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Conclusion

Public policy and its creation is complex and requires policy makers and analysts to consider

many variables, including different points of view, long-term consequences, short-term

consequences, unintended consequences, who will pay, and what group will bene�t as well as

what group will suffer.

Models of Public Policymaking

Many follow several models of policymaking with the most common included below. More than one

can apply.

Institutionalism, which sees public policy as an institutional (government) output.

Process, which sees policymaking as a political activity.

Group Theory, which sees policymaking as a struggle among special interest groups.

Elite theory, which sees policymaking as involving those who have the power implementing their

ideas whether or not those ideas are best for the entire country.

Rationalism, which sees policymaking as an effort by decision makers alone to make the best

choice for the largest number of people.

Incrementalism, which sees policymakers as continually making small changes to enact what they

want whether it is for the best of the whole or not.

Influences on Policy Making

Public Opinion in Policy Making

Public opinion o�en in�uences policy. Those in Congress, the media, and groups supporting and opposing policy will in�uence public opinion. This is

most important for major policy items. In most cases, however, the general public doesn’t pay attention to what Congress does on a daily basis.

Influence of the Media and Internet on Policy Making

Internet and media outlets most certainly have the biggest in�uence in determining which issues rise to national prominence. Younger Americans tend

to use social media, much of which is simply opinion based. There exists a strong relationship between media agenda vs. what citizens and non-

citizens believe the public agenda to be.

Examinations of the relationships among media coverage, public opinion and policy making show strong correlations, with the correlation between

the media and policy making being the strongest.

Official Policymakers

Many individuals and groups share power over policy, but the ones that come to mind for many are the

of�cial policymakers, which includes elected and appointed government of�cials. A system of checks

and balances distributes the authority to make policy to prevent abuse of power and guarantee

individual liberties, and ideally, to avoid inef�ciency, duplication, and unnecessary expense.

The balance of power between the federal government and state governments has shifted over time.

The United States Constitution gave the federal government limited powers and responsibilities,

giving all powers not speci�cally named to the states and to the people.

Today, national defense, transportation, and interstate commerce, are generally the domain of the

federal government. Though state and local governments were generally in charge in areas such as

public education, and law enforcement, the federal government has found ways to use funding to have

larger roles in those areas that were not speci�cally listed in the Constitution for the federal

government. 

Policy Actors and Conditions

All three branches of government are generally involved in the policy process. Additionally, others may be policy actors.

Citizens

Americans have been involved in government since colonial times. While citizen participation can be di�cult to obtain on a regular basis, citizens do

vote and o�en become involved for special projects. While it is not a requirement for citizens to be involved, it is an option as they are stakeholders in

public policies.

Special interest groups

Special interest groups are o�en involved when they wish to in�uence policy. Citizens may become part of a special interest group and act on behalf of

the issues they support. These issues may be good for the citizens as a whole or they may be good for only one group of people.

Examples of well-known special interest groups are National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Abortion

Rights Action League (NARAL). Some special interest groups hire former cabinet o�cials, military members and Congress members as lobbyists as

they already have knowledge about lawmaking and friends who are law makers.

Political parties

A political party’s �rst concern is maintaining power and controlling government; public policy is a secondary concern.

Research institutes

Media

The media can greatly in�uence policy through the way it reports public attitudes and opinions. Policymakers may also use the media to shape the

public’s opinions and attitudes towards policy issues. Media are generally biased.

Conditions Affecting Policy making

Some things to examine when analyzing policy are who bene�ts and who pays, if the policy is politically feasible, who will support it, whether or not it

is cost-e�cient. What the public opinion is, and what economic and conditions are. Remember: Most policy is a result of compromise between various

parties.

Policy Analysis

The analysis of policy either takes place before or a�er policy is completed. Analysis of completed

policy allows for the identi�cation of alternative options, the consideration of all consequences and

individual perspectives prior to the best one selected.

Select each tab to learn more.

Three Approaches to Policy Analysis

One of the most accepted models for policy analysis is that set forth by Carl V. Patton and David S.

Sawicki, which has the following six steps (Patton and Sawicki 1986, p.26):

While a complex �eld, one can take three basic approaches toward policy analysis process:

1. Verify, de�ne, and detail the problem.

2. Establish evaluation criteria.

3. Identify alternative policies.

4. Evaluate these alternatives. Once alternative policies have been identi�ed, they can be

evaluated by deciding the points in favor and against each one.

5. Select from alternative policies.

6. Monitor or evaluate progress. This step (especially in the �owchart below) suggests that

the policy has been implemented

The empirical approach is mainly concerned with facts and with information. It uses data

and statistical methodologies.

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The valuative approach is mainly concerned with values. It asks the question, “Of what

worth is it?” This approach is concerned with determining the value or worth of public

policy. For example, an analyst may choose this approach to describe, explain, or predict

what public expenditures will be for health, education, or highway construction.

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The normative-value critical approach is mainly concerned with action and with

prescriptive information. It asks the primary question, “What should be done?” This

approach is concerned with the causes and e�ects of public policies. This approach is

concerned with recommendations for future courses of action to resolve public problems.

•

Framework for Policy Analysis

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Public Health Professionals Gateway

Public Health Policy The health of our nation is in�uenced by public health policies. The resources below provide information about CDC o�ces and programs that focus on policy-related matters and on various laws, regulations, and policies that have public health implications.

Resources

National Health Initiatives, Strategies & Action Plans View a list of national health initiatives, strategies, and action plans that can help guide public health planning and activities, and which often have policy implications

Guidelines & Recommendations Access guidelines and recommendations that provide actionable steps for addressing issues of importance to public health, and that were developed by CDC, CDC in collaboration with other organizations or agencies, and CDC federal advisory committees

Last Reviewed: September 15, 2023