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The Public Budgeting Process The budgetary process that takes place in the United States is complex and takes into account a variety of political officials, among them members of the Congress. In addition to the authorization, budget, and appropriations Committees of the House and Senate, the President and the Executive Office also play a significant role in the budgetary process. There are also budgetary processes at the state and local level and these are relevant for emergency managers working at those levels. The budget process has several influences and political representatives have various interests that influence the budget. There are also stakeholders and lobby groups influencing the budget process.

When it comes to disasters, legislators are both policymakers and stakeholders. In many instances, federal, state, and local lawmakers petition or press the president to approve expeditiously their home state governor’s request for a presidential declaration of major disaster or emergency. Mayors, city managers, county executives, and other local elected executives often join these coalitions.

In his book The Storm. (2006), Ivor van Heerden wrote about Hurricane Katrina. In doing so he offered an opening dedication that read "...to those who lost their lives during Hurricane Katrina and to their families...for the first responders, who unselfishly did their best against the odds to save lives…” and "...to disaster researchers everywhere, who follow their passion even under duress and never lose sight of the ball" (van Heerden, 2006, Dedication Page).

Many argue that Hurricane Katrina was a "man-made disaster and" not "natural." The hurricane was natural, they say, but the failure of the levees was a man-made disaster.

"It was a natural disaster—but magnified enormously by the government’s crushing incompetence in both preparation and response. The storm leveled the Mississippi Gulf Coast, but man-made problems destroyed New Orleans. The catastrophic flooding there should never have happened. Properly designed and constructed levees would have protected the city. Instead, they collapsed. Never in American history has a natural disaster been magnified so disastrously by the systemic failure of our government to protect and serve the people. The result is the national tragedy known forevermore as simply Katrina”.

Perhaps then, in terms of the economics of disaster, it is impossible to separate the two --- man-maid enablers from natural hazardous events that culminate in expanded disastrous outcomes.

DISaster assistance funding

U.S. Federal and State Disaster Assistance Programs

Financial Recovery After Disaster: FEMA and SBAFinancial Recovery After Disaster: FEMA and SBA

The federal government has played a role in disaster response for over the past century. And as early as 1803, Congress enacted legislation to provide relief from a severe fire in a New Hampshire town. This act by Congress is generally thought of as the first piece of U.S. federal disaster assistance legislation. In 1979, President Carter issued an executive order unifying federal disaster activities under the newly created Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). FEMA incorporated many bodies, including the Federal Insurance Administration, the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration, the National Weather Service Community Preparedness Program, the Federal Preparedness Agency of the General Services Administration and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration from HUD. Civil defense also moved to FEMA from the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency in the Department of Defense.

In the aftermath of the first attack on the World Trade Center (1993) and the Oklahoma City bombing (1995), and the September 11, 2001 attacks on the Pentagon and World Trade Center FEMA’s “all-hazards” approach to disaster management was overshadowed by a concentration on homeland security matters. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (HS Act) united 22 federal agencies, and offices, including FEMA, to create the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Following Hurricane Katrina, Congress took action in its Post Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act (PKEMRA) and FEMA gained some of its legitimate powers back.

Individual and Public Assistance

FEMA Public Assistance Grant Program FEMA Public Assistance Grant Program ……

After damages and needs have been assessed and if a disaster has been declared by the President the federal assistance process begins. There are two distinct federal disaster assistance programs. (a) Individual Assistance (also known as IA) provides relief to citizens, businesses and others affected by a disaster; and (b) Public Assistance (also known as PA) which makes available recovery aid for government entities.

Based on the extent of disaster impacts, a community may receive neither, one, or both types of disaster assistance. While a wide range of federal programs is available to aid disaster victims, it should not be assumed that all of them will be activated. The determination as to which programs will be provided is made based on actual needs found during the damage assessment and/or on the basis of subsequent information.

Individual Assistance (IA) is geared towards individuals, families, and owners of small businesses. IA helps these people and organizations recover from the effects of a disaster. IA also reimburses non-profit agencies that provide assistance after a disaster. There are several types of individual assistance (some of which may vary by state). The following is just a sample list.

1. Individual and Households Program 2. Other Needs Assistance 3. Emergency Services 4. Disaster loans 5. Crisis Counseling 6. Unemployment Assistance

Public Assistance (PA) is directed toward governments with the purpose of helping them react to and recover from a disaster. Eligible entities that may apply for PA includes (a) state government agencies; (b) local governments (city, township, regional authorities); (c) Indian tribes and tribal organizations; and (d) private non-profit organizations including educational facilities, utility companies, medical clinics, custodial care centers, zoos, museums, community centers, and homeless shelters.

PA includes two types of disaster aid: emergency and permanent. Emergency assistance covers debris removal and protective measures. Debris removal assistance pays to clear disaster-related debris (e.g., building rubble, broken tree limbs, sediment from flooding, etc.). Protective measures are a reimbursement category to reduce losses or eliminate threats to life, public health, safety. It may include sandbagging to limit property damage in a flood or shoring up buildings immediately after an earthquake. Permanent assistance includes assistance to repair road systems, water control, public buildings/equipment, public utilities, and parks.

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet 2005-3156 December 2005Printed on recycled paper

A Nationwide Danger Landslides occur and can cause dam-

age in all 50 States. Severe storms, earth- quakes, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires can cause widespread slope instability. Landslide danger may be high even as emergency personnel are providing rescue and recovery services.

To address landslide hazards, several questions must be considered: Where and when will landslides occur? How big will the landslides be? How fast and how far will they move? What areas will the land- slides affect or damage? How frequently do landslides occur in a given area?

Answers to these questions are needed to make accurate landslide hazard maps and forecasts of landslide occurrence, and to provide information on how to avoid or mitigate landslide impacts.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) develops methods to answer these ques- tions to help protect U.S. communities from the dangers of landslides.

Landslide potential of the conterminous United States: Red areas have very high potential, yellow areas have high potential, and green areas have moderate potential. Landslides can and do occur in the black areas, but the potential is low. Map not to scale. Sources: the National Atlas and the USGS

Debris flows, triggered by a rainstorm, move into and above the Arapahoe Basin ski area in central Colorado in 1999. The rain led to debris flows along the Interstate 70 corridor in Colorado, from Georgetown to the Eisen- hower Tunnel. (USGS photo/Ed Harp)

Landslide Hazards—A National Threat

Landslide potential of the conterminous United States

Landslide Impacts USGS Science Priorities

• Cause damage in all 50 States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands

• Cost $3.5 billion per year, in 2005 dollars, in damage repair

• Cause between 25 and 50 deaths in the United States annually

• Reduce real estate values and tour- ist revenue

• Lead to lost human, industrial, agricultural, and forest productivity

• Cause damage to the natural envi- ronment

• Develop predictive models to examine the potential for large, slow-moving landslides

• Advance existing models for the occurrence of fast-moving debris flows

• Develop tools to predict the character- istics of debris flows generated from recently burned areas

• Advance the operation of the joint National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-USGS Prototype Debris Flow Warning System

USGS Science Helps Build Safer Communities

Landslide Facts • Landslides often accompany earthquakes, floods, storm surges, hurricanes,

wildfires, or volcanic activity. They are often more damaging and deadly than the triggering event (examples: the 1964 Alaska earthquake-induced landslides and the 1980 Mount St. Helens volcanic debris flow).

• Human activities and population expansion are major factors in increased land- slide damage and costs.

• The May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens caused the largest landslide in his- tory—a rock slide-debris avalanche large enough to fill 250 million dump trucks to the brim traveled about 14 miles, destroying nine highway bridges, numerous private and public buildings, and many miles of highways, roads, and railroads. The debris avalanche also formed several new lakes by damming the North Fork Toutle River and its tributaries. These lakes posed hazards to downstream com- munities because of the possible failure of the dams, which could have resulted in catastrophic flooding.

• Although the National Flood Insurance Act covers certain damage from “mud- flows,” insurance against landslides is generally unavailable in most areas of the United States. As a result, many victims of landslides resort to litigation in order to recover damages.

For More Information USGS National Landslide Information

Center: 1-800-654-4966

http://landslides.usgs.gov/

http://www.usgs.gov/

USGS Science Provides Solutions The USGS Landslide Hazards Pro-

gram strives to reduce loss of life and property from landslide hazards through improved understanding and effective mitigation. These goals are accomplished in three primary ways: (1) development of improved approaches for landslide hazard assessments; (2) post-disaster response; and (3) public information and outreach.

In response to requests by Federal or State governments, the USGS assesses landslide hazards and offers technical assistance and information for recovery efforts.

Public education and outreach on land- slide hazard issues are performed through the USGS National Landslide Information Center, which maintains an informational Web site at http://landslides.usgs.gov/, generates fact sheets and other educa- tional literature, and responds to inquiries from the public.

A Collaborative Strategy USGS landslide researchers have part-

nered with local emergency-management, land-use planning and decisionmaking agencies, Federal and State land manage- ment agencies, State geological surveys, and universities.

These partnerships have been used to promote the use of hazard assessment

approaches developed by the USGS; map and inventory landslides; perform hazards assessments; and monitor landslides in critical areas for urban growth, lifelines, and transportation.

For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the USGS are conducting a pilot project in southern California to predict when flash floods and debris flows might occur in areas recently burned by wildfire.

A National Outlook

The USGS has developed a compre- hensive national strategy for addressing the widespread landslide hazards facing the Nation.

This strategy, available at http://pubs. usgs.gov/circ/c1244/, identifies nine major elements of a potential expanded national program for landslide mitiga- tion: research; hazard mapping and assessments; real-time monitoring; loss assessment; information collection, inter- pretation, dissemination, and archiving; guidelines and training; public aware- ness and education; implementation of loss-reduction measures; and emergency preparedness, recovery, and response.

The USGS helps the public, policy- makers, and the emergency management community make informed decisions on how to prepare for and react to landslide hazards and reduce losses from future landslides.

A rockslide on Highway 20 in Washington State cuts off access to Diablo, Wash., Sunday, November 9, 2003. The rockslide destroyed parts of the roadway and guardrail, and boulders and debris in excess of 100 tons, including a 50-ton boulder, blocked both highway lanes. (Washington State Department of Transportation photo)

Homes lie damaged under this large earth flow in LaConchita, Calif., Saturday, March 4, 1995. On January 10, 2005, a portion of this area became a debris flow during heavy rain, destroying several homes and killing 10 people. (USGS photo/Robert L. Schuster)

This house was crushed by the LaConchita, Calif., earth flow, Saturday, March 4, 1995. (USGS photo/Robert L. Schuster)

This map shows relative shaking hazards in the United States and Puerto Rico. During a 50- year time period, the probability of strong shaking increases from very low (white), to moder- ate (blue, green, and yellow), to high (orange, pink, and red). Map not to scale. Source: USGS.

USGS Science Helps Build Safer Communities Earthquake Hazards—A National Threat

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet 2006–3016 March 2006

The upper level of this two-level section of Interstate 880 in Oakland, Calif., collapsed during the magnitude 6.9 Loma Prieta, Calif., earthquake on October 17, 1989. Forty-one motorists were killed in the collapse (USGS photograph).

A Widespread Danger

Earthquakes are one of the most costly natural hazards faced by the Nation, posing a significant risk to 75 million Americans in 39 States.

The risks that earthquakes pose to society, including death, injury, and economic loss, can be greatly reduced by (1) better planning, construction, and mitigation practices before earthquakes happen and (2) providing critical and timely information to improve response after they occur.

As part of the multiagency National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has the lead Federal responsibility to provide notification of earthquakes in order to enhance public safety and to reduce losses through effective forecasts based on the best possible scientific information.

Science Helps Prepare the Nation

The USGS supports regional, national, and global seismic-monitoring networks, studies why earthquakes occur and how they shake the ground, assesses the

Earthquake hazards in the United States and Puerto Rico

Printed on recycled paper

More than 75 million Americans in 39 States face significant risk from earthquakes.

The magnitude 6.7 Northridge, Calif., earthquake in January 1994 killed 33, injured 9,000, and dis- placed over 20,000 people.

Repeats of historic U.S. earthquakes, such as the 1906 San Francisco earthquake or the 1811–1812 New Madrid earthquakes, could cause up to $500 billion in damage.

The Federal Emergency Manage- ment Agency has estimated future annual earthquake losses in the United States at $5.6 billion a year.

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The USGS is working to answer:

Which faults are the most likely to produce damaging earthquakes?

What controls the time between earthquakes on a given fault?

What keeps one earthquake small and lets another grow to hundreds of miles?

What controls the interactions among earthquakes?

What determines how damag- ing ground shaking will be at a particular location from a given earthquake?

What is the cost-effectiveness of different mitigation technologies?

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Earthquake Impacts USGS Science Priorities

The largest recorded earthquake in the United States was a magnitude 9.2 earthquake in Prince William Sound, Alaska, on March 28, 1964.

In 1985, a swimming pool at the University of Arizona in Tucson lost water from sloshing, or a “seiche,” caused by a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in Mi- choa-can, Mexico, 1,240 miles away.

Alaska is the most earthquake-prone State and one of the most seismically ac- tive regions in the world, experiencing a magnitude 7 earthquake almost every year and a magnitude 8 or greater earthquake every 14 years (on average).

In the United States, there are an average of six magnitude 6 or greater and 57 magnitude 5 or greater earthquakes each year.

Twenty-six urban areas in the United States are at risk of significant seismic activity:

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• A vehicle, seen near the left edge of this image, was crushed under this collapsed storefront in Paso Robles, Calif., during the magnitude 6.5 San Simeon, Calif., earth- quake on December 22, 2003. Two people were killed trying to get out of the store dur- ing the earthquake (FEMA photograph/Dane Golden).

This business in Seattle was heavily dam- aged during the magnitude 6.8 Nisqually, Wash., earthquake on February 28, 2001. About 400 people were injured during the earthquake (FEMA photograph/Kevin Galvin).

hazard level across the Nation, promotes loss-reduction measures using these results, and provides crucial scientific information to help emergency respond- ers when earthquakes occur.

The USGS is gathering data for expanded urban hazard assessments on a local scale to understand how varying soil conditions affect the shaking and damage within cities and at critical lifelines. The USGS is also conducting research to better understand how these hazards change with time.

Although earthquakes occur less frequently in the Eastern United States, studies show that urban areas in the East could face devastating losses because severe shaking would affect a larger area than a similar earthquake in the Western United States. Also, most structures in the Eastern United States are not designed to resist earthquakes.

Population density is also high in the Eastern United States, and residents are

not as well prepared for earthquakes as communities in the West.

In Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, the effects of a destructive earthquake can extend well beyond local impact by potentially creating far-reaching tsunamis and resulting in economic losses that could exceed any that have occurred from previous earthquakes or tsunamis.

The USGS Is Networking

The USGS and university and State Geological Survey partners have begun to install and operate the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS), a national net- work of sophisticated shaking monitors placed both on the ground and in build- ings in urban areas.

ANSS stations will provide better data crucial for finding cost-effective seismic- design solutions for homes, buildings, bridges, and other structures.

In cities where ANSS is in place, such as Los Angeles, the USGS has begun

producing maps within minutes of an earthquake showing the distribution and severity of ground shaking in or near the urban center. These “ShakeMaps” form the basis for emergency response by cit- ies, States, Federal agencies, and critical lifeline operators.

The USGS will continue to improve on existing earthquake monitoring, assessment, and research activities, with the ultimate goal of providing new prod- ucts that facilitate more effective mitiga- tion and response.

Albuquerque, N. Mex. Anchorage, Alaska Boise, Idaho Boston, Mass. Charleston, S.C. Chattanooga-Knoxville

Tenn. Eugene-Springfield,

Oreg. Evansville, Ind.

Fresno, Calif. Las Vagas, Nev. Los Angeles, Calif. Memphis, Tenn. New York, N.Y. Portland, Oreg. Provo-Orem, Utah Reno, Nev. Sacramento, Calif. St. Louis, Mo.

Salinas, Calif. Salt Lake City, Utah San Diego, Calif. San Francisco-Oakland,

Calif. San Juan, P.R. Santa Barbara, Calif. Seattle, Wash. Stockton-Lodi, Calif.

Earthquake Facts

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ http://www.usgs.gov/

For More Information