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Human Communication The Basic Course 14th edition

Chapter 2 Culture and Communication

Learning Objectives

2.1 Explain the nature and role of culture in human communication and define culture, enculturation, and acceleration.

2.2 Identify the seven cultural differences and explain how they affect human communication.

2.3 Define intercultural communication and identify the principles for improving intercultural communication.

The Nature of Culture 1 of 5

L.O. 2.1 Explain the nature and role of culture in human communication and define culture, enculturation, and acceleration.

Culture

Consists of specialized elements of the lifestyle of a group of people

Is passed on from one generation to the next through communication

Cultural evolution holds that culture evolves, and some cultures are more advanced than others.

Cultural relativism holds that all cultures are different, but no culture is more advanced than others.

Table 2.1. Seven Metaphors of Culture

Metaphor	Metaphor’s Claim/Assumption
Salad	Like items in a salad, cultures are individual, yet they work together with other cultures to produce an even better combination.
Iceberg	Like the iceberg, only a small part of culture is visible; most of culture and its influences are hidden from easy inspection.
Tree	Like the tree, you only see the trunk, branches, and leaves, but the root system, which gives the tree its structure and function, is hidden from view.
Melting pot	Cultures blend into one amalgam and lose their individuality. But the blend is better than any one of the ingredients.
Software	Culture dictates what we do and don’t do much as does a software program. Out of awareness, people are programmed, to some extent, to think and behave by their culture.
Organism	Culture, like an organism, uses the environment (other cultures) to grow but maintains boundaries so its uniqueness is not destroyed.
Mosaic	Like a mosaic is made up of pieces of different shapes, sizes, and colors, so is culture; the whole, the combination, is more beautiful than any individual piece.

The Nature of Culture 2 of 5

Sex and Gender

Sex refers to biological and physiological characteristics.

Gender refers to socially constructed roles.

The Nature of Culture 3 of 5

The Transmission of Culture

Enculturation is the process by which you learn your native culture.

Ethnic identity is identifying with and accepting your culture’s teaching.

Acculturation is the process by which you learn a different culture.

Assimilation is absorbing the culture of others into your own.

Figure 2.1 Factors Accounting for the Importance of Culture in Communication

The Nature of Culture 4 of 5

The Importance of Culture in Communication

Demographic Changes

Cultural Sensitivity

Economic Interdependency

Communication Technology

Politeness

Communication Competence

The Nature of Culture 5 of 5

The Aim of a Cultural Perspective

Cultural differences exist across the communication spectrum.

A cultural emphasis does not mean you have to accept the practices of other cultures or your own.

Culture

Some researchers prefer to use the term subculture to refer to smaller cultures within larger cultures; other researchers do not use the term, feeling that it implies that some cultures are less important than others. Some researchers prefer to use the term co-culture to refer to a variety of cultures coexisting side by side, whereas others think this term is imprecise because all cultures coexist. These theorists prefer simply to refer to all cultures as cultures. How do you feel about the terms subculture, co-culture, and just plain culture?

Cultural Differences 1 of 5

L.O. 2.2 Identify the seven cultural differences and explain how they affect human communication.

Cultural Differences

Individualist or collectivist orientation

Emphasis on context

Power structure

Masculinity/femininity

Tolerance for ambiguity

Long- and short-term orientation

Indulgence and restraint

Cultural Differences 2 of 5

Individual and Collective Orientation

Individualist culture: teaches the values of power, achievement, hedonism, and stimulation

Collectivist culture: teaches benevolence, tradition and conformity

High- and Low-Context Cultures

High-context culture: much of the information in the communication is in the context or in the person

Low-context culture: most of the information is explicitly stated in in the verbal message

Cultural Differences 3 of 5

High- and Low-Power Distance Cultures

High-power distance culture: there is a great difference between the power of the elite and the public

Low-power distance culture: power is more evenly distributed among the citizenry

Masculine and Feminine Cultures

Masculine culture: values aggressiveness, material success, and strength

Feminine culture: values modesty, concern for relationships and quality of life, and tenderness

Cultural Differences 4 of 5

High- and Low-Ambiguity-Tolerant Cultures

High-ambiguity-tolerant cultures: don’t feel threatened by unknown situations

Low-ambiguity-tolerant cultures: do much to avoid uncertainty

Long- and Short-Term Orientation

Long-term orientation cultures: promote the importance of future rewards

Short-term orientation cultures: focus more on the past and present

The Cultural Map: Ambiguity Tolerance

Ambiguity tolerance refers to the degree to which members of a culture are accepting of uncertainty; high-ambiguity tolerant cultures are comfortable with not knowing exactly what will happen next, whereas low-ambiguity tolerant cultures resist uncertainty and, in many cases, are stressed out by it.

The map highlights the top 10 countries for both high-ambiguity tolerance and low-ambiguity tolerance.

In the high-ambiguity tolerant cultures (marked in red), uncertainty is considered normal and expected. High ambiguity tolerant people are comfortable in uncertain situations and with unfamiliar tasks and assignments. They are also tolerant of ethnic differences and diversity and are generally positive to foreigners.

In the low-ambiguity tolerant cultures (marked in blue), members try to avoid uncertainty, because uncertainty is typically uncomfortable and anxiety provoking for them. Members of these cultures are also more prejudiced toward other ethnic groups and would not be welcoming to immigrants.

Critical thinking questions: How do you feel when an instructor gives an ambiguous assignment? Do you see the lack of specific direction as stressful or as an opportunity to get creative and think of different ways you might approach the assignment?

Table 2.2 Values of the Workplace

Values Selected by Asian (Long-Term Orientation) Executives	Values Selected by American (Short-Term Orientation) Executives
Hard work	Freedom of expression
Respect for learning	Personal freedom
Honesty	Self-reliance
Openness to new ideas	Individual rights
Accountability	Hard work
Self-reliance	Personal achievement

Cultural Differences 5 of 5

Indulgence and Restraint

Indulgence: the gratification of desires

Happiness depends on two factors:

Life control

Leisure

Restraint: curb gratification desires and their regulation by social norms

Restrained and Indulgent Cultures

One difference between restrained and indulgent cultures is the finding that death rates from cardiovascular diseases are significantly higher in restrained than in indulgent cultures, and significantly more indulgent culture members describe their health as “very good.” Why do you think this is so?

nobleIMAGES/Alamy Stock Photo

Intercultural Communication 1 of 4

L.O. 2.3 Define intercultural communication and identify the principles for improving intercultural communication.

The Nature and Forms of Intercultural Communication

Refers to communication between people who have different beliefs, values, or ways of behaving

Involves communication between:

People of different national cultures

People of different races or ethnic groups

People of different religions

Nations

Different genders

Smaller cultures existing within a larger culture

The Cultural Defense: Consider these two cases: (1) A Chinese immigrant discovers that his wife has been unfaithful. In a rage, he kills his wife. His defense was that this is the way his culture has taught him to react to infidelity. (2) An Iraqi family flees to the United States to avoid a dictator. While in the United States their daughters (ages 13 and 14) are wed to Iraqi men in their 20s, and their parents are charged with child abuse and delinquency of a minor. Their defense was that they were simply following Iraqi tradition, which permits marriages of young girls of this age. If you were on the jury listening to these two cases, how would you respond? More generally, how do you feel about “cultural defenses”? Are there some cultural defenses you’d accept and others you would not?

Consider these two cases: (1) A Chinese immigrant discovers that his wife has been unfaithful. In a rage, he kills his wife. His defense was that this is the way his culture has taught him to react to infidelity. (2) An Iraqi family flees to the United States to avoid a dictator. While in the United States their daughters (ages 13 and 14) are wed to Iraqi men in their 20s, and their parents are charged with child abuse and delinquency of a minor. Their defense was that they were simply following Iraqi tradition, which permits marriages of young girls of this age. If you were on the jury listening to these two cases, how would you respond? More generally, how do you feel about “cultural defenses”? Are there some cultural defenses you’d accept and others you would not?

FIGURE 2.2: A Model of Intercultural Communication

This basic model of intercultural communication is designed to illustrate that culture is a part of every communication transaction. What other ways can you think of to illustrate the process of intercultural communication?

Table 2.4 Communication Tips Between People with and without Disabilities 1 of 4

If you’re the person without a general disability:
Generally	Specifically
Use person-first language where the person, rather than the disability, is emphasized.	Avoid terms that define the person as disabled. Avoid such expressions as “the disabled man” or “the handicapped child.” Instead, using “person-first” language, say “person with a disability.”
Respect assistive devices such as wheelchairs, canes, walkers, or crutches.	Don’t move these out of your way; they’re for the convenience of the person with the disability. Avoid leaning on a person’s wheelchair; it’s similar to leaning on a person.
Shake hands with the person with the disability if you shake hands with others in a group.	Don’t avoid shaking hands because the individual’s hand has lost some normal function, for example.

Table 2.4 Communication Tips Between People with and without Disabilities 2 of 4

If you’re the person without a general disability continued:
Generally	Specifically
Avoid talking about the person with a disability in the third person.	For example, avoid saying, “Doesn’t he get around beautifully with the new crutches.” Direct your comments directly to the individual. Even if the person has an interpreter, direct your comments to the person with the disability, not the interpreter.
Don’t assume that people who have a disability are intellectually impaired.	Slurred speech—such as may occur with people who have cerebral palsy or cleft palate—should not be taken as indicating a low-level intellect. Be careful not to talk down to such individuals as, research shows, many people do (Unger, 2001).

Table 2.4 Communication Tips Between People with and without Disabilities 3 of 4

If you’re the person without a general disability continued:
Generally	Specifically
When you’re not sure of how to act, ask.	For example, if you’re not sure if you should offer walking assistance, say, “Would you like me to help you into the dining room?” And, more important, accept the person’s response. If he or she says no, then that means no; don’t insist.
Maintain similar eye level.	If the person is in a wheelchair, for example, it might be helpful for you to sit down or kneel down to get onto the same eye level.

Table 2.4 Communication Tips Between People with and without Disabilities 4 of 4

If you’re the person with a general disability:
Communicate your feelings.	For example, if you want someone to speak in a louder voice, ask. If you need someone push your wheelchair, say so.
Be patient and understanding.	Many people mean well but may simply not know how to act or what to say. Put them at ease as best you can.
Demonstrate your own comfort.	If you detect discomfort in the other person, you might talk a bit about your disability to show that you’re not uncomfortable about it—and that you understand that others may not know how you feel. But you’re under no obligation to educate the public, so don’t feel this is something you should or have to do.
Sources: These suggestions are based on a wide variety of sources, including www.empowermentzone.com/etiquet.txt (the website for the National Center for Access Unlimited), www.disabilityinfo.gov, www.drc.uga.edu, www.ndmig.com, and www.ucpa.org/.

Intercultural Communication 2 of 4

Improving Intercultural Communication

Cultural sensitivity: an attitude and way of behaving in which you’re aware of and acknowledge cultural differences

Ethnocentrism: the tendency to view other cultures through your own cultural filters and distortions

FIGURE 2.3: The Ethnocentrism Continuum

Drawing from several researchers (Lukens, 1978; Gudykunst & Kim, 1992; Gudykunst, 1994), this figure summarizes some interconnections between ethnocentrism and communication. The figure identifies five levels of ethnocentrism; the general terms under “Communication Distances” characterizes the major communication attitudes that dominate the various levels. Under “Communication” are some ways people might behave given their particular degree of ethnocentrism. How would you rate yourself on this scale?

Intercultural Communication 3 of 4

Improving Intercultural Communication continued

Prepare yourself.

Reduce your ethnocentrism.

Confront your stereotypes.

Increase mindfulness.

Avoid overattribution.

Intercultural Communication 4 of 4

Improving Intercultural Communication continued

Recognize differences:

Between yourself and the culturally different

Within the culturally different group

In meaning

In dialect and accent

Adjust your communication.

Decreasing Ethnocentrism

What other suggestions would you offer for decreasing ethnocentrism, increasing cultural awareness and sensitivity, and making intercultural communication more satisfying and more productive?

Andrew Harrer/Pool/Getty Images

What other suggestions would you offer for decreasing ethnocentrism, increasing cultural awareness and sensitivity, and making intercultural communication more satisfying and more productive?