Assigment .Apa seven . All instructions attached.

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Milestone One: Organ System Assessment

Danitza Fernandez-Andes

SNHU

Intro to Anatomy & Physiology

Professor: Tina Lane

January 15, 2026

Milestone One: Organ System Assessment

Chosen Organ System: Respiratory System

Anatomy (Location, Organs, Structures, Cells/Tissues)

· Anatomical location: The respiratory system is located primarily in the thoracic cavity, with the upper airway beginning in the nasal cavity of the head and extending down into the chest.

· Upper respiratory tract structures: Includes the nose/nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify inhaled air.

· Lower respiratory tract structures: Includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs, which conduct air to gas-exchange surfaces .

· Primary organs: The lungs are the main organs of respiration and contain the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.

· Alveoli structure: Alveoli are microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries, forming the respiratory membrane for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.

· Key tissue type (epithelial tissue): The trachea and bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps trap and move mucus upward.

· Key cell type (Type I pneumocytes): Type I alveolar cells form thin walls that allow rapid diffusion of gases.

· Key cell type (Type II pneumocytes): Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension and preventing alveolar collapse.

· Key defense cells: Alveolar macrophages remove debris and pathogens to support immune defense in the lungs .

· Supporting structures: The diaphragm and intercostal muscles assist ventilation by changing thoracic volume and pressure.

“Labeled respiratory system location relative to other organ systems”

Physiology (Major Functions + One Visual Function)

· Primary function 1 (gas exchange): The respiratory system performs oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.

· Primary function 2 (ventilation mechanics): Breathing occurs through inhalation and exhalation, driven by pressure changes created by the diaphragm and chest wall expansion .

· Primary function 3 (pH regulation): By controlling CO₂ levels, the respiratory system helps regulate acid–base balance in the blood .

· Primary function 4 (air conditioning and protection): The airway filters particles and pathogens using mucus and cilia, reducing respiratory infection risk .

“Labeled diagram illustrating one function (alveolar gas exchange)”

Reference

Moussavi, Z. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System. In  Fundamentals of Respiratory System and Sounds Analysis (pp. 1-8). Cham: Springer International Publishing.

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Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System

Danitza Fernandez-Andes

SNHU

Intro to Anatomy & Physiology

Professor: Tina Lane

January 25, 2026

Organ System Interrelationship and Disease Assessment

Primary Organ System: Respiratory System

Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System

Homeostatic Interrelationship and Physiological Interactions

· The pulmonary and circulatory systems function as integrated, bringing oxygen into the tissues and transporting carbon dioxide out of the body.

· Additional blood is oxygenated at the lungs by gas exchange in the alveoli and then pumped through the heart for systemic circulation.

· The CO2 generated from the metabolism in cells is carried by the cardiovascular system back to the lung for expiration.

· It is the hemoglobin in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs and delivers it to peripheral tissues.

· The pulmonary circulation between the heart and lungs provides a route for gaseous exchange to occur.

· Both mechanisms are for the purpose of maintaining blood pH with respect to equilibrium with carbon dioxide.

· More physical activity causes the body to breathe harder and faster in order to keep up with its heart rate.

· Good lung ventilation is important for optimal CO and tissue perfusion.

· The respiratory system impacts blood pressure via oxygen delivery and vasomotor tone.

· Impairment of the latter by dysfunction in either system leads to disturbances in oxygen supply and cellular metabolism.

Significance of Human Health

· This relationship maintains cellular respiration, energy production, and organ function.

· Proper interaction prevents hypoxia, acidosis, and organ failure.

· Long-term survival depends on efficient coordination between breathing and circulation.

Disease Affecting the Primary System: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Description of the Condition

· Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition with airways limitation persistency.

· It comprises chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

· COPD, characterized by persistent lungs airflow limitation, usually affects adults aged 40 and over who have been exposed to smoking or long-term pollutants.

· Presenting symptoms are persistent cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and fatigue.

Causes

· The leading cause of COPD is long-term cigarette smoking.

· Environmental pollutants, occupational dust, and chemical exposure contribute to disease development (GOLD, 2024).

· Genetic factors, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, also increase risk.

· Recurrent respiratory infections may worsen disease progression.

Implications and Consequences

· COPD reduces lung elasticity and airway patency, impairing oxygen exchange.

· Chronic hypoxia increases cardiac workload, leading to pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure.

· Patients’ experience decreased exercise tolerance and quality of life.

· Frequent hospitalizations and long-term oxygen therapy increase healthcare costs.

· COPD contributes significantly to disability and premature mortality in the United States.

Prevalence in the United States

· About 14.2 million U.S. adults have been diagnosed with COPD.

· Another 7–8 million people are believed to be undiagnosed (CDC, 2023).

· Among older, smoking and low socioeconomic population are those with high prevalence levels.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) data and statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/copd/data.html

Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. (2024). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (2024 report). https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/