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BOTULINUM RICIN MYCOTOXIN

Another potential toxin agent is ricin. A plant protein, it is derived from the beans of the castor plant. Ricin’s toxicity in relation to botulism is minute. But since castor beans are available worldwide and the toxin can be produced with extreme ease, it has significant potential as a biological weapon. Ricin is extremely toxic to cells, inhibiting the synthesis of proteins and causing breathing and lung problems when inhaled. If ricin is consumed, it affects the gastrointestinal tract. General symptoms of exposure include nasal and throat congestion, nausea, vomiting, itching of the eyes, and tightness in the chest. Severe breathing problems may set in within two days, provided the exposure is substantial, and without treatment death typically occurs within one week.

Over 700 cases of ricin intoxication have been described since ancient times, and it may have been used in the high-profile assassination of Bulgarian exile Georgi Markov in 1978. Markov, a political dissident, was stabbed in an attack with a device disguised as an umbrella, which implanted a poisonous pellet into his thigh. If ricin were to be used in a biological WMD, a toxin aerosol would be the most likely method of delivery.

Bioterrorism threats are not limited to living organisms. Toxins, or substances created by living organisms (plants, animals, protozoa, or bacteria) that are poisonous to humans, can also be used effectively for a highly lethal and widespread attack.

 

Toxin Agents

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LESSON FOUR: BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS AND THREATS

As we begin this lesson, think about all of the poisonous plants, animals, and microscopic organisms that occur in nature. Then, consider the possibilities for those that can be produced or augmented in a laboratory. In the past, there has been little that has horrified humanity quite like infectious, uncontrollable diseases—so much so that the earliest uses of WMDs have involved spreading the plague. Today, with knowledge and technology that is far advanced from that of the Middle Ages, biological agents again have the potential to cause the terror that can potentially petrify humanity.

 

Topics to be covered include:

What is biological terrorism? How biological agents are delivered Anthrax Plague Other bacterial agents Viral agents Toxic agents Detecting a biological attack

 

Introduction

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CHOLERA Q FEVER GLANDERS TYPHOID FEVER

Q fever, caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is a disease that affects both humans and animals and is resistant to heat, pressure, and many cleaning solutions. These bacteria can live in the environment for long periods under harsh conditions and is extremely infectious, giving it great potential as a biological warfare agent. A single organism is capable of producing infection and disease in humans, even though the disease it causes in humans is typically temporarily disabling at its worst.

Technically, any infectious bacteria could be utilized by terrorists in an attack, but certain diseases have been the focus of nonproliferation efforts due to factors that make them better choices, including the ability to procure them, their ease in dissemination, and their efficacy in spreading and infecting a chosen population.

 

Other Bacterial Agents

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CHOLERA Q FEVER GLANDERS TYPHOID FEVER

Typhoid fever, caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi, is a life-threatening illness that is still relatively common throughout the world. Over 20 million people in the developing world are affected by typhoid fever each year, though only about 5,000 cases are reported annually in the United States, with the majority of these being contracted through international travel. Typhoid fever is often contracted by eating food or drinking beverages that have been handled by infected persons or by drinking or washing food with water that has been contaminated with sewage. Its symptoms include extreme abdominal pain and high fever.

Technically, any infectious bacteria could be utilized by terrorists in an attack, but certain diseases have been the focus of nonproliferation efforts due to factors that make them better choices, including the ability to procure them, their ease in dissemination, and their efficacy in spreading and infecting a chosen population.

 

Other Bacterial Agents

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CHOLERA Q FEVER GLANDERS TYPHOID FEVER

Glanders, caused by the bacterium Burkholderiamallei , is a disease that mainly affects horses but that can be transmitted to humans and other domestic animals. It is rarely seen in humans, but has been widely used in the past in biological warfare against cavalry regiments. Several governments used glanders as a biological agent in the World Wars, and the Soviet Union did the same as recently as the 1980s. Glanders causes a flu-like illness in humans.

Technically, any infectious bacteria could be utilized by terrorists in an attack, but certain diseases have been the focus of nonproliferation efforts due to factors that make them better choices, including the ability to procure them, their ease in dissemination, and their efficacy in spreading and infecting a chosen population.

 

Other Bacterial Agents

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Bioterrorism is simply terrorism that involves biological agents, which can take the form of bacteria or fungi, viruses, or toxins that are produced by living things. An act of bioterrorism does not have to involve actual biological weapons; it can also take the form of a hoax, such as the distribution of letters claiming to contain dangerous microorganisms through the mail, or even the simple threat of an attack. These actions can cause terror just the same as a full-scale attack.

The range of effects that a biological attack can produce is broad. These agents may be used to target a single person, such as in the assassination of a world leader. They can also cause the incapacitation or death of thousands of victims, as well as posing a long-term threat to the population by contaminating their environment.

In 1979, the potential for an anthrax attack on human populations was tested after a weapons facility in the Soviet Union killed over sixty people. Although the Russian government insisted that eating infected meat had caused these deaths, in 1992 Russian President Boris Yeltsin finally revealed the truth.

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What Is Biological Terrorism?

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Throughout human history, very few fears have horrified humanity quite the same way as the plague has. Caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, this extremely infectious disease has had a profound impact on human history almost dating to its inception. The first great plague pandemic began in Egypt in 541 CE, sweeping across the world over the next four years and killing between 50 and 60 percent of the world’s population.

 

The second, better-known plague pandemic began in 1346. Also known as the Black Death or the Great Pestilence, within five years it had ravaged the Middle East and killed over 75 million people (one- fourth of the entire population of Eurasia). Today, a natural pandemic such as this is highly improbable. But if the agent is spread as a result of an attack with a biological WMD, it is a different story—not only because of the likely death toll, but also for the terror that such an attack can cause. In 1994, the discovery of a few cases of plague in Surat, India led to half a million people fleeing the city to escape the possibility of an epidemic.

 

BUBONIC PLAGUE

SEPTICEMIC PLAGUE

PNEUMONIC PLAGUE

The plague can be divided into three categories:

 

Plague

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Bioterrorism is simply terrorism that involves biological agents, which can take the form of bacteria or fungi, viruses, or toxins that are produced by living things. An act of bioterrorism does not have to involve actual biological weapons; it can also take the form of a hoax, such as the distribution of letters claiming to contain dangerous microorganisms through the mail, or even the simple threat of an attack. These actions can cause terror just the same as a full-scale attack.

The range of effects that a biological attack can produce is broad. These agents may be used to target a single person, such as in the assassination of a world leader. They can also cause the incapacitation or death of thousands of victims, as well as posing a long-term threat to the population by contaminating their environment.

As long ago as 400 BCE, Scythian archers dipped their arrows in fecal matter or in blood from decomposing bodies. According to historical records from the time, the bodies of dead animals were used to poison wells in Persia, Greece, and Rome for nearly as long. The Carthaginian general Hannibal defeated King Eumenes II of Pergamon in the Battle of Eurymedon in 190 BCE using venomous snakes, which were fired onto enemy ships in earthenware containers.

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What Is Biological Terrorism?

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Contact with anthrax can cause severe illness in both humans and animals, but it is not contagious and cannot be spread from person to person. Most people who do contract anthrax are exposed while working with infected animals or animal products such as wool, hides, or hair. Inhalation anthrax is contracted when a person inhales spores that are in the air during the industrial processing of contaminated materials, such as wool, hides, or hair. Cutaneous anthrax can occur when spores enter the body through a cut or scrape on the skin. Gastrointestinal anthrax is contracted by eating raw or undercooked meat from infected animals; this is extremely rare in countries where routine vaccination of livestock is practiced. The most rare form of anthrax is injection anthrax, which has only been observed in a few people who inject heroin.

The first and foremost symptom of cutaneous anthrax exposure is a group of small blisters or bumps that may become very itchy. A painless ulcer, or skin sore, with a black center typically appears after the small blisters or bumps. Most often the sore will be on the face, neck, arms, or hands, and swelling will occur around it. These same symptoms are typical of injection anthrax.

For inhalation or gastrointestinal anthrax, the symptoms include fever, chest discomfort, shortness of breath, confusion, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, tiredness

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BOTULINUM RICIN MYCOTOXIN

The deadliest toxin known is botulinum toxin, which is often a concern with food preparation. Not only is it highly lethal, botulism toxin is also easy to manufacture and weaponize. Bioterrorists may employ this toxin by aerosolizing it or by contaminating a population’s food supply with the toxin or its microbial spores. The toxin can be ingested, inhaled, infect through contact with an open wound, and no matter the method of transmittal the symptoms are generally the same with only the time course and severity of the illness varying (generally, inhalation results in symptoms presenting themselves more slowly).

Initial symptoms include blurred vision, dilated pupils, difficulty swallowing and speaking, and muscle weakness. Within two days, muscle weakness may evolve to paralysis, and this may seriously impede breathing. The level of paralysis usually indicates the presence of this exposure. Most deaths from botulism result from respiratory failure, though with prompt medical attention the death rate is as low as five percent.

Bioterrorism threats are not limited to living organisms. Toxins, or substances created by living organisms (plants, animals, protozoa, or bacteria) that are poisonous to humans, can also be used effectively for a highly lethal and widespread attack.

 

Toxin Agents

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Viral Agents

Viruses are much different from other microorganisms such as bacteria, which share many of the same characteristics as plants. As the smallest type of microorganisms, six billion viruses can inhabit a single drop of blood. Viruses are so simple in their anatomy that the question of whether or not they can be considered to be living things has been a matter of dispute within the scientific community. Unlike every other living entity, viruses are not composed of cells and are totally inert until they come in contact with a living host cell. Unable to exist by themselves, viruses must find a suitable host cell in order to attach and thrive. After a virus attaches to a cell, the virus begins to reproduce itself, and this action results in a viral infection. Once a virus takes hold of the cell, it can cause the host cell to die.

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CHOLERA Q FEVER GLANDERS TYPHOID FEVER

One agent that has produced concern is cholera. This acute disease, which affects the stomach and intestines, is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae. Cholera does not spread easily from person to person, but can easily be contracted by drinking water infested with the bacteria. If terrorists were to use cholera as a biological weapon, they would most likely use it to contaminate a population’s drinking water supply. Cholera is hardy and can survive for as long as six weeks in water. It is killed by steam, boiling, disinfectants, and water chlorination.

The toxin causes a person’s intestines to create massive amounts of fluid, and thin, grayish- brown diarrhea results. Symptoms begin within three days (often sooner) and begin with intestinal cramps, diarrhea, vomiting, and headache. Cholera is usually not lethal and lasts for about a week before going away. However, in the cases of children, elderly people, and those with compromised systems, the loss of fluids that accompanies cholera infection can lead to seizures and potentially death.

Technically, any infectious bacteria could be utilized by terrorists in an attack, but certain diseases have been the focus of nonproliferation efforts due to factors that make them better choices, including the ability to procure them, their ease in dissemination, and their efficacy in spreading and infecting a chosen population.

 

Other Bacterial Agents

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Another viral disease that has promoted international bioterrorism concerns has been the Ebola virus. This disease first appeared in the African nations of Sudan and Zaire in 1976 and reoccurred in Zaire in 1979. A 1995 outbreak resulted in 316 cases of reported in Kikwit, Zaire, all of which were believed to have originated with a single person.

EBOLA VEE

The virus spreads through close personal contact with an infected person, though it is not known how a person contracts the disease initially. The incubation period can be as short as two days or as long as three weeks. The Ebola virus survives outside the host for up to two weeks in blood specimens, though exposure to air can destroy it. Mortality rates in Africa from Ebola are extremely high, ranging from 50 to 90 percent.

Ebola and VEE

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DISEASE USE AS WEAPON

Nonetheless, anthrax has been used as a weapon around the world for nearly a century, and experts have consistently stated that it is one of the most likely biological agents to be employed by terrorists. In 2001, powdered anthrax spores were mailed through the U.S. postal system and led to 22 people being infected, including twelve mail handlers; five of these people died.

Bacillus anthracis has been designated as a Tier 1 agent, meaning that it is one of the biological agents and toxins that presents the greatest risk of deliberate misuse with significant potential for mass casualties and poses a severe threat to public health and safety. It is also a select agent, and its possession, use, and transfer is regulated by the Center for Disease Control’s (CDC) Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response.

Terrorists could use anthrax in many ways. For example, it could be sent through the mail, as it was in 2001, it could be used to contaminate food or water, or it could be released into the air from a truck, building, or plane. Spores could easily be blown around by the wind or carried on people’s clothing, shoes, or other objects. If anthrax spores were released into the air, people could breathe them in (inhalation anthrax). If the attack went undetected for any considerable period of time, it might not be noticed until doctors began to notice large numbers of patients contracting it—and by that time, it could be too late.

Anthrax Continued…

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BOTULINUM RICIN MYCOTOXIN

A third type of toxin that could easily be used in bioterrorism is mycotoxin. This extremely toxic compound is produced by certain species of fungi and can cause massive organ damage. Mycotoxins are fairly easy to produce and can be dispersed through dusts, droplets, aerosols, smoke, rockets, artillery mines, or portable sprays.

Bioterrorism threats are not limited to living organisms. Toxins, or substances created by living organisms (plants, animals, protozoa, or bacteria) that are poisonous to humans, can also be used effectively for a highly lethal and widespread attack.

 

Toxin Agents

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Anthrax

Possibly the most controversial biological agent in the last two decades has been the infectious disease anthrax, caused by the rod-shaped bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Found naturally in soil, anthrax commonly affects domestic and wild animals throughout the world, though it is rare in the United States.

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Biological weapons are the oldest form of WMDs, and in many instances throughout history they have allowed victory for smaller and more poorly equipped armies. It has been shown that even an organization with technological capacities that are relatively primitive can create lethal weapons using diseases and employ them to great effect. For this reason, the use of biological agents by terrorists should be taken very seriously in the future.

Conclusion

KEY TERMS

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Bioterrorism is simply terrorism that involves biological agents, which can take the form of bacteria or fungi, viruses, or toxins that are produced by living things. An act of bioterrorism does not have to involve actual biological weapons; it can also take the form of a hoax, such as the distribution of letters claiming to contain dangerous microorganisms through the mail, or even the simple threat of an attack. These actions can cause terror just the same as a full-scale attack.

The range of effects that a biological attack can produce is broad. These agents may be used to target a single person, such as in the assassination of a world leader. They can also cause the incapacitation or death of thousands of victims, as well as posing a long-term threat to the population by contaminating their environment.

The earliest use of biological warfare in modern history dates to the twelfth century, when the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa poisoned wells in Tortona, Italy using decomposing bodies. Over the next few centuries there were several instances of armies catapulting plague-ridden corpses over the walls of enemy cities, a tactic used at different times by the Mongols, Russians, and others. During the Seven Years’ War in North America, British forces decimated hostile Native American tribes by giving them blankets that had been used by smallpox patients; during the U.S. Civil War, the Confederate armies were accused of doing the same, although these allegations have never been proven.

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What Is Biological Terrorism?

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Another viral disease that has promoted international bioterrorism concerns has been the Ebola virus. This disease first appeared in the African nations of Sudan and Zaire in 1976 and reoccurred in Zaire in 1979. A 1995 outbreak resulted in 316 cases of reported in Kikwit, Zaire, all of which were believed to have originated with a single person.

EBOLA VEE

A third viral agent of note is Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE). In nature, this disease is transmitted by mosquitoes from one horse to another, although infected mosquitoes can also transmit the disease to humans. Epidemics of VEE among horse populations are often followed by human outbreaks. VEE is spread through the blood, though it is believed that human-to- human transmission through inhalation can cause infection as well. VEE would have to be aerosolized in order to be an effective biological weapon. Nearly 100 percent of those exposed to VEE acquire the disease, although the mortality rate is very low (less than one percent) and carries symptoms such as convulsions, coma and paralysis.

Ebola and VEE

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