Research Paper on Cyberbullying and suicide among adolescents

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The dangers of cyberbullying Christopher B. Davison and Carl H. Stein North American Journal of Psychology. 16.3 (Dec. 2014): p595. Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2014 North American Journal of Psychology http://najp.8m.com/ Abstract:

With so many social media avenues available for the masses, the Internet is becoming a dangerous, threatening, yet enticing place for all. It is important to look at the growing number of negative social media aspects of which children can be subjected to on a daily basis. This paper will discuss the research literature on cyberbullying, including causality and predictive factors, consequences of cyberbullying from economic, health, and social perspectives. Additionally, the authors will make suggestions to identify and protect against cyberbullying. The literature provides an eye opening realization that, if left on the current path social media are on, the dangers will continue to increase. Educators, parents and children need to be aware of the damage that can occur and understand that cyberbullying can be just as harmful as physical bullying. In order to better understand the cyberbullying phenomena, it is essential for everyone to become awareness of the issue relating to cyberbullying. This is especially true as the social media frenzy continues to increase.

Full Text:

With an ever-growing number of people using social media it is important to protect the children from bullies. As much as they can be made aware of physical bullies, they must be aware of cyberbullies. The Internet has provided a new medium with which people can commit inappropriate, harmful activity. The damaging activities include, but are not limited to, cyber- hacking, cyber-stalking, and other forms of harmful behavior including bullying (Kowalski, Limber, & Agatston, 2012). The literature discusses cyberbullying instances that include all age groups of children from early childhood to adolescence. This paper will review the international cyberbullying literature for those varying age groups among minors.

Cyberbullying is reported as an aggressive, intentional act distributed by an individual or group, using contact in an electronic medium, continuously and relentlessly against someone who cannot stand up for himself or herself easily (Smith et al., 2008). Menesini & Nocentini (2009) found cyberbullying is an imbalance of perceived power wherein victims have a hard time defending themselves from bullies.

Cyberbullying research is still growing worldwide, focusing on the commonness of the occurrence, the relation between customary and electronic bullying, and on potential associations or risk matters related to cyberbullying (Menesini & Nocentini, 2009). Lenhart (2010) found that 68% of students use the Internet while at school (2010). Additionally, adolescents spend 17 hours per week on the Internet on average, with some spending as much as 40 hours or more (Center for Digital Future at the USC Annenberg School, 2010). With this ever increasing use of the Internet, cyberbullying is likely to be a growing problem.

Due to the nature of cyberbullying, it can occur in many unique forms. Whether the origin is Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, or any other form of online communications, cyberbullying has begun to include the distribution of explicit videos and occurs via a range of websites, including online gaming sites (Rideout, Roberts, & Foehr, 2005). According to Katzer, Fetchenhauer, & Belschak (2009), nearly 75% of school-age minors experienced cyberbullying aggression at least once in the last year. Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do and Chang (2011) studied Hawaiian natives. They sampled 677 high school students and examined the relationship between cyberbullying and mental health. They reported that more than half (56.1%) of the students had been a victim of cyberbullying within the last year (Goebert et. al., 2011). Their research found that cyberbully victims were 2.5 times more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol, had a higher instance of depression and were more than 3 times more likely to attempt suicide.

Cyberbullying research and understanding is critical for many reasons. To begin with, adolescence is one of the most critical stages in the development of emotional and cognitive schemes and will shape and evolve the "adult personality" (Ortega et al., 2012). Secondly, cyberbullying is a difficulty faced by more than half of all high school students (Goebert et. al., 2011) that can result in mental health consequences, including abusing drugs and alcohol as well as suicidal tendencies (Baker & Helm, 2010). Baker and Helm (2010) also found that being bullied was widely accepted among youth, showing that most students expect to be harassed in one form or another. The implication of these research studies is that society is beginning to not only accept, but expect, electronic communication behaviors that are emotionally and physically damaging.

CYBERBULLYING COMPARED TO PHYSICAL BULLYING

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Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, and Lattanner (2014) found that while face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying share many similarities, there are differences. They found that cyberbullies feel anonymous, which gives them more of an incentive to be aggressive as they feel there will be no consequences. Additionally, the physical stature of a victim or the bully is not taken into account because the threat of physical harm is not present. In face-to-face bullying the bully can see the impact as the attack happens whereas the cyberbully cannot see any of the outcomes, perhaps resulting in further aggression. Vannucci, Nocentini, Mazzoni, and Menesini (2012) further add that the reward for cyberbullying often has a temporal delay as the impact could take minutes or days to reverberate and reach its target.

Another notable manner in which the two types of bullying differ is the accessibility of victims. The opportunity to bully someone in a cyber-manner can happen at any time, to anyone, and it increases the possibility for a greater audience. Cyberbullying can have a large, even worldwide target, or a small scale audience. In traditional bullying, only those within proximity are privy to the bullying.

Although traditional bullying and cyberbullying share similarities, the research literature examines notable differences in perception, affect, controllability, and permanence. Ortega et al. (2012) reinforce this with a study showing that emotional responses differ between face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying. People who were cyberbullied felt less anger than those who experienced traditional face-to-face bullying. This could be due to perception with regard to the different bullying modalities. Traditional face-to-face bullying can be perceived as more of a physical attack on an actual person, whereas cyberbullying can just be viewed as slanderous. The lack of emotion is caused by the lack of face-to-face interaction as well as the lack of verbal and nonverbal cues. The uncontrollability is caused by the lack of any person viewing the bullying and being able to stop the activities. The permanence is synonymous with the digital age: almost everything online is available to everyone, everywhere. Once information (slanderous, libelous, bullying, or otherwise) goes on the Internet it is next to impossible to erase all evidence of it (Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2005).

CHARACTERISTICS AND FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CYBERBULLYING

The variables associated with cyberbullying are as diverse as could be imagined. As cyberbullying takes place online, there is an indirect (i.e., non-physical) nature to its manifestation. When a minor becomes a cyberbully it is often a result of the lack of parental communication and/or understanding of the phenomena, including the enabling technology.

Unique traits of online communications, including the ease to repeat and replicate, lack of emotion, the lack of control from the victim, the permanent nature of the Internet, the ease of access to the Internet, all make for a greater likelihood of inappropriate online behavior to occur (Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2005). The ease of repeatability allows for the hurtful actions to continue with a simple keystroke, sometimes returning to victimize the aggressor.

Bullies and victims share a double-edged sword regarding the interaction between them. Harassment via cyberbullying leads to revenge bullying as a coping method as well as a protective strategy. Ironically, cyberbullies place themselves at a greater risk of being bullied in return and a vicious cycle is induced (Arslan, Savaser, Hallett, & Balci, 2012). One study showed that being a cyberbully contributes to a twenty-fold increase of also being a victim (Arslan, Savaser, Hallett, & Balci, 2012). Additionally, bullies are likely to believe that bullying is normal and to morally disengage with regard to the conduct (Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Arslan et al. (2012) found that the strongest predictor of being bullied online was being bullied face-to-face. A child that is bullied in the physical world is likely to engage in this behavior to the virtual world. Indeed, Kowalski, et al. (2014) found that cyberbullying victims have a greater risk of becoming bullies themselves.

The indirect nature of cyberbullying makes it difficult to evaluate the deliberate or responsive nature of the occurrence (Menesini & Nocentini, 2009). Additionally, harassment can be easily spread across a wider medium because of the nature of the Internet. Kowalski and Limber (2007) discovered that instant messaging (66.6%) is used most frequently for cyberbullying. With the ever increasing number of social media sites, these sites will likely become the new forum for cyberbullying and targeting in the near future.

Juvonen and Gross (2008) found that only one in three teens that were victims of cyberbullying mentioned the harassment to their parents or guardians. This low reporting could be because the children are afraid they will face reduced Internet and cellphone privileges or other punishments. Parents need to inquire more about the actions and feelings their children are displaying, or often times, not displaying directly. Instead, they seem more interested in what is defined as the 4Ps: Privacy, Predators, Pornography and Pop-Ups. Therefore, they are not privy to the day-to day harassment their child may be giving or receiving (WiredKids, nd).

Arslan, Savaser, Hallett, and Balci (2012) found that boys were much more prone to carrying out an act of cyberbullying

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than girls. Boys have a greater tendency towards aggressive behavior even in a potentially anonymous online environment. This difference is exacerbated by the fact that aggressive behavior may be more tolerated in boys (Erdur- Baker, 2010). This gender difference is supported by the research of Wang, Lannotti, and Nansel (2009). Looking specifically at the United States, they found that boys bully more than girls. Relatedly, the research of cyberbully victim status by gender appears unresolved. Research by Arslan et al. (2012) found boys more likely than girls to be victims of cyberbullying, conversely, Li (2007) found more girls to report being a victim than boys. Mishna, Cook, Gadalla, Daciuk, and Solomon (2010) report mixed results as well with regard to victimization status and type of cyberbullying experienced.

Paternal unemployment is associated with a two-fold increase in the likelihood of being a cyberbully or a victim (Arslan et al., 2012). In their research, a notable predictive factor was whether the child's father was employed. They discovered that children with unemployed fathers were at more than two times greater risk of becoming a cyberbully. Additionally, children with unemployed fathers were almost two times more like to suffer cyber victimization as opposed to those whose father was employed. This shows support that home-related stressors and the parent-child bond played a significant role in cyberbullying. (Arslan et al., 2012).

Another study supporting socio-economic association with cyberbullying was performed by Jankauskiene, Kardelis, Sukys, and Kardeliene (2008). Compared to the high socio-economic status (SES) families, children from the low SES families were almost three times more likely to be bullied. Children from the high SES families were slightly more inclined to engage in bullying behavior that their low SES counterparts.

The literature demonstrates that cyberbullying varies between gender and socio-economic circumstances. Additionally, ethnic backgrounds differ in frequency of cyberbullying instances and can be a factor in bullying instances (Mischna, Cook, Gadalla, Daciuk, & Solomon, 2010). Research has found that "cyberbullying is widespread with serious potential consequences among Asian and Pacific Islander youth" (Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do, & Chang, 2011, p. 1282). In the Gobert et al (2011) multiethnic study, Caucasians reported the highest instance of being cyberbullied and Asian and Pacific Islander youths demonstrated the most likelihood of serious mental health problems.

CONSEQUENCES OF CYBERBULLYING TO WELL-BEING

The effects of cyberbullying lead to both negative long term and short term consequences. Cyberbullying exposure (as both a bully and a victim) was significantly associated with low levels of self-reported school satisfaction and achievement (Arslan et al., 2012; Bernan & Li, 2007). Children who are already not doing well academically may begin to target their peers as a coping mechanism. Victims of cyberbullying could disengage academically as well.

Research by Ortega, Elipe, Mora-Merchan, Genta, Brighi, Guarini, and Tippett (2012) measured the emotional response of European adolescent cyberbullying victims. With their instrument, victims of cyberbullying reported emotions from the following: Not bothered, Embarrassed, Angry, Upset, Stressed, Worried, Afraid, Alone, Defenseless, Depressed, and Other. Among the responses on the two types of cyberbullying (mobile phone and Internet), they found that most respondents reported being not bothered (approximately one third of respondents), angry or upset. Blaya (2010) found that cyberbullying victimization is associated with depression, anxiety and low levels of self-esteem. The victims were associated with higher levels of stress and thoughts of suicide while those who were cyberbullies showed a positive correlation with drug and alcohol abuse, were more likely to suffer from anxiety and depression, have lower life satisfaction, lower self-esteem, and lower academic achievement and higher levels of loneliness, as compared to non-cyberbullies (Kowalski et. al., 2014).

Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, and Lattanner (2014) demonstrated well-being factors (e.g., anger, lack of empathy, traditional bullying or victimization, inappropriate online behavior, and increased Internet use) that may constitute cyberbullying (or victimization) warning signs among youths. They also report factors (e.g., safe school zones, moral support from friends and family) that reduce the likelihood of harassment or harassing. Additionally, they found that students in seventh through tenth grade had a higher chance of being bullied or becoming a bully. This information is helpful as it shows this age bracket requires particular focus and should be made keenly aware of the impacts and risks of cyberbullying behavior. Furthermore, due to the ambiguous differentiation between bullying and cyberbullying, it is difficult to ascribe causality of negative effects that emerge from either or both.

In one study of cyberbullied minor students, the victims were three times more likely to undertake future binge drinking, two times more likely to use marijuana and two times more likely to attempt suicide (Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do, & Chang, 2011). These students may feel lost or hopeless without the support of their parents and may use the drugs and alcohol as a method of coping with the harassment. Bullies tend to believe that bullying is normal and to participate in other moral disengagement behavior such as believing the victim deserved to be bullied (Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, &

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Lattanner, 2014). Overall quality of life and well-being could be contributing factors, as an unhappy school career or home life could lead to aggressive behavior.

ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF CYBERBULLYING

Cyberbullying has costs associated with it. These costs can be measured in terms of direct as well as indirect financial impacts such as lost productivity. Time spent mitigating cyberbullying from a teacher's schedule is less time focusing on learning. School administrators have an increasing responsibility to create anti-bullying campaigns and dealing with cyberbullying issues; again, a costly diversion from productivity and leading the school. From the bullied student's perspective, less time is focused on learning and achievement and more time is focused on the emotional and social damages causes by being bullied. In that respect, it is a matter of opportunity costs.

As Jankauskiene, Kardelis, Sukys, and Kardeliene (2008) found, cyberbullying victims are more frequently found in children from low SES families than from middle and high SES families. The low SES families are those least likely to afford the treatment costs concomitant with cyberbullying. Binge drinking, drug use, depression, and suicide attempts are possible outcomes from being cyberbullied (Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do, & Chang, 2011). Treatment options are often expensive and time consuming, which further stresses the budget of low SES families. From an economic perspective, cyberbullying disproportionally burdens the poor.

SUGGESTIONS TO MITIGATE CYBERBULLYING

It is imperative to protect youth and make them aware of the dangers of cyberbullying. Parents and teachers need to coordinate the effort to increase awareness. Increased awareness is important as cyberbullying appears to be expected and accepted (Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do, & Chang, 2011).

Goebert, Else, Matsu, Chung-Do, and Chang (2011) urge parents to better work with their children to look for signs of cyber-abuse as well as monitor the Internet traffic and web sites visited. Parents need to communicate with their children and emphasize the seriousness of the threat. Parents should look for signs that a child is distressed, such as anxiety and moodiness, suicidal ideation, self-harm, trouble sleeping, or ceasing the normal activities they once enjoyed. Children may even stop using electronic devices all together due to fear of harassment (Goebert et al., 2011).

Schools should also be equipped with anti-cyberbullying information and methods such as Kowalski's anti-bullying curricula or, at the least, include cyberbullying in their anti-bullying policies. The school administrators should monitor the school sports and athletic identity as the literature indicates that low athletic self-esteem is related to victimization (Jankauskiene, Kardelis, Sukys, & Kardeliene, 2008; Wild, Flisher, Bhana, & Lombard, 2004).

It is critical for teachers and parents as well as other students to become aware of the warning signs. Signs that predict cyberbullying are a belief that aggression is normal, being morally disengaged, engaging in dangerous online behavior, narcissism, increased Internet use, and anger. Conversely, predictors of not engaging in cyberbullying are empathy, school safety???, and being monitored by a parent or guardian (Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Additionally, homogeny in response to cyberbullying is not likely, as every child is unique and they react to the harassment differently. Parents and teachers need to be accommodating in their countermeasures for cyberbullying as each individual is different with high variability in individual attitudes and behaviors (Kowalski et. al., 2014).

Awareness and prevention of cyberbullying is an important step in addressing the issue. Robin Kowalski provides a number of online resources as well as prevention curricula for grade schools through high schools. The Cyberbullying Research Center provides research and many anti-cyberbullying resources for a wide variety of people including children, adults, educators and victims. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services provides the stopbullying.gov website with a special section dedicated to cyberbullying prevention and reporting.

PROBLEMS WITH RESEARCH AND CURRENT TRENDS

Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, and Lattanner (2014) performed an extensive review of current research on cyberbullying. Their work was intended to be a meta-analysis review of the literature. The authors used the literature to create a model they termed the General Aggression Model. They had a very specific focus with their meta-analysis: building a model to explore cyber-bulling causation. They found that the research they reviewed presented results that were uneven, and lacked theoretical concentration. Additionally, they found that much cyberbullying research does not show causality, but rather, reflects associations between the cyberbullying and other variables.

Menesini and Nocentini (2014) found that due to imprecise definitions, it is hard to ascertain what is harassment, as

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opposed to simple messing around (e.g., insults without hurtful intent or power imbalance are common in many cultures). Additionally, they discovered that not all attacks are of equal severity. An act that is minor may have a larger impact on a person simply based on that person's reaction and the way the attack is perceived. While some attacks are minor, others may have long lasting effects even though the occurrence is very infrequent.

Given the variation in outcomes, intentions, and perceptions, it would be difficult to construct a cyberbullying taxonomy. Without such a holistic classification structure, cyberbullying research remains lacking in a theoretical construct. Even so, the real-world impact of cyberbullying on children can be devastating and even fatal as was the tragic case of Rebecca Sedwick and far too many others.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, and Lattanner (2014) believe that further research should be conducted to decide if media violence on a long-term exposure basis could lead to increased levels of bullying and cyberbullying. More research is required on other age groups as, currently, most research focuses on middle school students and high school students. More studies such as Eksi's (2012) research should be conducted to better understand the role that personality plays and to better understand the likelihood that someone will become a cyberbully or victim. As some children are more likely to be more impacted by cyberbullying than others (Kowalski et al., 2014), more research is required on factors that contribute to cyberbullying victimization.

There is much research literature addressing the consequences of cyberbullying, the socioeconomic standing of bullies and the bullied, the facets of cyberbullying, as well as prevention and mitigation of cyberbullying. However, there is little knowledge of the direct economic impacts of cyberbullying as well as studies of the opportunity costs of cyberbullying. The authors of this paper suggest those as possible future scientific opportunities.

CONCLUSIONS

Social media are all too often abused and misused for harm. Social media can be life enhancing if used in a non- threatening, responsible manner. The positives aspects of social media and online presence (e.g., staying in contact with loved ones, tracking down potential threats, and stimulating change and power shifts) far outweigh the negatives (cyberbullying, spreading of malicious software, invasion of privacy, influencing work settings and corporate environments).

As the amount of children who are exposed to social media grows on a daily basis, it is critical to protect these children from cyber-harassment. Lenhart (2010) discovered that 68% of the children used the Internet while at school. Additionally, Katzer, Fetchenhauer, and Belschak (2009), discovered that nearly 75% of school-age children experienced cyberbullying aggression at least once in the last year. Just as children are warned about face-to-face confrontation with bullies, children need to become aware of how to handle being bullied in a digital medium. Additionally, parents need to be informed on how best to look for the signs that their children could be the victim or a perpetrator of cyberbullying (Menesini & Nocentini, 2009). A bully now can strike from anywhere, at any time, with a widespread outcome. Due to how versatile the Internet can be, bullies can attack their victim using a multitude of online venues. This is compounded by the research that shows that, on average, adolescents spend 17 hours per week on the Internet. Furthermore, research discovered that some children spend as much as a full work week, or 40 hours on the Internet (Center for Digital Future ..., 2010).

Attaining better preparedness and awareness of cyberbullying is critical. A child's mind and psyche are developing the "adult personality" (Ortega et al., 2012). Therefore, unaddressed cyberbullying could lead to future issues with the child. Furthermore, cyberbullying doesn't stop at a specific time or age. Research has found that cyberbullying is a difficulty faced by all school children. These students are faced with real life consequences such as potential mental health issues that include abusing drugs and alcohol as well as suicidal ideation (Baker & Helm, 2010).

There exists a number of resources available to victims, educators, and parents to help cope with cyberbullying. These resources range from anti-bullying curricula guidelines to online website for understanding and reporting cyberbullying. Understanding and awareness of the problem is the first step in ending it.

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Note: Christopher Davison, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Technology and Carl Stein is a Researcher in the Department of Technology.

Christopher B. Davison

Carl H. Stein

Ball State University

Author info: Correspondence should be sent to: Dr. Christopher B. Davison, Dept. of Technology, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306.

Davison, Christopher B.^Stein, Carl H.

Source Citation (MLA 8th Edition) Davison, Christopher B., and Carl H. Stein. "The dangers of cyberbullying." North American Journal of Psychology, vol. 16,

no. 3, 2014, p. 595. Academic OneFile, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do? p=AONE&sw=w&u=lom_oaklandu&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CA392177618&it=r&asid=d2b8fb0ea06842472dcfd4dad5f90f79. Accessed 18 Nov. 2016.

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