is entirely your decision, according to the U.S. Department of Labor’s Office of Disability Employment Policy.
Realize that one colleague’s disclosure does not obligate you to disclose.	Although reciprocating is a natural tendency, you are not required to also self-disclose. But you may be missing a great opportunity to connect with a colleague.

Self-Disclosure 6 of 6

Guidelines for Self-Disclosure continued

Guidelines for resisting pressure to self-disclose

Don’t be pushed.

Be indirect and move on to another topic.

Be assertive in your refusal to disclose.

FIGURE 3.5. The Stages of Perception

Perception occurs in five stages: stimulation, organization, interpretation–evaluation, memory, and recall. Understanding how perception works will help make your own perceptions (of yourself and of others) more accurate.

Perception 1 of 2

L.O. 3.3 Define perception and identify its five stages.

Stage 1: Stimulation

Selective attention

Selective exposure

Stage 2: Organization

Organization by Rules

Proximity

Similarity

Contrast

Organization by Schemata

Organization by Scripts

Perception 2 of 2

Stage 3: Interpretation-evaluation

Greatly influenced by your experiences, needs, wants, values, expectations, physical and emotional state, gender, and beliefs

Also influenced by your rules, schemata, and scripts

Stage 4: Memory

You store both your perceptions and your interpretation-evaluations

Stage 5: Recall

Recall information that is consistent with your schema

Fail to recall information that is inconsistent with your schema

Recall information that drastically contradicts your schema

The Gift Economy

In one experiment three types of “invitations” to use a flower delivery service were offered: Group 1 users were offered $10 to invite friends to use the service; Group 2 users were offered the chance to give a $10 discount to someone they invited, but they received no money themselves; and Group 3 users and invitees were each offered $5. Which group of users do you think sent their friends more invitations? The answer from recent research (Aral, 2013) is that Groups 2 and 3 generated more “sends” than did Group 1. The researcher notes that this conforms to the notion of a gift economy, where being generous increases one’s status. Have you seen examples of this gift economy in your own social media experiences? How does this gift economy relate to self-esteem?

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Forming Impressions 1 of 4

L.O. 3.4 Define impression formation and its major processes, and identify the guidelines for increasing your own accuracy in impression format.

Impression Formation Processes

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Pygmalion effect

Personality Theory

Halo effect

Reverse halo effect

Forming Impressions 2 of 4

Impression Formation Processes continued

Primacy-Recency

Primacy effect: What comes first exerts the most influence

Recency effect: What comes last exerts the most influence

Consistency

Attribution of Control

Self-serving bias

Overattribution

Fundamental attribution error

Impression Formation

What one suggestion for increasing accuracy in impression formation do you wish others would follow more often when they make judgments about you?

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What one suggestion for increasing accuracy in impression formation do you wish others would follow more often when they make judgments about you?

Forming Impressions 3 of 4

Increasing Accuracy in Impression Formation

Analyze Impressions

Recognize your own role in perception.

Avoid early conclusions.

Look for a variety of cues.

Seek validation.

Check Perceptions

Describe what you see or hear.

Seek confirmation.

Forming Impressions 4 of 4

Increasing Accuracy in Impression Formation continued

Reduce Uncertainty

Observe

Construct situations

Lurk

Ask

Interact

Increase Cultural Sensitivity

Managing Impressions 1 of 4

L.O. 3.5 Explain the goals of impression management and the strategies for managing the impressions you communicate to others.

Impression management: the processes you go through to communicate the impression you want others to have of you

FIGURE 3.6: Impression Management Goals and Strategies

Managing Impressions 2 of 4

To Be Liked: Affinity-Seeking and Politeness Strategies

Affinity-seeking strategies

Politeness strategies

Positive face needs

Negative face needs

Managing Impressions 3 of 4

To Be Believed: Credibility Strategies

Attempts to establish a perception of competence, character, and charisma

To Excuse Failure: Self-Handicapping Strategies

Attempts to sabotage one’s self

To Secure Help: Self-Deprecating Strategies

Attempts to bring assistance from others

Self-Depreciating Humor

Self-deprecating humor has been found to increase attractiveness of high-status men and women but not of lower-status individuals. It has also been found to be used more by men than by women (Greengross & Miller, 2008). Do you find these findings intuitively satisfying? What explanation might you offer to account for these findings?

Peter Beavis/Riser/Getty Images

Managing Impressions 4 of 4

To Hide Faults: Self-Monitoring Strategies

Attempts to suppress a negative image

To Be Followed: Influencing Strategies

Attempts to get people to see you as a leader

To Confirm Self-Image: Image-Confirming Strategies

Attempts to reinforce positive perceptions about yourself