cloud computing
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Wireless Network Assignment 1 ITC 254
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Table of Contents
List of Illustrations Page 3
Assignment’s Items
Question 1 Page 4
Question 2 Page 5
Question 3 Page 8
Question 4 Page 10
Question 5 Page 12
References Page 15
Wireless Network Assignment 1 ITC 254
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List of illustrations Table 1 – Advantages, disadvantages and devices used by AM, FM and PM Page 6
Figure 1 – Line chart showing advantages and disadvantages of AM, FM and PM Page 7
Table 2 – Security comparison between Bluetooth, ZigBee and IEEE 802.15.3 Page 14
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Question 1
A communication system has a baud rate of 64 000. What is the basic communication speed in bits per second of that system? Explain how communication speeds of 128 Kbps, 384Kbps, 512 Kbps can be achieved using this system.
For the system mentioned above, bps simply represents the number of bits transmitted per second. As for the baud rate, it determines the number of times per second a signal changes (or possibly will change).
In order to answer to first part of the question we need to know some additional information such as how many bits are conveyed per symbol? Without it we can only make assumptions. For devices transferring data in series, bits are normally sent in sequence, one bit is carried in each signal time. As a result, the device speed of 300, 600, and 1200 baud is also 300, 600, and 1200 bps. But, it is possible to have a change in the signal. The signal can be changed in several ways and result in numerous combinations of two bits (up to four) allocates to one of four different signal changes (Ciampa & Olenewa, 2007, pp. 53‐55). For devices transferring data in parallel, several bits are sent at each signal time. Thus, the baud rate multiplied by the number of bits sent equal the bit rate.
For example, using phase‐shift keying (two bit per baud phase‐shift keying), a communication system with a baud rate of 64 000 will have a speed of 128 Kbps (64 000 X 2 = 128 000 bps). Based on the same system, a communication of 128 Kbps can also be achieved using quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) variation. This variation can transmit two bits per signal unit (dibits). 384 Kbps will have six bit encoded per baud using 64 QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation). And 512 Kbps will have height bit encoded per baud using 256 QAM. QAM allow sending two unique separate channels of information and is extensively used in several digital data radio communications and applications such as television and modem.
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Question 2
Amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) all have strengths and weaknesses. Investigate these three types of modulations and develop a chart indicating the advantages, disadvantages, and how each modulation is currently being used. Also include a list of at least two devices that use the technology.
Amplitude modulation (AM), Frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) are different techniques used in electronic communication. Those techniques are simply used for encoding analog signal into a carrier wave.
Amplitude Modulation modifies the amplitude (height of a carrier wave) of the carrier to represent 1s or 0s in accordance with the height of the modulating signal. Basically, it changes the strength of the signal that has been transmitted while the speed of the radio wave stays the same. That signal is related to the information sent and is produced with power concentrated at the carrier frequency. When a signal from an amplitude modulation is created, the amplitude of that signal is mixed in accordance with the variations in intensity of the sound wave. Therefore, the audio signal is carried by the complete amplitude of the carrier that has been modulated. Once the signal is changed, it consists of the carrier, the lower side band and the upper side band. These components, if combined, create several type of amplitude modulation with various properties for information transfer (Ciampa & Olenewa, 2007; Mullet, 2006).
Frequency Modulation modifies the frequency of the carrier to represent the 1s or 0s. Mainly, it transmits the radio signal by changing the frequency of the radio wave while the amplitude of the wave stays the same. To compare to amplitude modulation, the frequency modulation wave is around 20 times wider. In analog frequency modulation, the frequency of the alternative current (AC) signal wave (or carrier), varies in a constant way. In narrowband FM, the non‐stop signal wave frequency varies above and below the frequency of the signal (by up to 5 kHz) with no modulation. Narrowband FM is often used in two‐way wireless communications. In wideband FM instead, the non‐stop signal wave frequency varies by up to several megahertz. When the input is positive, the frequency moves in one direction; when it is negative, it moves in the opposite direction. The frequency move is proportional to the degree to which the signal amplitude is positive or negative. Wideband FM is used in wireless broadcasting (Brain, 2000; Ciampa & Olenewa, 2007; Mullet, 2006).
Phase Modulation modifies the phase of the carrier to represent a 1 or 0. Basically, the signal wave phase (measured in degrees) is changed every time a 1 bit occurs, but it stays unaffected for a 0 bit. PM almost always use for reference signal, the previous wave cycle. The bits are pointed in time to match with a definite number of carrier cycles. As a result, PM works when the bandwidth needed of the signal is pretty small (Ciampa & Olenewa, 2007; Mullet, 2006).
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Table 1 – Advantages, disadvantages and devices used by AM, FM and PM
Type of Modulations
Advantages Disadvantages Devices using the technology
Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
Works well across much of the radio spectrum. Simple transmitter and receiver design. Small bandwidth. Signals transmitted carry great distances, particularly at night
At least 2/3 of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal (much of it is wasted), and carries no useful information. AM signals can be disrupted by buildings structures, metal, sources of radio frequency interference and electrical/environmental noise (fluorescent lights, lightning, or motors). Inefficiency occurs as a result of the composition of the radio signal (spectrum efficiency and power usage). Interference with the carrier signal due to noise spikes on transmission medium.
Broadcast radio stations. Citizen band (CB) aviation services. Loudspeaker. The light intensity of television pixels.
Frequency Modulation
(FM)
FM system has a very fine tonal quality. Large bandwidth that allows it to carry Hi‐Fi in addition to stereophonic signals. Great immunity to random noise on transmission medium. High efficiency. Always have a signal present. The loss of signal can be easily detected.
FM signals do not carry for long distances. Requires 2 frequencies. The detection circuit needs to recognise both frequencies when the signal is lost.
Broadcast radio stations. Spectrum analyser.
Phase Modulation
(PM)
Requires only 1 frequency. PM make it easy to detect loss of carrier. Improved signal to noise ratio and less radiated power.
Production and detection phase changes require a complex circuit. Reflections of phase modulated signals can be easily corrupted (digital communications).
Holographic projector.
Synthesized
signal generator.
Marine radar.
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Advantages & Disadvantages of Modulations
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Ea sy t o d et ec t lo ss o f si gn al
Sm al l/ lo w er b an d w id th
N o is e in te rf er en
ce s
Si m p le d es ig n
Figure 1 – Line chart showing advantages and disadvantages of AM, FM and PM.
The above line chart represents a few advantages and disadvantages of the amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation. For interpretation:
Constant line (characteristic not applicable to the specified modulation); Increasing line (advantage); Decreasing line (disadvantage).
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Question 3
What are the latest health concerns when using wireless technologies? What are the official positions of the FCC and ACMA?
Every day we are exposed to several degrees of radiation from sources such as antennas, cordless phones, mobile phones, wireless routers, mobile phone antennas and even more wireless technologies. Also, all kinds of electronic and electrical devices emit electromagnetic (EM) fields around their working circuits, produced by oscillating currents. Individuals are in daily contact with TV screens, computers, home appliances like washing machines, mixers, microwave ovens and fluorescent lamps (World Health Organization. What are electromagnetic fields?, n.d.).
Of the hundreds of researches and studies performed about it, these radiations can have genetic and health issues. In fact, 83 percent found neurological, behavioural, and physiological effects (DNA damage), 77 percent found interruptions to electric signals in the body (nerve and brain damage), 69 percent found disorders to cell function (increased stress response, and decreased immune response), and 47 percent found an increase in risk for cancers (including childhood leukemia). The most alarming findings were that respecting the current standards by having levels of radiation beneath them still produce negative health effects (Fawcett, 2008).
An evaluation of many studies as well as few papers published by Occupational and Environmental Medicine reveals the risk of increase of glioma (a type of brain cancer that affects the central nervous system) and acoustic neuromas (a non‐cancerous tumour that results in hearing loss) for more than 10 years of use of mobile phone.
Also the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks has issued a report and states quite a few studies about benign and cancerous head tumours. Because a level of exposure to radio frequency is very high while on the phone, voice calls on mobile devices increases possible health concerns instead of texting or e‐mailing. Radio frequency energy can affects neurotransmitter biochemistry, changes local temperature in the brain, and alters protein constitution and appearance. This is because the amount of radiation (electromagnetic wave) that breaks through the body is based on proximity, regularity and durability. Mobile phone technology operates from 450 MHz up to 2.5 GHz. A type of frequencies similar to the microwave ovens that generally operate at 2,450 MHz (How wireless technology can affect the body, 2009).
But wireless devices such as mobile phones are not the only ones that bring concern regarding health. Bluetooth devices also, send out radiation ranging from 1 to 100 mW, and operate on the microwave frequency spectrum from 2.4 GHz to 2.4835 GHz. Wireless LAN (or Wi‐Fi), emits waves at a power ranging from 35 mW to 200 mW at its strongest. More radio communication devices are also under investigation, devices such as wireless security camera, garage remote controls or alarm systems. (Health concerns over wireless technologies, 2008).
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For the past 15 years, from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) it is mandatory that all devices using wireless communications meet minimum guidelines regarding the radio frequency (RF) energy they produce. The FCC relies on several federal health organisations along with environmental agencies in order to assist in determining safe levels of RF energy to human exposure. The guidelines state the limits of exposure in terms of SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) for hand‐held wireless devices concerning energy absorption by the body. The SAR values are calculated over an average of six‐minute period during the 24‐hour day. For the FCC, the SAR limit is 1.6 watts per kilogram (W/kg), on an average over one gram of tissue (Wireless Devices and Health Concerns, 2009).
On the other hand, the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) will state that the exposure limits vary depending on whether the device is an “aware user” device or not. A hand‐held transmitter such as CB radio station, maritime ship station or land mobile system station is characterised as aware user device. In that case, the exposure limits are up to 0.4 W/kg on SAR average for the whole body, and not exceeding 10.0 W/kg for the spatial peak SAR over any 10 grams of tissue averaged. Regarding non‐aware user devices, the exposure limits are up to 0.08 W/kg on SAR average for the whole body, and not exceeding 2.0 W/kg for the spatial peak SAR over any 10 grams of tissue averaged (ACMA EME Exposure Standards: Information for Manufacturers and Importers: Regulatory Arrangements, 2009). But so far, there is no convincing evidence of an increase risk of neck tumours or head tumours while using handset for up to 10 years. Only some countries show that using handset for over 10 years increases the risk of cancer on a small amount of participant. Therefore, the use of handset for more than 10 years need to be studied further (Hartwig, 2009).
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Question 4
Investigate the deployment of all the 3G networks in Australia (include NextG). Include information on the types of technologies deployed.
In Australia there are three main network operators in the mobile phone industry: Telstra, Optus and Vodafone. All of them came up with a faster 3G network upgrade since their launch in 2005. Few years ago, Telstra launched their new‐generation called Next G in order to replace their current CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) and GSM network. On the other hand, Optus was doing the same and reached their goal because their 3G HSPA covered 60% of the population. Now regarding Vodafone, their 3G network was done in the principal cities at the same time. But their intent was to roll out of a 3G HSPA (national) enhanced mobile broadband with a high‐speed coverage for 90% of the country’s people before 2009 (3G in Australia, n.d.) The 3G network is based upon the European standard, WCDMA (wideband code division multiple access). Vodafone (the third largest mobile telecommunications company in Australia) has worked in relation with Optus Mobile to develop a second 3G network. First stage was the coverage of major cities and the second stage, the coverage of rural areas. Vodafone and Optus both won 15 years 2GHz spectrum 3G licenses for the 1,885MHz to 2,025MHz and 2,110MHz to 2,200MHz on a jointly‐run network.
Vodafone has Freehills for main consultant and Nokia as main supplier for the equipments and installation. About the project management and network planning and design, Bechtel won the contract. The core and radio access network solution for voice services over the 3G network (based on the MSC server architecture) was completely provided by Nokia. In order to make a smooth transition from 2G to 3G, the network solution supports at once (in common or separate) the GSM access system and WCDMA access system. The radio access network (WCDMA RAN) from Nokia was provided with the Packet Core network from Nokia too. As well as a network management system called NetAct, that integrates network performance. The deployment across the main cities required more than 2 000 spread‐spectrum base stations. Also, Vodafone used AAP Communications and TCI to maintenance, upgrade and expansion its base station infrastructure. Finally, IT platforms and applications were provided by Hewlett‐Packard and IBM. The new 3G network wireless data services take advantage of the Nokia Advanced Indoor Radio (AIR). This system makes available capacity and indoor coverage along with base stations and operations support system. This is an improvement that allows coverage for hotels, offices, shopping malls, railway stations and tunnels. Also, the use of High‐Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) technology towards an upgrade to 3.5G to the WCDMA base stations, provided data rates between 1Mbps to 2Mbps (downlink) and up to 14.4Mbps (peaking) (Vodafone Australia / Optus Mobile WCDMA 3G Rollout, Australia. (n.d.).
Telstra NextG network is possibly the world's largest and fastest mobile network. This network operates on a different frequency to other 3G networks (850MHz rather than 2100MHz). Therefore, the signal can reach wider areas using less base stations. As a result, the NextG network is larger than any
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other phone network in Australia and also covers 98% of the country, replacing the CDMA network in regional areas for a better access to multimedia. The reason for its fast and large mobile network is that NextG uses HSDPA to enables downloads at broadband speed. As seen before, it is no longer the only one (Homing in on Next G, 2006).
At last, Optus uses a combination of 900 MHz and 2100 MHz frequency ranges to complete the 3G network also working on High Speed Packet Access (HSPA). As a result, the radio network infrastructure needed was delivered by Huawei and Nokia Siemens Networks (Optus confirms technology and vendor choice for national 3G roll out, 2007).
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Question 5
Compare and contrast the security mechanisms used in Bluetooth, ZigBee and IEEE 802.15.3. Discuss both authentication and encryption. State the different algorithms used for these services and how they work in general (do not give implementation details of the algorithms). Discuss also the key lengths available for each technology and if symmetric or asymmetric keys are used. Which of the three (3) technologies has the strongest security?
By default Bluetooth communication is not authenticated, meaning that device can connect to another. However, to access a special service to do a file transfer, a voice gateway, or access a dial‐up account, Bluetooth generally uses a pre‐shared key authentication and encryption algorithms based on the AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) (Bialoglowy, 2005).
The security relies principally on the unpredictability and length of the passkey that is used for Bluetooth pairing. During that process, devices authenticate each other and set up a link key in case of a later authentication and encryption (Systems and Network Analysis Center Information Assurance Directorate, n.d.)
The authentication scheme works as a challenge‐response strategy, by checking whether or not the other party knows the shared identical secret key (a symmetric key) and if authentication is successful. During the authentication procedure, a 96‐bit Authenticated Ciphering Offset (ACO) is created and stored in the devices. This is used (in an approximately way) to create the encryption key for later on (Architecture – Data Transport, n.d.).
The link level uses four entities to setup and maintain the security. Those entities are: the Bluetooth device address with a unique public 48‐bit address for each Bluetooth device; a private link key with a 128‐bit random number used for authentication; a private encryption key vary between 8 and 128 bits in length that is used for encryption; and a Random number with a 128‐bit random or pseudo random number (that changes regularly) made by the device itself (Wireless Security, n.d.).
At last, even though it is not a key there is the PIN code (an ASCII string up to 16 characters). This is used to help devices identify each other. Plus, a cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), a forward error correction (FEC), and frequency hopping prevent data for being corrupted (Bialoglowy, 2005; Mc Daid, 2001; Architecture – Data Transport, n.d.; Security Q & A, n.d.).
ZigBee is a protocol and an IEEE 802.15.4 wireless standard also known as Low‐Rate Wireless
Personal Area Networks (LR‐WPAN). The protocol characterises techniques for implementing security features such as frame protection, cryptography key establishment, device management and key transport.
The characteristic of the cryptography is actually based on the use of 32‐bit to 128‐bit keys and the AES algorism based CCM (Cipher Block Chaining – CBC ‐ Message Authentication Code ‐ MAC) security suite encryption standard. Therefore the length of the key can be 4,6,8,12,14 or 16 octets. To secure the frames, authentication, integrity and encryption are applied at the Application network and MAC layer by the Symmetric‐Key Key Establishment (SKKE), a four‐message challenge‐response
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scheme. As a result, flexibility is allowed with only encryption, only authentication, or both; the use of variable length authentication tags and decryption‐verification.
Adding to the symmetric key security, ZigBee provides frame integrity using a message integrity code (MIC) in order to verify that data has not been corrupted between sender and receiver. Plus an access control service, meaning that the device maintains an access control list (ACL) showing all the devices it wants to communicate with in its own network. At last, a security service that ensures the same frames are not transmitted more than once, called sequential freshness (Ciampa & Olenewa, 2007, pp. 186‐187; Kinney, 2003, pp. 10‐13).
Finally, ZigBee specifies the use of Master, Link, and Network Key in order to secure the frame transmission. To prevent illegitimate devices or unauthorised joining and use of the network, all nodes in the ZigBee network share the Network Key as a common key. On the other hand, each devices use their Master Key to generate the Link Keys that are unique secret session key used between two communicating ZigBee devices (Masica, 2007; Sharma, 2007; Marneweck, 2004; Hamalainen, 2006; Wright, n.d.)
IEEE 802.15.3 is a high‐speed wireless personal area network (WPAN) standard similar to
Bluetooth. This standard provides security mechanisms that include key transport, key establishment (assigned by the piconet controller to the piconet) and security memberships on the MAC and physical layer only. Therefore, information as well as integrity are both protected (Pan & Xiao ,2009. pp. 217‐ 226).
Based on the AES 128‐bit symmetric key encryption mechanism, it features two security modes: 0 and 1. In mode 0, any devices in operation can’t encrypt or protect the data on the MAC frames. They can only read the data with a secure mode set to 0. In mode 1, any devices in operation can encrypt to the MAC frame it may receive. Thus, only devices in mode 1 will be able to read the encrypted frames from other devices. That mode supports protection of commands, beacons, data frames and secure key distribution. In IEEE 802.15.3, the key is 13 octets long and can be shared by all of the devices in a piconet. A few parameters such as frame counter, source and destination address, the value of fragmentation control field and the current time token on the network ensure that the key is unique.
The data authentication and symmetric encryption used in the symmetric key is the creation of an integrity code with a plaintext data encrypted plus the integrity code. The result is the data and the integrity code encrypted. Then the verification consists of the calculation of the integrity code to compare to the integrity code received (802.15.3, 2003. pp. 221‐241; Olenewa & Ciampa, 2007. pp. 219‐ 220)
Basically, only devices that have been authorised can join a secure piconet. The communication is established only between parties identified. The upper layers define is the relationships with other devices can be trusted by the use of public keys. Then policies are set in order to participate in the piconet. The MAC /physical layer implements authentication protocols as well as symmetric‐key management. Plus, it implements command and data payload protection. The MAC/physical layer also access to its own public/private key pair (Singer, 2002).
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Table 2 – Security comparison between Bluetooth, ZigBee and IEEE 802.15.3
Characteristics Bluetooth ZigBee IEEE 802.15.3
Authentication Symmetric secret key.
96‐bit Authenticated Ciphering Offset (ACO).
Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code (CBC‐
MAC) authentication.
Creation of an integrity code with a plaintext data
encrypted plus the integrity code.
Encryption AES based 8‐bit to 128‐bit private encryption key.
AES based CCM 32‐bit to 128‐ bit key.
Symmetric‐Key Key Establishment (SKKE)
AES 128‐bit symmetric key encryption.
Two secure mode: Mode 0 ad Mode 1.
Algorithm Pre‐shared key authentication
and encryption custom algorithms (E1 – E21 and E22).
AES 128‐bit encryption algorithm.
Adaptive Backoff Exponent (ABE) algorithm.
ESRPT (enhanced shortest remaining processing time)
algorithm.
Key Length Key sizes vary from 8‐bit to
128‐bit. Key length can be 4,6,8,12,14 or 16 octets (32‐bit to 128‐bit)
The key is 13 octets long
Based on the above table, we can compare the security mechanism for the three technologies
and conclude that ZigBee has the strongest security.
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