Documents to be edited

Essentials of Scholarly Writing

Brian W. Bridgeforth, PhD, MBA, MA

Yuliya V. Grecu, EdD

August 18, 2021

Author: Biography, expertise, and contribution Brian W. Bridgeforth, PhD, MBA, MA: Dr Bridgeforth, the primary author of this work, has supervised or contributed to 200+ dissertations and theses. The instructions are written based on stated experience, the most common feedback and the lessons learned working with a broad base of personalities and intellectual interests through course work, application to candidacy through the prospectus, and dissertation candidacy through defense, and post publication. Yuliya V. Grecu, EdD: Dr. Grecu recently completed and defended her dissertation. Recent experience and fresh memory were contributory to substance and finalizing the text as well as providing examples. Given professional background in teaching English, she was the primary editor and ensured APA compliance confirmation.

Essentials of Scholarly Writing Brian W. Bridgeforth, PhD, MBA, MA & Yuliya Grecu, EdD Last Revised: 08/18/2021

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Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1

Beneficial and Recommended Resources ..................................................................................................... 1

Instructions, Recipes, and Examples ............................................................................................................. 2 I. Define scope.................................................................................................................................. 2 II. Create outline/mind map ............................................................................................................. 2 III. Search for literature ...................................................................................................................... 4 IV. Write to an ignorant audience .................................................................................................... 11 V. Follow the writing recipe ............................................................................................................ 11 VI. Write with scholarly style ........................................................................................................... 11 VII. Write and cite with stylistic variation ......................................................................................... 22 VIII. Proofread! ................................................................................................................................... 25

Front Matter, Format, and Style ................................................................................................................. 27

Appendix A: Working with MS WORD as Editor ......................................................................................... 28 I. WORD-Identifying Authors by Track Changes ............................................................................ 30 II. Labelling (Captioning) Tables & Figures ...................................................................................... 32 III. Inserting a Callout to a Figure or Table in the Body Text ............................................................ 34 IV. Updating the TOC, Lists of Tables/Figures, & Callouts ................................................................ 35

Appendix B: Grammarly As Editing Tool ..................................................................................................... 36

Appendix C: Bloom's Taxonomy ................................................................................................................. 40

Appendix D: Embedded Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................... 42

Index............................................................................................................................................................ 44

Essentials of Scholarly Writing Brian W. Bridgeforth, PhD, MBA, MA & Yuliya Grecu, EdD Last Revised: 08/18/2021

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Scholarly writing balances continuity1 and flow2 with conciseness and clarity. . . Present ideas in a logical order to improve the readability of your paper (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020, p. 111).

Introduction

A scholar’s recognition of producing scholarly work or scholarship is an acknowledgement of a level of proficiency with language and competent knowledge of a body of literature. Proficiency and competence are relative to the achievement level of education pursued. Specifically, terminal level education has a higher standard of expectation than graduate, which is more rigorous than undergraduate. This notion of progression is premised on mastery of a common set of expectations or standards. This document provides guidance on formal writing in terms of recommended procedure, exposition of particulars to a specific recommendation, examples, and identification of resources, strategies, and tactics. It highlights particulars of APA style 7th edition but is not intended to substitute the publication manual. Learners, especially at the graduate/doctoral level, are encouraged to purchase a wire bound copy of the manual (https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition). Writing is an opportunity to learn the literature, hone one’s writing, and practice a citation style. The following material is provided as an instructive resource. Learners are encouraged to read and apply the advice herein.

Beneficial and Recommended Resources

A Collegiate Dictionary

A Collegiate Thesaurus

A discipline/profession-specific dictionary

American Psychological Association (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association (APA). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000.

Baranick, J. (2014). Kiss my asterisk: A feisty guide to punctuation and grammar. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing.

Strunk, W., Jr. & White, E. B. The elements of style. Available: https://faculty.washington.edu/heagerty/Courses/b572/public/StrunkWhite.pdf

Appendices: A Collection of How-To Instruction Sets for Working with

A. A Collection of How-To Instruction Sets Working with MS WORD I. An Editing Tool

1 Continuity –the logical consistency of expression throughout a written work (p. 111). 2 Flow—the smooth cadence of words and sentences (p. 111)

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II. Track Changes III. Labeling Tables and Figures IV. Inserting a Callout to a Figure or Table in the Body Text V. Updating the TOC, Lists of Tables/Figures, and Callouts

B. Grammarly: An Editing Tool C. Bloom's Taxonomy D. Embedded Writing Rubric E. Embedded Literature Search Strategy Primer

Instructions, Recipes, and Examples

I. Define scope What is the deliverable as defined by the assignment instructions?

❖ Identify which element of Bloom’s Taxonomy is being emphasized (See Appendix C for sample action verbs under each category)?

❖ Read the rubric associated with the instructions (double click the icon to view an example writing rubric).

❖ Choose one perspective, theory, or conceptual basis to explore, examine, describe, interpret, or recommend and write a logical analytical argument explained and supported by authoritative literature. Determine what commonality is underlying the questions or the information?

II. Create outline/mind map In terms of completing an academic assignment, dissect the instruction set by answering the following questions:

❖ What result (content, format: e.g., paper, case-study, interview analysis, PPT while synoptic visual is also a coherent essay) is expected to be produced?

❖ What are the key topics, concepts, or ideas mentioned?

❖ What are the relationships between concepts and or materials directed to consider?

❖ What is the instructed structure or organization required to deliver information?

Discern topic, theme, and subtopic through either linear format of an outline—I. A. 1. a. (see example page 3) or diagram the connections via mind map, in which topics and subtopics are identified not linearly but in relation to one another (see Figures 1 & 2 for examples). Both outcomes will contain the same details. The variation is presentation style. The deciding question is: which is easier to follow? Use a tool, of personal preference, to organize the essay/paper in terms of sections, paragraphs, and sentence order. Doing so will help with structure and flow.

Microsoft Word

Document

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It is necessary and worthwhile to note that an instruction set will establish a starter outline. The more comprehensive and exhaustive the body of literature relied upon, the fuller or more complete the outline is.

Example: The following is a redacted sample of an informal outline about the topic of leadership.

I. The P.O.W. of leadership A. Origins B. Culture war roots C. Word usage

II. The standard model A. Typology

1. Observation 2. Normative 3. Prescriptive

B. Four assumptions C. Role and relationship

1. 12 conversations 2. Societal structure 3. Followership

a. Constituency b. Citizenship c. Participation

III. The antipodal model 1. Thirteenth (13) conversation 2. Antinomies

A mind map is a way to simultaneously comprehend the macro, micro, and meta scales of a topic, problem, and establish/derive evidence-based knowledge or support a solution. The mind map concept can help as an organizing tool to synthesize the literature that founds, contextualizes, informs, and persuades logically and objectively by connecting topics by history, shared connections, thematic and progressive commonalities, and relationships. One identifies the topic and all possible subtopics as with an outline. As topics are added, consider the possible logical connections among the ideas to develop an outline or a mind map. The broad or umbrella topic is at the center of the display space. Each notation is marked by text, image, symbol, character, color, or other and in user designated combinations. Connections are relationships, convergence, commonalities, divergence illustrated or symbolized. A legend may be necessary or prove beneficial to memory. All disciplines and topics share common categories—historical precedent, theorists, theories, and ethical theory and practice.

The outline example (see outline above) is translated into a mind map for illustrative purposes (see Figure 1). Leadership is the central topic. Each Roman numeral indicator is a noted branch off the central topic. The capital English letter indicator is a branch and notation off the first noted branch. The Arabic numeral notation is a subsequent branch off the former branch. The common categories are the substance and links between the capital English letter indicators (e.g., the typology (Tplgy), Four assumptions (4 A’s), and inform and enlighten the conversations comprising the role and relationships (R & R).

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III. Search for literature We live in a time of exhaustive knowledge with an exponential growth rate of accumulation and a plethora of options to search for literature on any given topic. This section offers a review of the questions why, where, what, and when. Questions about who and which are discipline, topic, and/or focus dependent. The question how is introduced last. Keep in mind that in research, one standard is that it be replicable. That is, any other researcher should be able to follow your literature search and repeat it exactly as you did. Keep detailed record of your search! This includes how you acquired the literature that informed you and aided in your constructing your research. Why search? Searching for literature is arguably multi-purpose—awareness, acquisition, edification, establishment, proposition, substantiation. The commonality is, to ask and answer learner/researcher stimulated questions. Command of the literature establishes and conveys credibility as an authority. What to search? The use of scholarly sources demonstrates a relative command of the empirical literature. A scholar seeks out important and relevant authors, theories, concepts, topics, issues. Scholarly literature is more than double blind peer-reviewed journal articles. Additional to journal articles are books, edited works, monographs, grey literature, and secondary sources. Some labels characterize these works as significant in a discipline (i.e., seminal and classic). In particular, theory, concept, and method should be sourced from original authors and seminal works. Each is briefly described.

❖ Journal articles [double blind peer-reviewed/scholarly] ❖ Seminal sources (first pieces by originating authors, landmark studies—books and journal

articles). There is incalculable value in appreciating and assimilating a construct, concept, or theory by the originating author. First-hand knowledge anchors the academic history of a topic

Figure 1.

Outline Translated to mind map.

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and more accurately informs morphology. Interpretations are convenient, particularly when the interpretation is commonly accepted and taught as fact. Interpretations are also generally flawed in one or more ways—details lost in translation, misrepresentation of the original author’s meaning, and or, but not limited to, alteration of focus. Examples of seminal works suffering from misinterpretation: * Machiavelli’s (1513) The prince [Machiavelli did not rationalize the ends justify the means,

rather, he proposed a set and series of questions about how to maintain rule and minimize threat.]

* Maslow’s (1943) A theory of human motivation [Maslow did not describe needs as a hierarchy premised on a must be satisfied first order rather, as deficiency-based prioritization.]

* Lewin’s (1951) 3-Step Model [Lewin wrote “(if necessary)” after Unfreeze in the original (p. 228); it was eliminated in a later interpretation. The dropped parenthetical cut the link to the other three parts of Lewin’s change model (Force-Field Analysis, Group Dynamics, & Action Research) which are neither mentioned nor taught as parts of it.]

* MacGregor Burns (1978) Leadership [Burns is errantly credited with originating the theory of transformational leadership. Rather, he proposed a conceptualization he labeled “transforming leadership” through his examination of moral politics.]

❖ The classics (books and journal articles) in a discipline. Classics are seminal, and iconoclastic (pivotal)—establish the paradigms of the thought and theory of a discipline. Classics recognize and establish timeless principles about human existence and or human experience. Classics are most often written by major theorists (so called either by previously established reputation or the work establishes reputation. Classics are identifiable by common acceptance, recognition by scholars, and prominence of citation by other authors. Examples: * Campbell, H. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces [Also known as the hero’s journey.

Campbell discovered and substantiated the hero myth is universal across human culture and history. This ancient recipe is still used in story telling today (e.g., Star Wars.)]

* Maslow’s (1943) A theory of human motivation [cited in >35,500 published works]

* Jung, C. G. (1952, 1959) Theories of the collective unconscious and archetypes. [Established a paradigm in psychiatry and psychology.]

* Gemmill, G., & Oakley, J. (1992). Leadership: An alienating social myth? Human Relations [An iconoclastic work that questions the validity of the social construct.]

❖ Scholarly books—written by researchers and scholar-practitioners for researchers and practitioners.

❖ Monographs—an extended coherent presentation of a topic, allegorically: an exhaustive literature review.

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Example: * House, R. J. & Aditya, R. N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis?

Journal of Management, 23, 409-473.

❖ Edited works—a compilation volume of contributions from separate authors on different aspects of a single topic.

❖ Grey literature (URLs ending with “.edu”, “.org”, and “.gov”) incorporate data and evaluations not controlled by publishers. Reference to grey literature often allows the researcher to eradicate bias, balance the findings by presenting neutral and undesirable outcomes, and utilize the most recent results. Searching grey literature databases, OpenGrey, Wonder, and SCOPUS, along with EBSCOhost, provides access to various references from grey literature. EBSCOhost also makes the government statistic reports available to the researchers. Besides, exploring government and educational agency's websites, for example, the Alabama State Department of Education websites, National Center for Education Statistics, can assist the researcher in obtaining numerical data to enhance the comprehensiveness of the findings. Similarly, news periodicals may be acceptable as part of research for supplying context, historical information, or reference to secondary/archived data. Example:

* Vargas, T. (March 1, 2018) She coined the term ‘glass ceiling.’ She fears it will outlive her. Washington Post. (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/03/01/she- coined-the-phrase-glass-ceiling-she-didnt-expect-it-to-outlive-her/)

❖ Commercial sites (e.g., .com, .biz. .net), wikis, blogs, podcasts, social media, newsletters, as well

as the Bible, Koran, and similar religious texts are NOT scholarly (i.e., peer reviewed or empirical) sources. An exception to this guideline would be a blog, podcast, etcetera posted by a seminal author sharing personal (first-hand) historical context or experience. Example:

* Revisiting the Glass Ceiling by Marilyn Loden (http://www.loden.com/Site/Site/Articles%20- %20Videos%20-%20Survey/C615CFE8-A70C-4E3A-9F81-8EACB0E087D0.html)

Where to search?

❖ Bibliographies/reference lists of published articles, monographs, and books [Author Index] to identify the sources others have referenced.

❖ Electronic databases (e.g., EBSCO, PsycInfo, SocAbstracts, ERIC, Proquest Dissertations).

❖ Internet search engines (in order of recommendation):

• Google Scholar (google.scholar.com)—earch scholarly papers, search authors, article titles

• Google Books (http://books.google.com/)--Search the “world's most comprehensive index of full text of books”. Review the book index for the topic(s)/subject(s) pertinent to the research project and read those specific pages.

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• Google custom Search (add “site:.edu”, “site:.org”, and similar to a search string to limit (narrow) the search to a specific type of source).

• Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org/) - a library of over 60,000 free eBooks in epub and Kindle eBooks format to download or read online.

• Universities (http://www.google.com/options/universities.html)—Search a specific school's website.

• U.S. Government (http://www.google.com/ig/usgov) —Search all U.S. federal, state and local government sites (Excellent for secondary sources)

• Cengage (www.accessmylibrary.com) -- Site claims to offer searching of information that librarians trust. It is a no-cost access service.

• The Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/)—The world's largest library. Everything printed is catalogued here. This library is open to all U.S. citizens.

• Google News archive search (http://news.google.com/archivesearch)—Search historical news.

❖ Public and state community college, college, and university library systems. Many offer access and check out to state residents. All that is required is proof of residency and maybe a small fee.

❖ Online sources of new and used books at the fraction of the cost of retail (in order of

recommendation):

• BookFinder: http://www.bookfinder.com

• Used Book Central: http://www.usedbookcentral.com/

• FetchbookInfo: http://www.fetchbook.info/index.jsp?camid=bmu

When to search? History is more than the misleading blanket rule (misconception or misdirected limited application) of the last three (3) to five (5) years of a topic. Currency is relevant to the discipline under focus. The rate of change in some fields like data science, artificial intelligence, and information technologies justifies this guideline given the pace of obsolescence demonstrated. However, the rate of change in philosophy, ethics, and the social sciences is glacial by comparison. Criteria: The standards used to select the literature used.

✓ Accuracy (is the information error free?)

✓ Authority (who is supplying the information and are they qualified to do so? e.g., peer-reviewed)

✓ Objectivity (is the information bias free?)

✓ Currency (is the currency of the information appropriate for your field or topic?)

✓ Coverage (are all aspects and details of the subject covered?)

How:

❖ Library Electronic databases: Subject Terms (“SU”)—(author supplied and part of the database index), Review the subject terms a.k.a. subjects listed under the journal articles that appear relevant for terms you have not

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thought of. Key words (“Select a Field”, “TX All Text”)—candidate determined, topic or theme relevant Author Name (“AU”)—search for all articles by a specific theorist or expert listed in the database(s) accessed. Journal (“SO”)—search for articles published a specific journal or for journal titles containing one or more words Article titles (“TI”)—search for a specific title or words in an article title Combinations—This may be any combination of the aforementioned items OR previous searches (Search History).

• Using subject terms will yield a smaller set of results, however, they will be more relevant to your work. Key words will yield a larger number of results however, it will require reading abstracts to determine relevance.

❖ Google Scholar (google.scholar.com): Basic, self-explanatory. Type search string. 10 results by page. Order may be limited or customized by time year or range, relevance or date, include or exclude citations/patents.

Subsequent and more detailed searches by each listed source are offered through:

* Cited by ____ Will link to a search list that will reveal all authors and sources that sited a specific piece of scholarly literature.

* Related articlesCompletes a search of articles similar in topic to the piece selected.

* All (count) versions—This is the listing of all Internet sites that offer a copy of the item.

Suggested Related searches is offered. Related searches are topic synonyms or associated.

❖ Google Books (http://books.google.com/):

Basic, self-explanatory. Type search string. Customize settings (3; options for each displayed)

* Any view—Any View—Preview and Full View—Full View

* Any document—Any Document—Books—Magazines—Newspapers

* Any time—Any Time --—21st Century—20th Century—19th Century—Custom Range

Click on “Tools” to switch from search options to result count.

❖ Google:

Customize a search by site type (add “site:.edu”, “site:.org”, and similar to a search string to limit (narrow) the search to a specific type of source).

Customize the search using “advanced search” available under settings

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Results:

❖ Library Electronic databases & Search Engines It is recommended that a simple table is used to record the information. Table 1 Search Record is a recommended format. For use, copy and paste the table into a new document or duplicate column headings in a spreadsheet.

Table 1.

Search Record

Database/Search Engine

Search String Database Query Type

# of items retrieved

# of relevant items

Identify the specific electronic database (e.g., EBSCO, PsycInfo, SocAbstracts, ERIC, Proquest Dissertations & Theses)

OR Search engine (e.g., Google Scholar, Google Books, Library of Congress)

What exactly was typed in the search box of the database of the search engine?

Subject Terms (“SU”) Key words (“Select a Field”, “TX All Text”) Author Name (“AU”) Journal (“SO”) Article titles (“TI”) Combination

This is the raw result count

provided by the database or

search engine.

This is the number of

items that met the specific

search criteria for possible use in the research

endeavor.

❖ Annotated Bibliography

Writing a synopsis of each source is recommended for memory retention, organizing sources, and recall.

* Books and chapters of edited books: write one to two paragraphs about the content, author, relevance to the research (by chapter and section), and note specific pages

* Journal articles, and monographs: follow the Writing an Annotated Bibliography guidelines (next page).

* Grey literature, commercial sites, and news organizations: write one to two paragraphs about the topic, origin, author, speaker, relevance, significant details, statistics, and or quotes.

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Annotated Bibliography

Traditionally, an annotated bibliography is a format of source citation followed by a 300-350-word (1 page) synopsis with details authored by the reviewer. As an academic exercise, the purpose of the annotated bibliography is two-fold. First, it is practice at authoring an abstract. Second, the annotated bibliography is resource to the research in its entirety and fodder, primarily, for the literature review. These purposes are served through the suggested dissection and details recorded. General (About, article as a whole; literature review of the article):

✓ Bibliographic details of the piece. ✓ Code to identify research component contributes to by chapter, section, topic, topic-subtopic. ✓ Topics/Key words/Themes ✓ The work’s origin, extension or duplication of previous effort(s). ✓ Significant authors relied upon.

Problem, purpose, research questions/hypotheses, and framework: ✓ Problem premise (Call, gap, observation, curiosity, existential question, epiphany). ✓ Instead of paraphrasing, quote the sentence with (p. #) in which each is explicitly stated. ✓ Research question(s) (RQs)/Hypothesis(es): Identify the nature of the RQs; variables and

operationalization of. ✓ Framework (theoretical, conceptual, both, composition and origin of by source(s)): Note the

logical parameters of why the framework for the study was adequate and appropriate. Method (note page numbers for your own records and ease of referral back):

✓ Characterize nature of study–description, examination, explanation, exploration, ground, test. ✓ Note the details about the method (type, theorist/researcher modeled) and why the method

was selected as most appropriate. ✓ Note population details (demographic characteristics), sample size, sample determination. ✓ Quantitative studies: record the exact statistical tests conducted to test the hypothesis, record

the statistical tests that were conducted to measure. Findings/Recommendations (note page numbers for your own records and ease of referral back):

✓ Record how (quantitative) validity, reliability or (qualitative) trustworthiness, credibility, transferability, and generalizability were established.

✓ Record the conclusions of the research–Quantitative: Accept or reject of each hypothesis; why? Qualitative: generalizability/transferability of the findings. Explain how the conclusions are justified by the results; interpreted through the framework.

✓ Recommendations for future research—indicate extensions of or gaps in the literature. Strengths/Weakness (note page numbers for your own records and ease of referral back):

Ideally, analysis is relative to similar studies of which you are aware. That is compare/contrast and support/contradict using other pieces of literature. Record why an identified item is a strength or weakness. In addition to the aforementioned, ask: o How well was the research related to the existing body of knowledge? o Did the article make an original contribution to the existing body of knowledge? o Were there adequate controls for researcher bias? o What were the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations? o Is the research replicable?

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IV. Write to an ignorant audience Establish credibility as a practitioner, scholar, or researcher. Assume the audience does not know the content of the matter, so identify, explain, and enlighten. Work from the premise that the reader knows nothing about the problem, the questions posed, or the literature. Identify and define key (significant) terms, constructs, and concepts. Expound ideas with examples. Identify and analyze assumptions, presuppositions, and propositions distinguishing personal and other’s views. Dissect the questions, methods, and results reported in the empirical literature. Compare and contrast contradictory materials for convergence and divergence. Expound with detailed information to explain and support ideas and opinions with material from cited sources. V. Follow the writing recipe Introduction: Tell what the writing focus will be on. That is, offer a brief glimpse of the topic that will be discussed and present the purpose, content, and structure of the writing. Body: Tell. Following the outline of topic, theme, and subtopics, present the knowledge, ideas, and interpretation of the material. Unless expressly instructed to report the what an expert or experts have published, use sources as support or explanation of the reasoning. Express personal thoughts! At the graduate and terminal levels of education, the expectation is not the regurgitation of what other people have said about something. As Whyte (1956) admonished, "It would be better and healthier if the new respect for authority were more frequently found in combination with a spirit of inquiry, a ready willingness to think through what is authoritatively declared, and a refusal ever to accept anything simply because some reputable expert makes the statement" (p. 66). Mastery and expertise are expressions of a person's thinking supported by authorities, the flow of logic in critically reviewing a situation, person, theory, etcetera, and offering some insight. When the source contradicts, explain a personal disagreement with the source. Taking on the experts is both permissible and encouraged. While doing so the student becomes an authority. Until then, the learner remains a member of the parrot choir. Conclusion: Retell what the writing unveiled. That is, briefly recap the content. Do not introduce new information here! Do not quote or cite sources. VI. Write with scholarly style

Scholarly writing is formal writing, also known as, technical writing. While scholarly and scholarship are the predominant markers throughout the text, the terms formal or technical writing style are used. Among the numerous distinctions between formal and informal writing the prevalent one is intimacy. Formal writing is impersonal while informal writing is personal. Formal writing is devoid of the use of personal pronouns that identify self or address others. The use of pronouns “I, me, my, myself, mine, you, yours, and yourself” conveys a degree of personal relationship, and thereby some measure of intimacy, between the writer and the reader. The scholarship is an analytical position premised on historical development. In other words, scholarly writing is a demonstration of logic:

✓ the derivation of a problem, purpose, questions, and/or hypotheses; ✓ the proposition of an argument deduced through review of historical theory and research;

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✓ examination and or explanation of a phenomenon; ✓ exposition of the history of academic research on a topic in the case of the literature review; ✓ detailed designation of a method appropriately similar to prior researcher’s experiences; and ✓ interpretation of conclusions through a theoretical and or conceptual frame.

The ABCs of scholarly writing are Accuracy, Brevity, and Clarity. A brief description of each with specific considerations follows. Accuracy (objective, specific, factual): The first principle of scholarly writing is that it is objective -- the known facts from competing points of view and expressed in value-neutral terms; accurate, specific, and verifiable in, by, through the language used. Refrain from using descriptive adjectives (e.g., wise, disabled, superior, exceeding) to modify nouns. Use of such terms is subjective, vague, open to interpretation, and depending on the word and the reader may convey bias, prejudice, or hyperbole.

❖ Language (words) Use words according to the dictionary definition of the word and as appropriate to the intended audience. Words, by definition, are objective (i.e., value-free; it is the use in a context that conveys meaning). As examples:

* Methodology: a) a body of methods, b) the study of methods. Use of the term methodology is only correct in a mixed methods study. When a single method is employed, “method” is the correct term.

* Manipulation: to control, move, or treat with or as with the hands. * Prove: to establish incontrovertibly. To be incontrovertible means to have answered all

questions, have no contradicting evidence or testimony. Be careful with the use of this term when writing/discussing matters of science. Science proves nothing! Science provides support or denies support. In science the pursuit of knowledge is never complete; there are always more questions to ask. It is the next question that may contraindicate that which was believed before (e.g., the earth being the center of the universe).

Synonymous-dissimilarity (S-D) is the erroneous presupposition that two or more unique concepts or words are identical and are used interchangeably. In plain English, the accepted use of a word that is by dictionary definition, incorrect use is a false synonym. An S-D arises when concepts share a common origin, a similarity in nature and or function, but is variant in manifestation or application. Examples are:

* Effect/Affect. Effect is outcome/result [noun]. Affect is to influence [verb].

* Anxious/Eager. Anxious is nervous, fearful. Eager is willing, excited, looking forward to something.

* Elaborate/Expound. Elaborate is to build up carefully from a plan. Expound is to discuss, explain.

* Motivation/Stimulation. Motivation is internal—the reason for deciding/acting something. Stimulation is external—a prompt, influence, or affect. One can and may

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stimulate another person, but one cannot decide or exercise a choice to act for another person.

* Transforming/Transformational. James McGregor Burns (1978) described moral political leadership using the verb transforming [making a dramatic change]. Bernard Bass (1985) prescribed a leadership pattern using the qualifying adjective transformational.

* Ethics/Morals/Law. The use of ethics in lieu of morals or ethics is premised on the suggestion that ethics is an extension of morals in theory and compliance with law in practice. Morals is a system of social codes established as universal edict from a supreme authority. The ambition is control. The core value is a simple dichotomy of absolute exclusivity (i.e., right or wrong). The norm is obedience. Ethics is a system of social codes established as guidelines for character establishment. The ambition is collaboration. The core value is logically deducted relative exclusivity of right or wrong. The norm is rationale decision-making. Law is a system of social codes established as cultural conduct in terms of rights and responsibilities. The ambition is conformity. The core value is socially negotiated temporal exclusivity of right or wrong. The norm is accountability.

• Refrain from the use of generalizations (e.g., always, never, numerous, multitude) and descriptive adjectives (e.g., big, exceeding, little, superior, wise) to modify nouns. Use of such terms is subjective, vague, open to interpretation, and depending on the word and the reader may convey bias, prejudice, or hyperbole.

❖ Citation placement and meaning

The placement of citation can and does matter. Placement conveys meaning. Compare the two sets of examples. The first sentence in each example is inaccurate and misleading for as presented, the source stated the thought about the current research project. By comparison, the revision of placing the citation after the idea of focus conveys the source as the basis of the intended action.

Examples:

* The research questions will be based on an ontological perspective that will help gather the participants’ perceptions based on the subject at hand (Neubauer et al., 2019). The research questions, based on an ontological perspective (Neubauer et al., 2019), will help gather the participants’ perceptions of the subject.

* An interpretive phenomenological research approach will be used in this

data analysis plan, as it combines past knowledge or assumptions and examines the structure of experiences (Smith et al., 2015). An interpretive phenomenological research approach (Smith et al., 2015) will be used in this data analysis plan, as the approach combines past knowledge or assumptions and examines the structure of experiences.

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❖ Reasoning (Logic/Fallacy) “A fallacy is a kind of error in reasoning” (https://iep.utm.edu/). James Fieser, Ph.D. and Bradley Dowden, Ph.D., founder and editors (respectively) of The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy offer a list of 231 names of the most common fallacies along with brief explanations and examples of each of them. According to Fieser and Dowden, “The vast majority of the commonly identified fallacies involve arguments, although some involve only explanations, or definitions, or other products of reasoning. Sometimes the term fallacy is used even more broadly to indicate any false belief or cause of a false belief” (para. 2). Common examples (adapted from https://iep.utm.edu/fallacy/) are:

* Concluding intent from consequence

* Confirmation Bias: The tendency to look for evidence in favor of one’s hypothesis and not to look for disconfirming evidence, or to pay insufficient attention to it.

* Submitting work that is different from the instructions given are fallacies of . . .

Avoiding the Issue: Instead of addressing an issue directly, the writer digresses or diverts. This error is also referred to as missing the point, straying off the subject, and not sticking to the issue.

Avoiding the Question: The response has nothing to do with the question asked.

* Out of Context: Distortion of a contributing perspective through the use of words, ideas, or quotes without the context, in which the statement or thought was expressed.

❖ Integrity Paraphrasing and attribution of content. Be careful about attributing topic, subject, or meaning to a source in which a topic, source, or idea was not originally stated. If as the writing author that is connecting two unique ideas, explain and support the assertion. Otherwise, it is inaccurate to state that a published author wrote or said something the individual did not. An astute and informed reader will recognize material that is falsely attributed. Readily identified are attributions in which the topic of the piece has nothing to do with the subject discussed. An example is stating that the author of one theory discussed application to a specific leadership theory. “Plagiarism is the act of presenting the words, ideas or images of another as your own; it denies authors credit they are due . . .violates ethical standards” (APA, 2020, p. 21, 254). Avoiding Plagiarism (see Section 8.2, p. 255) “Provide appropriate credit to the source whenever you do the following:

• paraphrase (i.e., state in your own words) the ideas of others (see Sections 8.23-8.24)

• directly quote the words of others (see Sections 8.25-8.35)

• refer to data or data sets (see Section 10.9)

• reprint or adapt a table or figure, even images from the Internet that are free or licensed in the Creative Commons (see Sections 12.14-12.18)

• reprint a long text passage or commercially copyrighted test item (see Sections 12.14- 12.18)” (APA, 2020, p. 255)

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Contract cheating (see Section 8.2, p. 256) Contracting cheating is when “students hire another person to write a paper for them” (APA, 2020, p. 256). Regardless, if the piece is original, the contract cheating student is taking credit for work they did not author. It is fraud. Placing a name on a hired person’s paper is claiming effort and knowledge neither taken nor acquired. It is falsified credential inflation. “Self-plagiarism is the presentation of your previously published work as original . . . is unethical” (APA, 2020, p. 256). The deception is the false impressions created; more information than actually exists, findings are more replicable than is the case, or particular conclusions are more strongly supported than warranted by the evidence (APA). Depending on institutional policy or faculty choice, the standard can and may apply to academic work (i.e., work completed in a course cannot be submitted in another course without consent of the faculty member to which the assignment was first submitted.) Readers/learners are advised to review the course syllabus or consult with faculty or an academic affairs officer. Excerpts, by quote or paraphrase, from work submitted in a previous course, may be used provided the individual cites the original paper, year, and the course to which it was initially submitted or published.

Example:

* Barker wrote explicitly that, "if there is no need for change, there is no need for leadership" (p. 491). Yukl identified change as one of the most important and challenging of leadership responsibilities. Adler expressed hope as the new synonym of leadership. Hope, according to Adler, is the human quality of possible attaining or creating a more desirable state of affairs in the future. (Bridgeforth, B. W., 2009, Dissertation, p. 37)

❖ Anthropomorphism (see Section 4.11, p. 117)

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics or behaviors to an inanimate noun (i.e., a non-living thing) or animal. Non-living things cannot, behave (e.g., cogitate (think), speak, or demonstrate kinetic motion).

• Attribution of characteristics * Rat couples [anthropomorphism].

* . . . pair of birds . . . [correct]

• Attribution of behaviors or kinesthetic action

* “the article suggests”, “the theory concludes”, “ABC Inc analyzed” [anthropomorphism] * the research question forces the reader . . . [anthropomorphism] * House and Aditya (1990) wrote . . . (The authors exercised the behavior) [correct]

• Organizations, industry, government, and social group are legal entities NOT living beings. Each is singular, an “it” NOT plural. Therefore, the use of either the singular or plural forms of the pronouns “they/them/their” when referring to a legal entity is inaccurate and to be

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avoided. The use of pronouns humanizes and animates the legal entity. When referencing a company/organization/government/agency/social group refer to it by the use of? the formal or recognized name (e.g., “International Business Machines” or “IBM”). When discussing an artifact of cognition or other action, identify the group label.

Examples:

* The leadership of XYZ Corp . . . * Pennsylvania Public Administration (PPA) management stated . . . * Study participants . . .

❖ Bias Free Language (Chapter 5)

To avoid bias focus on naming labels and using descriptive language at an appropriate level of specificity and refrain from using language that is not precise or not responsive to stereotypes. Approach writing with inquisitiveness instead of preconceived ideas and search for answers instead of insisting on personal notions. Objective and all-embracing expression allows the author to acquire readers’ respect and trust.

* Substitute gender identifying pronouns for gender-neutral terms

When referring to an individual whose identified pronouns are not known, use the individual’s name or singular “they/them/their instead of he/him, her/she”.

Words that contain “man” or “woman” usually denote bias and require substitution.

Examples:

* The chairman argued with the public. [bias]

* The chairperson explained the reasons for his decision. [unbiased]

• To eliminate gender assumptions, rely on unbiased words that preserve neutrality.

Examples: * Bias: In her room, the secretary prepared the action plan for copying. [bias]

* Unbiased: In the room, the secretary prepared the action plan for copying. [unbiased]

* Use third-person point of view—Instead of first-person plural pronouns “we,” “us,” and “our,” which indicate similarity of views and encounters, use third-person pronouns.

Examples: * We discovered inconsistent implementation of the theory. [bias]

* They concurred that research provided inadequate information about the phenomenon. [unbiased]

* Compare cautiously—Avoid relying on personal feelings when comparing events, theories, models, or phenomena. Revealing personal emotional attachment to the object of description conveys bias.

Examples:

* X Corporation, which is better than Y Company, produces excellent resources for [bias].

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* X Corporation produces excellent resources for . . ., the advantage that Y Company lacks [unbiased]

• Inconsistency in expression can and may imply bias.

* He shows that some of his findings support literature; however, other results, found in literature, are inconsistent with his findings. (Translates to: author supports the literature that has similar results while other literature does not support the author. [bias]

* Findings were both consistent and inconsistent with previous findings reported in the literature. [Next to support the assertion, identify both consistency and inconsistencies respectively. What was inconsistent/inconsistent? What explains the divergence?] [unbiased]

* Use exact descriptors to provide specifics at an appropriate level of relevant details when writing about people.

Age—Identify specific age or range rather than use terms like teenager, middle-aged, or elderly.

Examples: * Twenty-five percent of teenagers revealed lackadaisical attitudes towards learning.

[bias]

* Twenty-five percent of thirteen-and fourteen-year-olds revealed lackadaisical attitudes towards learning. [unbiased]

Do not refer to people by adjectives—they transfer that label into the primary person’s characteristic.

Examples:

* The disabled student understood the concept quickly. [bias]

* The student with a learning disability in the subject managed to solve the problem quickly. [unbiased]

Race/Ethnicity—the nation or region of origin is most appropriate compared to generalized origin.

Examples:

* Black students experience . . . [bias]

* Mexican Americans experience . . . [unbiased]

❖ Correcting an error in a quote (see Section 8.29, p. 274).

[sic] signifies an error of spelling, grammar, or punctuation in a quote. Placed immediately after the error.

Example:

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* Mandy noted, "It is one of the better curriculums [sic] I've seen just because again it is multicultural and multifaceted." [curricula is the plural form of the word curriculum]

❖ Number agreement/Subject and verb agreement (see Section 4.15, p. 119)

A verb must agree in number with the singular or plural form of the subject/noun. Collective nouns must be considered in context to determine their singularity or plurality. Compound subjects—the verb is consistent with the noun closest to the verb if the conjunction "or" or "nor" is used to connect the subjects. The verb is plural when conjunction "and" links the subjects. A singular verb requires the form “is” while a plural verb is followed by “are”.

• An organization, industry, government, social group is each singular, an “it.” Use the formal or recognized name followed by abbreviation (e.g., International Business Machines (IBM)) to refer to a specific organization, institution, industry, and so on e. g, ABC Incorporated is . . .

Example: * ABC Incorporated is . . .

• The use of "-ies" or"-s" at the end of word of the names of organizations and industries is indicative of plurality/multiplicity. In such instances, rather than they/them/their, use the plural noun.

Example:

* The companies are . . .

❖ Specificity

* Avoid/Refrain from the use of generalizations and vague qualifiers (e.g., always, never,

numerous, multitude, several)

Examples: * To establish the framework, the author cited definitions of reflection provided by

several researchers. [use of generalization]

* To establish the conceptual framework, Langer (2002) cited definitions of reflection provided by source (XXXX), source (XXXX), . . . and source (XXXX).

❖ Accuracy of tense

It is inaccurate to use present-tense or to implying a future state to identify or describe something when the source(s) is(are) multiple years in the past.

Example:

* Trust is essential in any work center, and trust is hitting historic lows within organizations (Jiang & Probst, 2015; Russell, 2014).

* Trust is essential in any work center, and yet trust hit historic lows within organizations (Jiang & Probst, 2015; Russell, 2014).

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❖ Accuracy of expression There are two types of error of expression recognizable in aspiring scholars hip. The first is unintentional attribution of a source stating something about a present work. No source preceding a current work could express and record something about the latter. The second is use of a personal pronoun in conjunction with citation. There is no we authorship with a dissertation. In both instances, for accuracy use a verb to denote relationship between author and the work.

Examples:

* The goal of this qualitative research is to pinpoint the core of the youth’s lived experience of the phenomenon in addition to determining and explaining what that phenomenon is (Jones, 2017).

* Premised on Jones (2017), the goal of this qualitative research is to pinpoint the core of the youth’s lived experience of the phenomenon in addition to determining and explaining what that phenomenon is.

* We will review what a literature review is and why certain types of literature are utilized (Rowley & Slack, 2004). We will review different types of literature reviews (Winchester, C,& Salji, M,. 2016; Xiao & Watson, 2019).

* Relying on Rowley and Slack (2004), Winchester and Salji (2016), Xiao and Watson (2019), literature review is defined, different types of literature reviews are described, and why certain types of literature are utilized is explained.

Specificity In this example, the phrasing pared with the citation conveys that the source recognized literature not acknowledged here. Alternately, the research identified is that of the authors. The implication of the latter is literature inflation.

* A meaningful connection between safety behavior and safety culture is present in research that suggests individual characteristics play a role in the outcomes (Ardeshir & Mohajeri, 2018).

Two alternatives:

* A meaningful connection between safety behavior and safety culture is present in research (c.f., source, source, source) that suggests individual characteristics play a role in the outcomes (Ardeshir & Mohajeri, 2018).

* Ardeshir and Mohajeri (2018) established a meaningful connection between safety behavior and safety culture that suggests individual characteristics play a role in the outcomes.

* Accuracy of verb usage

The premise of the guidance in this section is that variation of expression is both reader friendly and is part of one’s academic voice. Without argument it is accurate to use a single word (e.g., stated) to refer another author or other authors. Without argument, doing so is

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repetitive to redundant. Discerning use of verbs to recognize statement, cognition, knowledge, or action demonstrates considered attention to the works of others. Frels et al., (2010) is recommended as a first source on exposition of accuracy of verb usage. Frels, R. K., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Slate, J. R. (2010). Editorial: A typology of verbs for

scholarly writing. Research In the Schools, 17(1), xx-xxxi. Of specific interest in this piece are four (4) tables in Appendixes. I have deviated from APA form for the explicit function of emphasizing the narrowed focus on each table.

Table 1. Typology of Verbs Representing Statement for Scholarly Writing

Table 2. Typology of Verbs Representing Cognition for Scholarly Writing

Table 3. Typology of Verbs Representing Knowledge or Action for Scholarly Writing

Table 4. Examples of the Categorical Use of Verbs (Primary and Secondary) for Academic Discourse

Brevity (concision/being concise) refers to economy of expression–use as few words as possible in an essay, section, paragraph, and sentence. At the piece level, state ideas once without filler, flowery, or duplicative language. APA defines a paragraph as a minimum of three (3) sentences and a paragraph rarely exceeds a page. Ideal word count of sentences ranges will from twelve (12) to twenty (20) words. The more words comprising the sentence, the greater demand on reader memory and comprehension and consequently, a greater risk for the reader of loss of clarity or loss of continuity to appreciate meaning, flow, and context. There are three tactics to achieving brevity. (See Section 4.6, p. 115) First, synthesize a sample of literature into a single idea, argument, or explanation. Synthesis means an analytical chronologically (oldest to current) integrated restatement of a representation of research according to common denominators such as purpose or objective, methodological approaches, conclusions of authors, chronology, etcetera into a topic discussing areas of convergence (i.e., agreement) and divergence (i.e., disagreement). Note and examine research methods and designs as well as compare and contrast results of different studies.

Examples

* Societal multiculturalism creates diversity in the classroom. Students from various cultural backgrounds come with different linguistic abilities, learning styles, needs, interests, life experiences, and at diverse stages of developmental (Hintz, 2017; Parsons et al., 2017; Suprayogi et al, 2017). This diversity tasks education with the responsibility to identify and utilize approaches that empower educators to equip all students to lead harmonious, meaningful lives and become productive members of the society (Coubergs et al., 2017). To address the challenges of the modern classroom environment and provide each student with equitable, quality education, teachers must creatively adapt instructions demonstrating understanding of students’ learning needs (Parsons et al., 2017; Suprayogi et al., 2017).

* Analysis of Weber (1947/1964), Burns (1978), Hersey (1984), Bass (1990), Bennis (2000), Barker (2001), Goeppinger (2002), Yukl (2002), and Adler (2006) revealed change as choice to alter some need/want deprivation to some degree of satisfaction is the manifest function of the phenomenon of leadership. Weber defined the leadership

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process as beginning and ending with individual follower perception of collective social action in response to the leader with the leader self-appointing during a state of distress with the intent to satisfy the need state experienced by the relative social state. Burns conceived of leadership “as the tapping of existing and potential motive and power bases . . . for the purposes of achieving intended change” (p. 448). Hersey described leadership as growth and development catalysts through commitment to and involvement in planned change. In similar tone, Bass described leaders as agents of change, wherein interaction “involves a structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the members” (p. 19). Bennis saw change as a constant—a metaphysics—of the modern social context. Barker wrote explicitly that, “if there is no need for change, there is no need for leadership” (p. 491). Yukl identified change as one of the most important and challenging of leadership responsibilities. Adler expressed hope as the new synonym of leadership. Hope, according to Adler, is the human quality of possible attaining or creating a more desirable state of affairs in the future. (Bridgeforth, B. W., 2009, Dissertation, p. 37)

Second, write a rough draft. Then re-write using one-half of the words. Repeat the revision process (re- write again using one-half of the previous words) until clarity (simple and obvious meaning) is achieved or lost; the writing is brief and understandable. The one-half standard is a guide NOT etched in stone. Third, use abbreviations when the abbreviation is conventional (commonly recognized and understood) or considerable space can be saved due to repeated use (more than three (3) times in the document). Spell the words out on the first use, followed by the parenthetical abbreviation. Examples: English Language Arts (ELA), the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Differentiated Instruction (DI), The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). (see Section 6.24 p. 172)

❖ et al. (see Section 8.17 p. 266) use with three or more authors:

In-text: First lastname et al. (XXXX) and Parenthetically: (First Lastname, et al, 2020).

❖ & instead of and (see Section 8.17 p. 266) use with two authors when citing parenthetically; use “and” when citing in-text.

❖ Latin abbreviations (see Section 6.29, p. 176) are permitted shorthand replacement for

indicative words or phrases that add volume but not value to an expressed idea. Each is used parenthetically.

cf., compare

e.g., for example

etc., and so forth

i.e., “That is”, “in other words”, a totality of specifics

viz., namely

vs. versus or against

Ibid. signifies a previously noted item, most commonly in endnotes and footnotes [Not used in APA]. Identified here as aspiring scholars may encounter it in older works.

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Examples:

* Refrain from using descriptive adjectives (e.g., wise, disabled, superior, exceeding) to modify nouns.

* The author can hold the reader's interest while presenting and persuading about the veracity of material and the merits of a position or propositions (i.e., there is an expectation about engagement and readability).

* Kurt Lewin’s ideas about social change comprised four (4) parts of which two were diagnostic (i.e., Force-Field Analysis & Group Dynamics), one was method (i.e., Action Research), and the 3-Step model which communicated process.

Subsequent citation of a source on the same page need not mention the year unless the same author(s) have more than one publication referred to on the same page and lack of clarity as to which source is being referenced may occur. However, subsequent pages include a complete citation the first time. Then defer to the prior mentioned rule for recurring citations on a given page. Clarity (being clear) is achieved through single idea sentences of obvious meaning. At the paper/essay/report/article/dissertation/book/blog/discussion post level, the focus is the thesis (the main idea conveyed in the introduction). The paragraphs connect to the introduction and flow from one to another. At the paragraph level, the focus is exposition and support of the topic sentence—a singular idea or concept. Sentences are sequenced and thus, easy to read and digest. A paragraph starts with a topic sentence and every sentence in that paragraph should connect to that topic sentence. At the sentence level, the focus is a single idea precisely expressed through word choice and order. Make sure the logic flows calmly from one transition to the next. Banging the reader on a metaphorical rock now and then might seem appropriate to get or keep the reader’s attention. Do so sparingly! White water rafting is a popular sport but not with the majority of the population. Most people want to transition obviously anticipating each shift of topic or focus (e.g., change of paragraph) as the document is read. The use of headings and subheadings aide the reader in navigating the piece.

❖ Use of Italics (Section 6.22 p. 170) Italics is used to draw attention to or emphasize a term or phrase the first time used. Emphasis is acceptable if the material is likely to be misread or emphasis might otherwise be lost.

VII. Write and cite with stylistic variation Authorship is a contract with the reader to hold the reader’s interest while presenting and persuading about the veracity of material and the merits of position or propositions (i.e., there is an expectation about engagement and readability). In plain language, if the writing fails to stimulate interest or is difficult to assimilate, the reader will decline to read further. To ensure engagement and enhance readability, consider both consistency and variation of the elements of stylistic variation—voice, verb tense, and citation placement.

❖ Consider beginning a written piece with an epigraph –an opening quote that sets the stage for the piece or present as summary or counterpoint (see Section 8.35, p. 277). * An epigraph is presented before the first line of text indented 0.5 inch from the left margin

like a block quotation without quotation marks.

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* A reference list entry is required when the epigraph is from an academic source or is cited elsewhere in the piece.

* Citation format varies. For academic sources, follow block quote rules. For non-academic sources and not included on the reference list, provide a credit line—an em dash, author’s full name, title of the work; align right.

❖ Voice (see Section 4.13, p. 118): voice is the descriptive label for the relationship between a verb, the subject, and the associated object. While both active and passive voices are permitted under edition 7 of APA citation style, active voice is preferred and should predominate in written expression; use passive voice sparingly.

• Active is direct, clear, and concise sentencing in which the subject is presented first, followed by the verb, and then the object of the verb (subject . . . verb . . . object of the verb).

• Passive is acceptable when focusing on the subject or recipient of the action rather than the actor. Passive voice is expressed by presenting the object of the verb first followed by the verb, and then the subject (object of the verb. . . verb . . . subject).

❖ Verb Tense (see Section 4.12, p. 117): consistency within and in adjacent paragraphs is critical to avoid confusing readers. • Expression of an action or condition that occurred at a specific, definite time is written in

past tense.

Example

* this researcher examined . . .

• Expression of an action or condition that lacks a specific, definite time of occurrence or that began in the past and continues into the present is written in present perfect tense

Examples * Francis (2021) has observed . . .

* the results have indicated . . .

• Intended but incomplete actions are expressed with future tense

Examples * Future research will focus. . .

* Semi-structured interviews will be . . .

❖ Citation Placement: In writing, there are three common placements to acknowledge a citation—beginning of the sentence, in the sentence relative to a specific fact or idea, and at the end of the sentence. All three placements can be a direct citation. Placement at the beginning of sentence (long paraphrasing p. 269) is the only placement that can be associative, meaning apply to more than one sentence in a sequence depending on the flow of presentation of the written material that follows. Placement in the sentence is limited to a specific phrase sequence of the sentence. It can be limited to the phrase that follows if a second source cites an independent but related idea. Placement at the end of the sentence directly associates the citation to the sentence.

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With all three placements, one may cite more than one source when (note the following are also examples of economy of expression and synthesis),

• Associative citation: Connecting one source to multiple statements (see Section 8.4. p. 270). * Chisholm-Burns et al. (2017) identified contrasts between credential achievement and

professional achievement, women relative to men. Based on the topic and according to data, women are obtaining higher educational degrees more than men each year; yet women are 30 % less likely to be promoted to executive positions compared to men despite their degree. Likewise, a greater percentage of men achieve their first executive position at a higher rank such as a vice president while women often perform work that hinders progression to elevated executive positions and have less chances of getting into executive ranks (Elay & Bridgeforth, 2021).

• Recognizing multiple sources as expressing the same or similar idea

* The second metatheory posits that the phenomenon of leadership is subjective reality and serves as a latent function of social action (Barker, 1997, 2002, 2006; Gemmill & Oakley, 1992; Goeppinger, 2002; Meindl, et al., 1985).

* Further, Bass (1985) and House and Aditya (1997) sampled the dichotomous study of leadership during the last half-century and listed autocratic versus democratic approaches, directive versus participative decision-making, tasks versus relationships, and initiation versus consideration.

• Connecting, integrating, listing ideas in a single thought

* In contrast, the leadership of recent times is lamented for its absence (Bennis & Nannus, 1985), and when observed, it is described as a crisis of mediocrity or irresponsibility of those in power (Dalton, 2004; Weathersby, 1998).

* Authors contributing and advancing the second metatheory have described the phenomenon of leadership as a false ideal arising from a mistaken attribution of cause and effect (Meindl, et al., 1985), a myth serving a latent social function (Gemmill & Oakley, 1992; Goeppinger, 2002), a myth (Wood, 2005), or an artifact of individual relations and group social action (Barker, 2006).

• Establishing multiple sources as evidence or support or proposition

* To examine and define the construct of archetype this research, in addition to Jung (1956, 1959), drew on Husserl (1931), Hogenson (2001), Cherry and Speigel (2006), Rapaille (2006), and Kets de Vries (2007).

* Synthesis of Gerth and Mills (1946), Jung (1956), Campbell (1959), Meindl et al. (1985), and Wahlstrom (1997) offers the suggested commonality of a hero need.

• To highlight the most relevant work(s) in a sentence

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* Inheritance is identified as a genetically passed unspoken, universal psychical need or

archetype amongst the human-animal (Jung, 1956, 1959; see also Campbell, 1959; Schutz, 1967, 1970; Weber, 1968).

The most common weakness that depreciates scholarly presentation is a poor citation style. Citation style is the manner one uses to comply with the citation method requirements. Alternating this pattern is a fraction of the citations being at the beginning of a sentence. A pattern of citing source(s) consistently at the end of sentences or a single source identified in three or more times in sequence in a paragraph is considered rudimentary. Doing so satisfies the requirement of citing the source. However, the writing is mundane and leaves the identity of theorists, and thinkers at risk of not being read. It also bloats the writing with information that does not add value. A mundane writing style, such as adapting only one citation pattern, will stimulate loss of interest. To be reader friendly, learn to write using all three placements. Doing so offers the reader’s attention, sustaining variation. The variation will enhance readability and memory retention of topics, names, and associations. Additionally, placement at the beginning of sentences may eliminate the duplicate citation of the same source two or more sentences in sequence. Placement of citation in the sentence, can convey emphasis to the material and or the source. VIII. Proofread! A written piece is a representation of the author as a person. A reader forms an impression of the author’s intelligence, capability, diligence, and integrity from the content of the written piece. Errors distract the reader’s attention and focus from the substance of the work. One could write a cogent argument of logically sound propositions supported by cited sources and offer intelligent recommendations. However, the author’s time is wasted if a document is not proofread. An error- riddled document may be read but it will not be seriously considered. The greater the number of apparent errors, the lesser impression the reader will have of the author. Poor writing is not authoritative writing. Proofreading will bring awareness to writing errors and weaknesses. Proofreading will aid in being cognizant of weaknesses or common errors through repeated exposure. Confirmation or revision will help learn the guidelines, the rules of the English language, and the parameters of the publication manual. Frequent and consistent practice will reduce the number of rough draft errors as skill proficiency is honed. Writing, proofreading, and editing are triune contributors to transitioning from conscious incompetence to unconscious competence with writing. Reading the work with a critical eye will also contribute to the growth and demonstration of knowledge through identification, reinforcement, and cognitive stimulation. The writer and writing will benefit from efforts to poke holes in the work and correct the errors and deficiencies before presenting it for public consumption be it an academic assignment, publication, or research. Proofreading will expose over- reliance on citing a single or few sources or recurring prepositional phrasing in a given paragraph, page, or document. As well as the converse—a paucity of sources to support statements or logic, placement, and recurring prepositional phrases. Where there is over-reliance, supplement with additional sources. When it is repetitive citation of the same source in a single paragraph, revise placement and revise to associate citation. When faced with an absence or dearth of sources, locate additional references and

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incorporate them. Cognitive stimulation will be sourced from variation of citation placement. Variation shifts emphasis or focus, reminding the reader of names and details throughout without repeating information.

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Front Matter, Format, and Style

The American Psychological Association (APA) allows for an institution or publisher to customize the guidelines to reflect its stylistic preferences. Be aware of institutional and publisher variations and comply accordingly. Access a resource such as an Online Writing Support service of the institution in which one is enrolled, a site referred to by a publisher to comply, or Purdue’s Online Writing Lab (https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_style_introduction.html), or. The following items are standard and generally are not revised by institutions or publishers. The following material pertaining to manual contents reflects the 7th edition.

• Title: See section 2.4 Title, p. 31

• Abstract: See section 2.9 Abstract, p. 38

• Format & Style: Chapter 4 Writing Clearly and Concisely; beginning p. 111 Chapter 6 The Mechanics of Style; beginning p. 153 Paraphrasing: See sections 8.23 & 8.24, pp. 269-270 Block quotes (principles of): See sections: 8.25-8.36, pp. 270-278

• Lists Lettered (lower case within parentheses): separate but parallel items, phrases. See section 6.50 p. 189 Numbered (Arabic numeral followed by period): complete sentences or paragraphs. See section 6.51, p. 189. Bulleted (a series without connotation of ordinality): See section 6.52, p. 190.

• Tables & Figures: See Chapter 7; p. 195

• Citing & Reference Lists: Chapter 8 Crediting works in text, p. 253 Chapter 9 Reference list, p. 281 Chapter 10 Reference Examples, p. 313 Chapter 11 Legal References, p. 355

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Appendix A: Working with MS WORD as Editor

Learners are recommended and strongly urged to use the editorial function built into MS WORD. Follow the instructions to and Figures herein to set Grammar and Refinements to strict rules of the English language and formal writing. Having done so, WORD will flag things to be corrected. Moreover, use will help learning to write more clearly and concisely. File > Options > Proofing [When correcting spelling and grammar in WORD] > Set to match displayed. The default is Grammar. Use the dropdown menu to select “Grammar & Refinements”.

Figure 2. Writing Style Settings

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Click on the Settings next to Grammar & Refinements (Figure 3. Writing Style Settings). Clicking on Settings will open the following dialogue box. There are multiple categories (Grammar, Clarity & Conciseness, Formal Language, Inclusive Language, Punctuation Conventions, and Vocabulary Choice) of settings under the Options box. The bottom of the box is displayed here because there are two settings that have multiple options and must be manually selected.

Select every item in the settings (checkmark every box). Set Punctuation Required With [sic] Quotes to “outside” (as displayed) Set Space Between Sentences to “one space” (as displayed) [APA 7 requires one space.] Click on “OK” on both dialogue boxes to save your settings and exit. First, ensure your settings match institutional requirements (e.g., space between sentences.) Second, while drafting pay attention to red underlining and blue double underlining. This is an indication of a deviance from the settings. Review and correct.

Figure 3. Grammar Settings

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I. WORD-Identifying Authors by Track Changes Writing a dissertation proposal/manuscript is a communication dependent iterative exercise. It behooves the candidate to facilitate conversation between all parties involved regardless of that communication is one on one (single draft shared between candidate and respective individuals each) document exchange or multiple to one (one common draft shared between candidate and commented in by all). It is best for the candidate, committee members, and any reviewers to be able to identify one’s comments as distinct from others as well as know who offered an observation, comment, or instruction. Tracking changes reduces confusion and increases accountability.

1. Click on File at the top left of the WORD document window.

2. Choose Trust Center at the bottom of the list on the left-hand side of the dialogue box.

3. Click on “Trust Center Settings”.

4. Select “Privacy Options” at the bottom of the list on the left.

Figure 4.

WORD Options -- Trust Center

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5. If present, remove the check mark from in front of “Remove personal information from the properties on save”.

6. Click on OK in the bottom right corner of the dialog box.

Figure 5.

Privacy Options Settings

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II. Labelling (Captioning) Tables & Figures

To insert a label and caption for a figure, right-click on the Table/Figure and select “Insert Caption…”

Select the appropriate label “Table” or “Figure” and the position is “Above selected item”. The caption will be auto numbered in the “Caption” box. Note the caption box print is in bold. After “Figure.” or “Table.” one may take off bold and begin italic before entering the title. Click on “OK.”

After the Table or Figure is titled in the document, highlight the text and change to double line spacing, by entering a soft return (Shift + Enter) before the title of the Table or Figure. If the version of WORD used does not allow editing in the Caption box, edit the text by bold the Table or Figure label, number, and period. Then italicize the title as shown in the example on the next page.

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Example: Figure 6.

Expression and structure of the human

Figure 6 illustrates expression as triune composition reflected from the interplay of the mind as one of two forms of thought.

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III. Inserting a Callout to a Figure or Table in the Body Text

When referring to a figure or table in the narrative, click on the “References” tab and then “Cross- reference.” Select the “Reference type” (e.g., “Figure” or “Table”), select “Insert reference to:”, and check “Include above/below” to have the cross reference appear. Then select the “For which numbered item:” referenced, click “OK.”

This technique may also be used for referring to specific paragraphs, sections, or appendices within your document by using the “Heading” reference type and selecting the appropriate section or appendix heading.

An example is below.

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IV. Updating the TOC, Lists of Tables/Figures, & Callouts

If figures or tables are rearranged, added, or deleted, WORD will not automatically update all of the callouts. To update the callouts in the entire document, use the following keystrokes:

1. +

2.

This action will also update the tables of contents and bibliography. If prompted, select “Update entire table” and click OK.

Ctrl A

F9

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Appendix B: Grammarly As Editing Tool

Online editor, Grammarly, is an effective tool for enhancing personal writing if used correctly. Recognizing that Grammarly is a TOOL, not an expert, will help you identify common errors and ways to correct them. The online extension is similar to MS WORD Editor. It reveals possible errors and offers possible changes. You do not have to select setting options to set it up, just download and add to MS WORD. Using both types of editing tools heighten the possibility of catching and correcting the majority of the errors. However, the use of both editors requires the writer to verify the options offered by the tools. Using Grammarly does not mean all the issues will be resolved. It implies the writer will intelligently address and ensure correct grammar, spelling, and clarity of the writing. Example 1: Grammarly suggests substituting preposition “for” in the “prepares children for a transition

from a family unit to the public entity” (see Figure 4). Simple rereading of the sentence prompts to see no mistake. Therefore, the suggestion will go to the trashcan.

Example 2: Grammarly suggests fixing subject-verb agreement (see Figure 5). “Responding to past and

present changes” requires the use of a singular verb because “responding” is singular, so “has” is the correct verb form. Subject and verb agree. Note: Grammarly seem to consider “changes” the subject in the sentence.

Figure 4. Correcting Preposition

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Example 3: Grammarly presents an option to correct another error in subject-verb agreement in the

sentence, “Thus, the dynamics of leadership-followership plays a significant role in school success” (see Figure 6)

1. Again, Grammarly seems to mistake “leadership-followership” as a subject, but it is the

object of the preposition “of,” so it cannot be a subject of the sentence. 2. “The dynamics” is the subject, and because it ends with an -s, like “physics” or

“mathematics,” which are singular, it should be a singular noun and require the singular verb “plays.”

3. Using an online dictionary helps verify the form and construction of the word “dynamics.”

The dictionary specifies that the word is plural in form and can be singular or plural (see Figure 7).

4. The definition that applies to the word in the sentence is “process of change and growth” determines its singularity within the given sentence.

5. Consequently, the suggestion is rejected.

Figure 5. Correcting Subject-Verb Agreement

Figure 6. Correcting Subject-Verb Agreement

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Example 4: In the sentence that starts with “Ethics comprises of generally recognized standards,”

preposition “of” is flagged (see Figure 8).

1. Check the dictionary (see Figure 9). Read the sentences (within the red boxes) with the word and note that it is not followed by a preposition.

Figure 8. Correcting Preposition

Figure 7. Dictionary Entry

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2. Accept the changes.

Figure 9. Dictionary Entry

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Appendix C: Bloom's Taxonomy

Introduction Reinforcement Assessment

KNOWLEDGE COMPREHENSION ANALYSIS EVALUATION SYNTHESIS APPLICATION

Definition Student recalls or recognizes information, ideas, and principles in the approximate form in which they were learned.

Student translates, comprehends, or interprets information based on prior learning.

Student distinguishes, classifies, and relates the assumptions, hypotheses, evidence, or structure of a statement or question.

Student appraises, assesses, or critiques on a basis of specific standards and criteria.

Student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into a product, plan or proposal that is new to him or her.

Student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete a problem or task with a mini- mum of direction.

Sample Verbs Write List Label Name State Define Compile

Explain Summarize Paraphrase Describe Illustrate Discuss Model

Analyze Categorize Compare Contrast Separate Investigate Examine

Judge Recommend Critique Justify Appraise Measure Corroborate

Create Design Hypothesize Invent Develop Formulate Theorize

Use Compute Solve Demonstrate Apply Construct Conduct

Sample Questions

Who, what, when, where, how…? Describe

Interpret Translate Describe in your own words Retell (organization and selection of facts)

What are the parts or features of? Classify . . . according to . . . Outline/diagram Evidence?

Do you agree? What do you think? What is the most important? Prioritize . . . How would you decide? Assessment criteria?

What would you predict/infer from . . . ? What ideas can you add? How would you design/create a new . . . ? What might happen if you combined?

How is…an example of . . . ? How is …related to . . .? Why is . . . significant?

Sample Behaviors

The student will define the 6 levels of Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain.

The student will explain the purpose of Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain.

The student will compare and contrast the cognitive and affective domains.

The student will judge, in writing, the effective- ness of writing objectives using Bloom's taxonomy.

The student will design a classification scheme for writing educational objectives that combines the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.

The student will write an instructional objective for each level of Bloom's taxonomy.

Adopted from: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/bloom.html http://officereport.com/edu/bloomq.html

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Appendix D: Embedded Writing Rubric

Area Does Not Meet Expectations Meets Expectations Exceeds Expectations 0-79 % 80-95 % 96-100 %

Introduction {10%}

Intro is too short—missing one or more critical elements to an introduction—context, thesis (purpose) statement, the structure (content and order) or flow of the essay.

Thesis (purpose) of the piece is not stated or is unclear or is written verbosely (too many words or phrases).

Adequately introduces topic offering critical elements to an introduction—context, thesis (purpose) statement, the structure (content and order) or flow of the essay.

Thesis statement may be lacking specificity or is written verbosely (non-value words or phrases that distract rather than clarify).

Opens with a synoptic quote. Deliberate, creates interest offering

context, thesis/ purpose statement, the structure (content and order) or flow of the essay.

Clear, concise, and specific thesis (purpose) is stated clearly and concisely.

Citation supported.

Body {60%} Did not follow assignment instructions. Deliverable challenges the reader to associate the deliverable with the unit objectives and materials.

Key concepts, terms, and or ideas are not defined/explained citing an authoritative source or are defined inadequately, inappropriately, or according to the student. Vocabulary of the unit/discipline is used incorrectly or with some question.

Assumptions of self and others' and or relevant contexts of a position are not identified.

Description of the topic/issue/problem is verbose and unclear some terms undefined, ambiguities unexplored, boundaries undetermined, and/or backgrounds unknown; OR is stated without clarification or detailed description; or could use more exposition and support.

Shows little original thought with heavy reliance on the statements or quotes of sources; the paper is more a restatement of what others have stated without any interpretation/evaluation.

Conclusion is logically tied to information (because information is chosen to fit the desired conclusion). Outcomes (consequences and implications) are not or poorly identified.

Followed assignment instructions. Deliverable reflects an exploration of the unit objectives and materials.

Key concepts, terms, and or ideas are adequately defined and explained citing an authoritative source. Vocabulary of the unit/discipline is used accurately. Attempts higher level vocabulary with some success.

Identifies own and others' assumptions and several relevant contexts when presenting a position. Some assumptions are recognized and questioned. May identify others' assumptions than one's own (or vice versa).

Accurately and specifically describes, examines, explains, or expounds, and supports interpretation, analysis, or position relying on the required number of sources.

Shows some original thought with moderate reliance on quotes throughout; some quotes could be paraphrased or are unnecessary or inappropriate. Information is taken from source(s) with enough interpretation/evaluation to develop a coherent analysis or synthesis. Viewpoints of experts are taken as mostly fact, with little questioning.

Conclusions are logically tied to a range of information, including opposing viewpoints; related outcomes (consequences and

Interpreted assignment instructions. Deliverable reflects an application of the unit objectives and material.

Key concepts, terms, and or ideas are proficiently and succinctly defined and explained citing an authoritative source. Vocabulary of the unit/discipline is used accurately and appropriately. Uses excellent vocabulary well.

Thoroughly (systematically and methodically), and objectively recognizes and analyzes own and others' assumptions; and carefully evaluates the relevance of contexts when presenting a position. Multiple expert viewpoints (contrasting and supporting) are included and examined. Contradictions are resolved by evidence and logic.

Comprehensively and objectively interprets/evaluates and synthesizes multiple sources to describe, examine, explain, or expound, and support interpretation, analysis or position.

Shows original thought throughout; minimal reliance on quotes throughout; paraphrasing and citation expound, support, or explain rather than comprise the narrative

Conclusions and related outcomes (consequences and implications) are logical and reflect student’s informed evaluation and ability to

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Author failed to include supporting citations; or included references that are questionable or require explanation in terms of relevance to the topic

implications) are identified clearly.

Author included the expected number of supporting citations.

place evidence and perspectives discussed in priority order.

Author included a range of appropriate cross discipline/interdisciplinary sources.

Conclusion {10%}

Weak closing; Introduces new material; repeats introduction or lacks comprehensive re- statement of key points of the report.

Adequate closing; does not introduce new material; Re-states thesis and most other key points of the report.

Deliberate closing strategy; paraphrases thesis, comprehensively reiterates key terms, concepts, issues in a reflective way; and offers forward looking insight.

Format & Style {20%}

*Refer to Essentials of Scholarly Writing document for further detail and exposition.

Title page, Abstract, or TOC present in a paper < 5 pgs.

Paper is NOT organized (Headings, subheadings, and transitions are either absent or inconsistent), is difficult to follow; or is inconsistent in style.

Poor grammar, punctuation/spelling—eight or more errors.

Some tense/point of view errors Some sentence fragments/run-

ons/not varied Mix of formal and informal writing Failed to use/comply with APA

guidelines—eight or more citation rules violations evident.

Has less than the minimum required scholarly sources required as stated in the instruction set.

Title page and Abstract present in papers >= 5 and < 10 pgs).

Paper is organized and follows logical outline (use of headings, subheadings and transitions).

Paper has natural flow most of the time with some inconsistencies in style. Some transitions that could benefit from further development, a more focused conclusion, and/or improved sequencing.

Four (4) to seven (7) errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Mostly correct tense/point of view Attempts formal writing. Sentences

correct; may be lacking in variety Uses/complied with APA guidelines

attempted. Understanding of basic citation rules evident. Four (4) to seven (7) citation rules violations evident.

Has the stated required number of scholarly sources as stated in the instruction set.

Title page, Abstract, and Table of Contents present (papers > 10 pgs).

Paper is organized (headings, subheadings and transitions) with a consistency in style characterized as a natural flow and well-constructed sentences that enhance the presentation of the material with thoughtful transitions, logical sequencing, appropriate elaboration, and a satisfying conclusion.

Fewer than four (4) errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Correct tense/point of view Refrains from use of adjectives and

adverbs that imply bias, prejudice, hyperbole.

Used/complied with APA guidelines exemplary. Fewer than four (4) citation rules violations evident.

Exceeds the stated required number of scholarly as stated in the instruction set.

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Index

A

Abstract ............................................................. 27, 43 Accuracy .............................................................. 7, 12

Anthropomorphism ............................................ 15 Avoiding Plagiarism ............................................. 14 Bias Free Language ............................................. 16 Contract Cheating ............................................... 15 Error Correction .................................................. 17 Integrity............................................................... 14 Language (word usage) ....................................... 12 Number agreement ............................................ 18 Paraphrasing ....................................................... 14 Plagiarism ............................................................ 14 Reasoning (Logic / Fallacy) .................................. 14 Self-plagiarism .................................................... 15 Subject and verb agreement ............................... 18 Synonymous-Dissimilarity ................................... 12

Adjectives ................................................................ 17 audience .................................................................. 11 Audience ............................................................ 11, 25

B

Brevity ................................................................ 12, 20

C

Callout .................................................................. 2, 34 Clarity ........................................................... 12, 22, 29

E

Editor ................................................................. 28, 36 Example 2, 3, 12, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 27, 33, 36, 37, 38

F

Format ............................................................... 27, 43 Format & Style ................................................... 27, 43 Front Matter ............................................................ 27

G

Grammarly ..................................................... 2, 36, 37

I

Instructions .................................................... 2, 28, 42 Instructions ................................................................ 2

L

Latin Abbreviations .................................................. 21 Lists ...................................................................... 2, 27

M

Mind map .................................................................. 3

P

Paraphrasing ............................................................ 27 Proofread ................................................................. 25 Proofreading ............................................................ 25

Q

Quotes Block.................................................................... 27

R

Recipe ...................................................................... 11 Recipe ........................................................................ 2

S

Scope ......................................................................... 2 Search ............................................................ 4, 6, 7, 8

What to search for ................................................ 4 Why ....................................................................... 4

Sources .............................................................. 23, 25 Edited works ......................................................... 4 Grey literature ...................................................... 4 Monographs ...................................................... 4, 6 Seminal ................................................................. 4

Style ..................................................................... 1, 27 Citation...................................................... 1, 25, 27 Scholarship .............................................. 11, 25, 43

T

Tables & Figures ................................................ 27, 32 Title .................................................................... 27, 43 Track changes .......................................................... 30 Track Changes ............................................................ 2

U

Updating .................................................................... 2

V

Variation Citation placement.............................................. 23 Style .................................................................... 22 Verb Tense .......................................................... 23

Voice ........................................................................ 23

W

Writing ..................................... 1, 2, 25, 27, 30, 42, 43