How did the Soviet Russia come about? What legacies were created by the Soviet system that lasted for nearly seventy years?

Russia I The legendary British Prime Minister Winston Churchill once said, “Russia is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma.” In other words, non-Russians would never fully figure out what the Russians are all about and what they are up to. I would not go that far, but Russians have gone through so much throughout history and developed the habit of living their lives despite the chaos that surrounds their lives. Why did Russia have such an eventful and tumultuous history? There is a game I play as a geography instructor. I have an imaginary geography textbook in my mind that I wish to write and publish someday. I am in constant search of good titles for the chapters of this imaginary textbook. I work and rework different phrases or sentences that may capture the past, present and the future of people, countries, or geographical realms that the textbook will cover. I have been playing this game with Russia, and my best thus far has been “Three Strikes, You Are Out!” At the end of this lecture, I hope you would be able to tell me whether this title is convincing. Here are the three strikes for Russia: geographic challenges, historical turmoil, and economic mismanagement. Let’s start with Russia’s bitter, or what I call “angry” climate. Look at Russia’s map and you will realize that it has no barrier against the cold air (artic wind) that blows down from the Artic Ocean. The northern part of Russia is known as “arctic lowland” and it is no barrier against that feisty chill from the world’s rooftop. Once you are over the Ural Mountains, then you are in Siberia (sleeping land), which is comprised of tundra and taiga. Tundra is the treeless plain where just mosses, lichens, and some grasses survive. Then, below Tundra lies Taiga, most of which is covered with coniferous forests. A large part of this sleeping land is in the state of permafrost, where water in the ground is permanently frozen. Now, when we move down south to Central Asia, climate is dry while land is arid. That is because the land west to the Urals is tilted almost imperceptibly to the north, draining Russia’s rivers into Arctic Ocean, taking away the moisture. Here, agriculture is almost impossible without irrigation. What are the overall consequences of these climatic conditions? I want you to take a look at a map on Russia in our textbook titled "Physiographic Regions of Russia." There are eight regions numbered in this map. Of them, the number 1, the “Russian Plain,” which is about one-fifth of Russia, contains the overwhelming part of the Russian population. Also, that is the area where most of Russia’s food is being produced. Rest, of course, is not wasted. For example, the region east of the Ural Mountains contains rich natural resources. Nevertheless, for human habitation, Siberia is most challenging. Second, the historical turmoil. Russia has been a great empire, certainly in terms of its territorial expanse. Russia was first settled by Slavs, a group of farmers who originated in modern-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. They then expanded to the east, and by 1700, had built a powerful empire centered on Moscow that occupied roughly the present-day Russia without its East European and Central Asian republics. Thereafter, Russia expanded further south and west to occupy the landmass later became the Russian Federation. Russians’ eastward expansion was spearheaded by a relatively small group of semi-nomadic people known as Cossacks who are known to have originated from Ukraine. Their pride in their courage is legendary. Like all other people of significant historic accomplishments, Russians too had great leaders who put Russia on the center stage of human history. Three of them stand out: Czar Peter the Great, Czarina Catherine the Great (right), and Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as Lenin. What did they accomplish? Peter the Great, who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1725, consolidated his loosely knit country to make it a modern, European-style state. He built St. Petersburg on a swampy land from scratch and turned itinto one of the great cities of Europe, if not the world. Under Peter the Great, Russia finally became a nation to reckon with in Europe. Starting in 1760, Catherine the Great continued the legacies of Peter the Great. She acquired more territory to the northwest, to the Baltic Sea, and to the south to the Black Sea. Russia, under her rule became an imperialist power. In the Nineteenth Century, Russia continued to expand to defeat and conquer Poland to the west, and the people of Central Asia to the southeast. Russia, in the early part of the century, was militarily strong enough to repel the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte, which no other European country was able to do. In any event, one of the reasons for Russia’s unending conquest was, of course, its lacking and desire of warm-water ports. One of the problems of this history of conquest and expansion was that Russian has had many enemies around within and without its borders. (One of the most magnificent structures in the world is St. Petersburg's Winter Palace, which is now the Hermitage Museum.) Up to this point, we have looked into Russia’s territorial expansion and consolidation. Let us now analyze what was happening in Russia socio-economically. Was Russia part of the changes and progress that Western Europe countries spearheaded in the 18th and 19th centuries? While the rest of Europe is going though enlightenment, industrialization and commercial revolution where was Russia? Was Russia part of this socalled modernization process? It was not. One historian writes that in the 19th century, Russia was a country essentially based on “soldiers, secret police, repression, and censorship.” In other words, it was least progressive of European countries. On top of all these repressive organs of society, there was serfdom. Serfdom was the most burdensome problem in czarist Russia. This system subjugated millions of peasants by tying them to the land and their landlords. Serfs, though not slaves, were not free either. They were obligated to render labor services to their landlords and military service to the Czars. Also they were not allowed to leave the land without the landlord’s permission. The Russian economy based on production by this semi-bonded labor could not compete with free peasants of Western Europe who sought to maximize their production for personal enrichment and a more comfortable life. (To your right is a typical image of Russian peasants who were often described as having thoroughly internalized centuries of political repression and economic deprivation.) Russia was big, but poor. It was also mighty, but socio-economically backward. In 1861, the Russian serfs were freed, but without land to farm and survive on. Understandably, the quality of their lives did not improve much. A half century later, in 1917, Russia would become the first country in history to succeed in a Communist revolution, led by Lenin (left) that abolished private property, and setup a dictatorship of workers and peasants. Did the people of Russia fair any better under the Communist system? That is a difficult question to answer. One thing is certain though. In terms of industrialization the Soviet Union was no comparison to the Czarist Russia. Under Communism, Russia became one of the most industrialized countries in the world. However, this accomplishment came with an appalling human cost. Here comes the discussion on economic failures. Let us look at the following figures. After the turmoil of the Bolshevik Revolution was more or less settled in the late 1920s, the Soviet Union began its rapid industrialization that transformed Russia into a major industrial power. From 1928 to 1932 Russia quadrupled the production of heavy machinery and doubled it oil production. From 1928 to 1937, in ten years, the Soviet Union’s steel production increased from 4 to 18 million tons. In the same period the annual economic growth rate of the Soviet Union was between 14 and 20 percent a year, a phenomenal accomplishment. By 1938, the Soviet Union outdistanced Britain, and nearly equaled Germany as a producer of pig iron and steel. It should not be underestimated that in World War II, the Russian Army managed to repel and defeat the Nazi invaders due in no small measure to its heavy industrial capacity. (To the right is a heroic and paternalistic Josef Stalin who still symbolizes the oppressive nature of the Soviet society even after 50 years since his death.) But these phenomenal accomplishments belied the brutality inflicted upon the Russians and the degree to which they had to sacrifice. First, following the Bolshevik Revolution, the Soviet government confiscated foodstuff from the peasants in order to accumulate capital for industrialization and to feed the industrial workers. Compounded by successive crop failures, between 1920 and 1922, about five million people were starved to death. Thereafter more problems emerged. Rapid modernization required peasants to collectivize their farms and starve to feed the workers, workers to endure low living standards, and the most energetic stratum of the peasantry -- kulaks, or landowning peasants -- to be sacrificed. The ultimate goal was realization of the socialist dream of creating economic abundance that would allow each person to receive according to his or her needs, rather than according to his or her ability. The failure of this dream was revealed starkly in the fact that the real wage of Soviet workers declined by 43 percent between 1928 and 1940. According to one estimate, during the Soviet rule, between 30 and 60 million people lost their lives from imposed starvation, political purges, Siberian exile, and other forms of persecutions. (The picture above shows a young industrial worker who seems exhausted and bewildered.) What were these sacrifices for? The answer is a rapid industrialization and production of capital goods. Theoretically, heavy industrial productivity should promote light industry that would churn out consumer goods in abundance. Well, this theory did not materialize. Yes, Russia’s heavy industries -- energy, machinery, armament, and iron and steel -- were massive, and to some extent, impressive. However, people do not enjoy a comfortable life because their country produces one of the most durable farm tractors in the world. How much do you think the quality of life of the Russians improved because of Russia’s impressive armament or space program? I don’t think it did very much. (To left is the ubiquitous image of Soviet life – a long line at the state stores that did not have much stocks to begin with.) By late 1980s, after seven decades of the Soviet command economy that could not produce enough consumer goods for the people, and living under a totalitarian political system that forced unbearable sacrifice of individual rights, the Soviet Union simply disintegrated. As Moscow disintegrated, so did the U.S.S.R and its control over East European countries. The Soviet Union did one thing rather well. Building huge factories and structures like the apartment here. However, what they built, such as a utilitarian-looking apartment building here looked rather drab and not so resident-friendly.) Are the Russians fairing any better after the disintegration of the Soviet system? Let us look at the positive side first. The Russians probably are enjoying more personal freedom than when they lived under the Communist rule. However, in other aspects of life they are inundated with challenges. Economically, the transition from communism to capitalism has led to increase in unemployment, class division, and the loss of pension by the retired workers. It is estimated that in Russia, the 30 richest persons together control about two-thirds of Russia's GDP (Gross Domestic Product). These wealthy individuals obviously have strong ties with Russian politicians and some critics of Russian society noted that this alliance has turned Russia into a kleptocracy, or rule by thieves. Some even go as far as to say that Russia is ruled by Russian Mafia. (Here, you are looking at abandoned children of Russia.) Although improvements have been made and there is more transparency and accountability in the Russian economy and polity, Russia still has long way to go. Political corruption and economic disparity have produced one unique by-product. Despite the end of Communist rule in Russia, the former communists and hard-line Russian nationalists enjoy support from people who believe that Russia has become a worst place since the end of Communism. (Left) There are other issues in the post-Communist Russia, such as increasingly influence of organized crime, social inertia, alcohol abuses, and public health problems, including the rise in the number of people inflicted with AIDS due to the failure of public health system. (To you right is an elderly Russian woman successfully stood on a food line.) Russia since the fall of communism has faces another problem -- the separatist movements. One good example is Russia’s conflict with Chechnya. For about ten years until 2009, Russia battled the Chechen separatist guerrillas who launched brutal and horrifying terrorist attacks such as storming a Moscow theater or school building in southern Russia. As you can imagine massive civilian casualties were produced by such acts of terrorism. On the other hand, the Russian troops undertook equally harsh counterinsurgency measures in Chechnya that draw international criticism. (Here are some young Russians soldiers dispatched to fight the Chechen separatist guerrillas.) Truce was signed between the Russians and Chechens but the tension has not completely dissipated. To put it to you simply, Russians are not particularly liked by non-Russians who were once forced to live under the same roof called U.S.S.R. So, here I am again, asking you whether you think the title for the chapter on Russia (up to the fall of Communism) in my imaginary geography textbook is convincing. Do you think I should keep “Three Strikes, You Are Out”? Could you add your comments to your response to the discussion question on Russia? As you know, there are two sides to everything and Russia has recent achieved some success in economic development. Is Russia experiencing a revival? Let us move to our next lecture note.